TRANSGRESSIONS - CULTURAL STUDIES AND EDUCATION
Feminist Counter-narratives of Young Adult
Literature by Women of Color
Traci P. Baxley
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, US
(In)Visible Presence
(In)Visible Presence
TRANSGRESSIONS - CULTURAL STUDIES AND EDUCATION
and
Genyne Henry Boston
Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, US
SensePublishers
TCSE 104
Traci P. Baxley and Genyne Henry Boston
ISBN 978-94-6209-687-5
Feminist Counter-narratives
of Young Adult Literature by
Women of Color
Traci P. Baxley and Genyne Henry Boston
Current school systems create a generation of students who experience institutional
practices that honor other students’ needs—those students who share the values of
those with power—and have pathologized other groups, specifically women of color.
(In) Visible Presence intends to contribute to existing pedagogy, which empowers
students, teachers, administrators, and policy makers to develop participatory
membership in schools and among citizens who can begin to create an anti-oppressive
society. (In) Visible Presence contains a holistic, thematic approach to exploring young
adult (YA) novels written by women of color, while providing cultural and historical
contexts for interpreting and analyzing their work through a feminist lens. Unlike
other scholarship, (In) Visible Presence uses a feminist theoretical framework to create
a space in which select literary works offer counter-narratives that can be analyzed
and critically interpreted according to principles and ideas intended to validate
women, thus making their triumph over racism, sexism, classism, and heterosexism
and equity challenges a visible cause relegating consequential change for both young
girls and women of color. (In) Visible Presence maintains current discourse dialogue
through a concentration on the intersectionality of gender, race, and class identities
and how these identifiers serve as criteria for privilege and marginalization, even in
YA literature.
(In) Visible Presence aims to explore YA literature written by women of color represented
by African American, Asian American, Indian American, and Latina Americans. Our
theoretical perspective focuses on the connection of race, gender, and class that is
exclusive to women of color. The construction of “voice” and “space” is important for
readers to hear from those once silenced.
(In)Visible Presence
Spine
8.153 mm
(In)Visible Presence: Feminist Counter-narratives of
Young Adult Literature by Women of Color
TRANSGRESSIONS: CULTURAL STUDIES AND EDUCATION
Series Editor:
Shirley R. Steinberg, University of Calgary, Canada
Founding Editor:
Joe L. Kincheloe (1950–2008) The Paulo and Nita Freire International Project
for Critical Pedagogy
Editorial Board
Jon Austin, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Norman Denzin, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, USA
Rhonda Hammer, University of California Los Angeles, USA
Nikos Metallinos, Concordia University, Canada
Christine Quail, McMaster University, Canada
This book series is dedicated to the radical love and actions of Paulo Freire, Jesus
“Pato” Gomez, and Joe L. Kincheloe.
(In)Visible Presence: Feminist Counter-narratives of
Young Adult Literature by Women of Color
Traci P. Baxley
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, US
and
Genyne Henry Boston
Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL, US
A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN: 978-94-6209-687-5 (paperback)
ISBN: 978-94-6209-688-2 (hardback)
ISBN: 978-94-6209-689-9 (e-book)
Published by: Sense Publishers,
P.O. Box 21858,
3001 AW Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
https://www.sensepublishers.com/
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved © 2014 Sense Publishers
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the
exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and
executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
To all women of color, may you use your voices to make yourselves visible to your
communities and to the world.
To my Baxley Bunch, whose love gives me voice—my husband Tommy and our
children, Alexandra, Trace, Tyler, Ryan, and Dylan.
To my mom, Barbara J. Cooper, my first example of a feminist & activist.
To the rest of my village, this project would be impossible without your support.
TRACI P. BAXLEY
This book is dedicated to the ones I love. To my mom, Isadora Williams Henry,
who imparted to me my love for reading and writing.
To the centers of my world--my husband, Marcus and our three children, Marcus,
Madisen and Makensie.
GENYNE H. BOSTON
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I Invisibility
Chapter 1: Setting the Stage of Silence: Introduction
3
Chapter 2: Voicelessness: Theorizing the Silence
13
Chapter 3: From Silenced to Voice: (Re)Naming and (Re)Claiming
27
II Mothering From Women of Color’s Perspectives
Chapter 4: Always Carrying the Load: The Presence of African American
Motherhood in Young Adult Literature
49
Chapter 5: Journey to the Center: Exploring Motherhood, Guardianship,
and Empowerment in Latina Young Adult Literature
65
III
Immigration/Nationhood/Migrant Experience
Chapter 6: Blending Narratives, Blending Lives: Immigration,
Desti[Nation], and Identity in Latina Young Adult Literature
85
Chapter 7: Central Power, New Frontier: Female Supremacy,
Imagination and Nationhood in Contemporary Native
American Young Adult Literature
95
IV Work & Gender/Sexual Politics
Chapter 8: Will Work for Equity: Exploring African American
Women’s Identity, Labor, and Voice in American Workplace
109
Chapter 9: The Power of Talk-Stories: Finding Place and Power in
Asian American Young Adult Literature
125
vii
I
INVISIBILITY
CHAPTER 1
SETTING THE STAGE OF SILENCE
Introduction
In the 21st century classroom and beyond the classroom, we, as educators and
researchers, believe students still desire to be introduced to literature they can
identify with and believe, in the rudiments of their imagination, is speaking to
their real world experience. In his declaration for reform, Gregory Jay (1991)
insisted, “Teachers have the responsibility to empower previously marginalized
texts and readers, and to teach in a way that we risk surprising and painful
changes in the interpretive habits, expectations, and values of our students—and
of ourselves” (p. 281). Educators and students alike should have the opportunity
to fully access and explore literature that has cultural and historical relevance,
incites curiosity and critical thought, and encourages intellectual development as
well as self-development. Teachers and students often rely on district-approved
reading lists for a selection of works that theoretically foster intellectual,
personal, and instructional needs; however, often these reading lists fail in one
capacity or another to address the challenges faced by both teachers and students.
The culture of “others” has historically not been acknowledged in the United
States’ educational process and has resulted in disparaging outcomes for people
outside the mainstream culture (Banks, 2006; Delpit, 1995; Koppleman, 2011;
Spring, 2013).
In-service and pre-service teachers face the challenge of introducing literature
that resonates with students and meets the curricular directives that continue to be
imposed on the teaching profession. Teachers are besieged by mandated policies
that move pedagogy farther away from instruction that serves the whole student,
while post secondary institutions vacillate between curricula that are guided by
conservative, traditional tenets and ones that are grounded by principles of diversity.
Pedagogy can either reinforce the status quo or challenge existing social structures.
In critical multicultural education, teachers are motivated to empower students to
challenge the world beyond the walls of their classrooms, create a community of
learners who are compelled to act on behalf of one another, and produce learners
who get to know and respect their peers and who believe in challenging stereotypes
and social injustices. Recent literature highlighted by Twenge (2009) reveals that
today’s students frequently need the purpose and meaning of activities spelled
out for them. Previous generations had a sense of duty and would often do
what they were told without asking why. Most young people no longer respond
3
CHAPTER 1
to appeals to duty; instead, they want to know exactly why they are doing
something and want to feel they are having a personal impact. (p. 399)
Educators who are interested in meaningful student learning recognize why they
need to transform from the traditional academic delivery model to increasing student
responsibility, engagement, and motivation. (Freire, 2000; Schoorman & Bogotch,
2010; Sleeter & Grant, 2009; Taylor 2010; U.S. Department of Education, 2006).
Quality literature for teenagers is essential for promoting multiple literacy skills
and dispositions and has the potential to promote and sustain academic interest and
success. Young adult (YA) literature, as a dynamic and ever-evolving term, has come
to be defined as realistic fiction that examines contemporary, real-world problems
common to young readers ranging in age from 12 to 18 (Kasten, Kristo, McClure,
& Garthwait, 2005; Norton, 2012). After its inception in the 1960s, young adult
literature gained recognition for being a genre that peaked the interests of young
people and a genre that readily embraced other nontraditional techniques for
introducing literature like nonfiction verse. Significant gains have been made to
define young adult literature as the literature that embraces the coming-of-age story
while also promoting creative innovation and experimentation for authors.
Albert Greco reported that YA book sales increased by 23% between 1999 and
2005 (cited in Cart, 2008). While there has been a steady increase in the number of
YA books published, it is the target audience they attempt to reach and the characters
portrayed in the stories that generate a level of concern for educators, parents, and
young readers. For a young reader not to see himself or herself reflected in the pages
of this genre of literature implies the value or level of worth associated with the
individual is minimal. And to be considered as “other” is more than not to belong
but also to be considered an outcast. Thus, to see oneself in the pages of a YA book
is to “receive assurance that one is not alone after all, not other, not alien; instead, a
viable part of a larger community of beings who share a common humanity” (Cart,
2008, p. 2).
YA literature reflecting the experiences, culture, and history of people of color
continues to be represented in limited facets of the publishing arena. As Flake noted,
“But these books do not, and cannot tell the full story of America and what all of
her children are capable of accomplishing. For this to happen, we need more books
about African-American youth and other kids of color” (Flake, 2012). Trends in
contemporary literature suggest YA texts are gaining more respect as ones that offer
poignant stories with appeal to young adults as well as adults; moreover recently,
increased research in this area confirms that it is effective in not only increasing
reading success, but more importantly this type of YA literature encourages students
to engage in complex conversations, explore similarities, embrace differences,
and create spaces for asking questions. When recognizing the value of these
questions—the accuracy of the text, the relevance of the curriculum, the perspective
of the author—the door begins to open for students to engage in critical pedagogy.
According to leading critical scholar Ira Shor (1992), critical pedagogy is defined as:
4
SETTING THE STAGE OF SILENCE
Habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath surface
meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements,
traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere opinions, to understand the
deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences
of any action, event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject
matter, policy, mass media, or discourse. (p. 129)
This consciousness speaks to the connection between our current lived experiences
and the socio-historical events of our society and how the juxtaposition of the two
plays out in educational systems. In an era of neoliberal policies and mandates in the
school system, the marginalization of under-represented students through curricular
mandates and school reforms continue to be at the forefront of multicultural
scholars’ and researchers’ agendas. Critical multiculturalists describe multicultural
education as a structural reform of principles and philosophy that promotes social
justice and equality (Banks, 2006; Schoorman & Bogotch, 2010; Sleeter & Grant,
1999). The privatization of schools, via charter schools and voucher programs
(Lubienski, 2006), is at an all-time high and continues to legitimize the use of
public monies to fund private entities. These practices also enable large corporations
(namely, producers of assessment materials and textbook printing companies) to
determine what is being taught in the classrooms, and adopted materials are based
on recommendations and mandates offered by policymakers with very little input
from teachers provided to determine what is needed to best serve the students in
each classroom.
The role of students as contributors to classroom discourse, as thinkers, as
people who brought their personal stories and life experiences into the
classroom, [is] silence[d] or severely circumscribed by the need for the class to
‘cover’ a generic curriculum at a pace established by the district and the state
for all the schools. (McNeil, 2000, p 5)
The Chicago Grassroots Curriculum Taskforce (CGCT) is a great example of
how groups are fighting back using students’ experience and “local struggles
within a global context” to produce curriculum that is engaging and grounded
in social justice. A locally based nonprofit publisher, CGCT’s mission is to
“transform the traditional educational model of classroom learning by infusing
the curriculum with local and relevant content from students’ lives—through
their families, cultures, histories, arts, communities, and experiences.” (www.
grassrootscurriculum.org).
We are witnessing more adverse effects of accountability in the school systems
that continue to widen the gap between culturally, racially, and socio-economically
diverse student populations. Researchers suggest that this may be due to the
narrowing of the curriculum. This narrowing of the curriculum is evident in povertystricken urban and rural schools disproportionately to those schools in suburban,
middle-class areas (Amrein & Berliner, 2002; Groves, 2002; Kohn, 2000; McNeil,
5
CHAPTER 1
2000; Sleeter & Grant, 2009). Any narrowing of the curriculum is a side effect
that is especially problematic for traditionally marginalized children. Minority
students suffer additional losses because their “cultures are even more noticeably
absent from the content of standardized schooling” (McNeil, 2000, p. 248). This
trend institutionalizes inequality; subsequently children from under-represented
populations including low socio-economic status, learning disabled, second language
learners, and racial and cultural minorities are no longer receiving the same program
of study as their more advantaged peers. Researchers (Groves, 2002; Kohn, 2000;
Sleeter & Grant, 2009) are finding these populations of students are encountering
additional test preparation materials, omitting culturally responsive instructional
strategies that facilitate students’ engagement and academic performance. Groves
(2002) stated, “This limited access to knowledge and curriculum for the [marginalized
student]… carries with it serious consequences for the future, and it threatens the
most basic ideals of democracy and social justice” (p. 26).
Some researchers (Freedman & Johnson, 2000/2001) question the value
and relevance of literature during a period of diminishing appreciation for the
role literature can play in the secondary classroom. The common insistence that
students read material and information in order to develop comprehension skills
that will assist them in mastering standardized tests is becoming the professional
norm for secondary level educators. However, there are those (Bean & Moni, 2003;
Hayn, Kaplan, & Nolen, 2011; Stevens & Bean, 2007) who argue that literature
is still significant at the secondary level because of its vital role in a student’s
self-development. What do these fiction narratives offer to readers of the new
millennium? Engaging in narrative texts helps students discover who they are, who
they are not, and who they have the potential to be based on their emotional, critical,
and psychological responses to what they read. According to Kroger (2006), early
adolescence is experienced at ages 10 to 14, and the middle adolescence spans ages
15 to 17. It is during the middle adolescence that significant self-definition takes
place and serves as a precursor for later adolescence (ages 18 to 22) when issues of
vocation and values are central to overall maturation.
Curriculum orientation, literacy instruction, and cultural relevance are all vital
to the academic success of adolescent students. Consequently, equipping students
with the tools to critically examine the discourse presented in schools is imperative
for all students, but especially for those who are marginalized at best, or left out
of the curricula completely. The literacy experience of a student during his or her
primary as well as secondary years can have a lasting effect well into the post
secondary years of education. In one of the author’s freshman composition courses
at a Historically Black institution of higher learning, many of which were First
Time In College (FTIC) students, were asked to identify five literary authors who
had impacted them as they evolved as life-long learners. In a class of twenty-one
students, three of the students identified women writers of color. Moreover, these
students recognized women writers of color who specialized in contemporary
adolescent fiction, i.e., Sharon Draper, Sharon Flake, and Jacqueline Woodson.
6
SETTING THE STAGE OF SILENCE
One student noted that Sharon Flake, “writes about real stuff… the stuff that most
young people can relate to. Most of the characters have some type of problem and
all of them aren’t happy all the time. Her characters remind me of people I know.”
Some college freshmen are able to recall the work of Sharon Flake and recognize
her complex characterization and how it provides a framework of understanding
that students can recall and comprehend. The critical examinations in this book
can assist students, teachers, administrators, and policy makers in identifying and
articulating the power structures embedded within the curriculum and society.
In a previous study (Baxley & Boston, 2010), we had the opportunity to work
with a remarkable group of African American and Caribbean middle school
females, self-named GIRLS (Girls Inspired by Reading, Learning, and Succeeding).
As participant observers in a series of literature circles and discussion groups,
spanning over three years, the girls were mentored throughout their early adolescent
development. During this time, a host of literary works by women of color was
introduced as a part of the study. During this time period, we facilitated and recorded
book group discussions and took field notes during conversations concerning their
personal lives and their academic progress. Although 75% of the girls were placed
in intensive reading classes, which indicate below grade level reading, they never
protested being involved and reading with our book club each week. The major
grievances that emerged regarding their literacy experiences included the lack of
freedom to choose their own books and not being able to connect to or identify with
the characters in the literature assigned in their reading and language arts classes. The
book club, following Freire’s problem-posing model (2000), provided them with 1)
the opportunity to have dialogue on what they wanted to read; 2) an opportunity to
justify why those selections were important to each of them; and 3) the opportunity
to utilize reader response criticism in order to interpret the text. When given the
occasion to select books, the members of GIRLS were active participants in the
selection process, the subsequent readings, and the critical dialogue concerning the
content of the novels. It is important to note that 90% of the girls selected novels
written by Black female authors with Black female protagonists. For students like
the participants in GIRLS after-school book club, literature depicting positive Black
female characters and contemporary narratives assisted in facilitating a movement
toward a more positive literacy experience for these unmotivated students as well as
those who were struggling readers (Baxley & Boston, 2010).
Although members of GIRLS had difficulty articulating the impact of these
choices, they indicated great awareness in how the author depicted the adolescent
character in the book. Some of the questions that may inform future research that
resulted from the study included: What characteristics in the protagonist represented
who the members of GIRLS thought they really were? What qualities or labels did
the characters portray that the members of GIRLS had to struggle with and against in
their real lives? What form of discrimination (racism, sexism, and classism) did the
characters in the book face that rang true to GIRLS members in the study?
7
CHAPTER 1
The depiction of themselves in print forced GIRLS members to take a critical gaze
in the mirror, revealing some of the controlling images and stereotypes that are often
read about (and seen in the media) regarding Black women. The members of GIRLS
had instinctive insights, but could not give voice to the palpable marginalization
they faced; nor could they comprehend self-colonization that they internalized and
contributed to. Up until that point, they were not given the space or the tools needed to
work through these ambiguities. This book is partly based on the conversations with
the incredible and memorable members of the GIRLS club during the three-year study
(Baxley & Boston, 2011).
Under the current sociopolitical climate, more and more school literacy programs
and studies (Brookes, et al., 2008; Sutherland, 2005; Wissman, 2007), similar to
the GIRLS book club, that promote culturally relevant practices, engage in critical
literacy, and give students choices, are under fire. The recent controversy surrounding
the Ethnic Studies Programs in Tucson, Arizona serves as an example. The MexicanAmerican Culture classes’ use of culturally responsive practices and critical
pedagogy was put under the microscope after the school board demanded that the
books, including Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Friere, 2000) and Rethinking Columbus
(Bigelow, 1998) being used by the teachers in the Mexican-American ethnic studies
classes be removed from shelves. In fact, the books were boxed up and hauled away
in the middle of the instructional day while students were present in class.
Rethinking Schools, a non-profit organization focused on equity and democracy in
schools, is the publisher of Rethinking Columbus (Bigelow, 1998), a text that presents
history from the Taíno Native Americans’ under-represented viewpoint. It offers
instructional approaches and methods that teachers can use to help students ponder
perspectives that are often silenced in the traditional classroom curriculum. One of the
objectives of materials like Rethinking Columbus (Bigelow, 1998) is to teach students
to engage in critical literacy, challenging students to read beyond the written word,
and to understand text in terms of sociopolitical consequences and structures of power.
According to Augustine F. Romero, Director of Student Equity in the Tucson schools,
the intent of the program was to instill cultural pride and self-worth in the MexicanAmerican students, not to create hostility toward other groups of people. “All of our
forefathers have contributed to this country, not just one set of forefathers. We respect
and admire and appreciate the traditional forefathers, but there are others” (as cited in
Lacey, 2011).
During the 2011-12 academic school year, not only was this textbook (and other
critical texts) banned from the Ethnic Studies/Mexican American Studies Program in
Tucson, Arizona, but the entire program was dismantled. Tom Horne, Arizona’s then
attorney general, declared the program was in violation of all provisions of House
Bill 2281, which mandates classes in Arizona may not: (1) be designed primarily
for pupils of a particular ethnic group; (2) teach political views that encourage the
overthrow of the U.S. government; (3) promote resentment toward a race or class of
people; and (4) advocate ethnic solidarity (Arizona House Bill 2281, 2010).
8
SETTING THE STAGE OF SILENCE
Mr. Horne continued to say that the Mexican-American ethnic studies classes,
which highlighted the contributions of Mexican-Americans in social studies
(from the perspectives of the students’ ancestors) and literary works written by MexicanAmerican authors, were “inappropriately teach[ing] Latino youths that they are being
mistreated” (Lacey, 2011). The Mexican American studies classes were shut down, in
spite of the academic, cultural, and personal benefits to the students. In fact, according
to Bigger (2011), an independent audit commissioned by Huppenthal, who served as
Arizona Superintendent of Public Instruction, established that the Mexican American
Studies program did not violate any of the provisions of the state bill, but instead
found that the program taught the students to be more tolerant and accepting. This
decision was made despite evidence that students enrolled in the Mexican American
Studies Program consistently achieved higher standardized test scores, an increased
graduation rate, and increased student engagement and learning (Chavez, 2012).
In these examples, members of GIRLS and the students and teachers involved
in the Mexican-American ethnic studies class were powerless in choosing relevant
text and instruction that represented their individual cultures and valued their voices.
This silencing from school systems creates a generation of students who experience
institutional practices that honor other students’ needs—those students who share
the values of those with power. It is our goal for (In)Visible Presence to contribute
to existing pedagogy, which empowers students, teachers, administrators, and policy
makers to develop participatory membership in schools and among citizens who
can begin to create an anti-oppressive society. The chapters that follow contain a
holistic, thematic approach to exploring YA novels, while providing cultural and
historical contexts for interpreting and analyzing their work through a feminist lens.
The feminist theoretical framework creates a space in which the selected narratives
can be analyzed and critically interpreted according to principles and ideas intended
to validate women, thus making their triumph over racism, sexism, classism, and
heterosexism and equity challenges a visible cause relegating consequential change
for both young girls and women of color.
BOOK OVERVIEW
In Section I, which explores the overarching idea of invisibility within multiple
spectrums, we offer the theoretical framework and prior research as the foundation for
(In)visible Presence; while making the case for the impact that YA novels can have on
all adolescents, specifically girls of color. Section II redefines the role of motherhood
by offering a counter-narrative to traditional deficit perspectives of families of color,
specifically African American and Latina family value systems. We explore the
strengths of these cultures and how YA literature can serve as a window into the lives
of mothers of color as well as facilitate a more accurate depiction of these mothers and
their importance in the community. Section III examines (Im)migration and Nationhood
experiences of Latina and Native American cultures, particularly, the changing roles
and responsibilities of women as they begin to acculturate into dominant society. The
9
CHAPTER 1
necessity and the nature of African American and Asian American women in the work
force are examined in Section IV, while exploring the sexual and gender politics that
are present in patriarchal societies and their impact on women of color. Through the
analysis of the literature, we will unpack the controlling images that are pervasive and
harmful to women of color and offer a counter perspective that validates the power
of voice and presence. In addition, at the end of each chapter there is a “Teachable
Moment” section. This section of the book is intended to serve as an impetus for
teachers to probe (reflexivity) what is being taught and through what instructional
practices. The questions can be used as a starting point to generate an internal dialogue
about how teaching practices can begin to shift after reading (In)Visible Presence.
Additionally, the questions may be used in faculty learning communities to discuss
shifting to critical pedagogy and more multicultural literature to support all students
in the classroom. We also included thinking questions that may be used with the
adolescents who are reading the text and are beginning to engaged in critical literacy.
Finally, each chapter is equipped with reading lists that may serve as a guide for
educators to expand their repertoire of reading materials for students.
MEMOIRS OF TRAILBLAZERS
Angelou, Angelou. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1969) – African American
Brent, Linda. Incidents in the Life a Slave Girl (1861) – African American
Manchu, Rigoberta. I, Rigoberta Manchu (1983) – Native American (Indigenous
People)
Marmon Silko, Leslie. Storytelling (1981) – Native American
Kingston, Maxine. I Love a Broad Margin to My Life (2011) – Asian American
Mirikitani, Janice. Love Works (2002) – Asian American
Ortiz Cofer, Judith. A Partial Remembrance of a Puerto Rican Childhood (1990)
Santiago, Esmeralda. When I Was a Puerto Rican (1994)
TEACHABLE MOMENTS
1. Are there certain texts you believe should not be introduced in the secondary
classroom that address race, gender, or class issues? If so, what are they? Provide
explanatory reasoning for each.
2. Can you recall a YA literary work that was in your opinion, exceptionally effective
in the classroom? What made this text(s) effective? What strategy was used to
teach the text?
3. Look at the reading list for your state/county/district. Do you believe most district
reading lists provide a holistic selection of writers according to gender, race, or
ethnicity? If not, what changes would you suggest to enhance selections?
10
SETTING THE STAGE OF SILENCE
4. How can you connect current social issues in news/media to what students are
reading about in the text? How do you discuss the difference in the results that
they found?
IN THE CLASSROOM
1. If you had the opportunity to select the books/works you would read in your
Language Arts, Reading, or English class, which texts/works would you select?
Why? Explain your responses.
2. Why is it important to learn about the adolescent experiences of youth who have
different backgrounds—socio-economic, gender, race, ethnicity?
3. What role do you believe historical fiction plays in the Language Arts, Reading
or English classroom?
4. Have you ever read a YA literary work by an author of a different race or ethnicity?
What did you learn about that particular race or ethnicity? Do you believe this is
important? Please give details and examples from the text.
REFERENCES
Amrein, A. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2002). High-stakes testing, uncertainty, and student learning. Education
Policy Analysis Archives, 10(18). Retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n18/
Arizona House Bill 2281. (2010). Retreived from http://www.azleg.gov/legtext/49leg/2r/bills/hb2281s.
pdf
Banks, J. A. (2006). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum and teaching (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.
Baxley, T. P., & Boston, G. H. (2010). Classroom inequity and the literacy experiences of Black adolescent
girls. In J. Zajda (Ed.), Globalization, education and social justice (pp. 145–159). Melbourne,
Australia: Australian Catholic University.
Bean, T. W., & Moni, K. (2003). Developing students’ critical literacy: Exploring identity construction in
young adult fiction. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46(8), 638–646.
Bigelow, B. (Ed.) (1991). Rethinking Columbus: Teaching about the 500th anniversary of Columbus’s
arrival in America. Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools, Ltd.
Biggers, J. (September 28, 2011). AZ School Chief Compares Mexican-American Studies to Hitler Jugend
(As He Endorses White Supremacist-Backed Candidate). HuffPost Education.
Brook, W., Browne, S., & Hampton, G. (2008). There ain’t no accounting for what folks see in their
own mirrors: Considering colorism within a Sharon Flake narrative. Journal of Adolescent & Adult
Literacy, 51(8), 660–669.
Cart, M. (2008). The value of young adult literature. Young Adult Library Services Association. Retrieved
from http://www.ala.org/yalsa/guidelines/whitepapers/yalit
Chavez, A. (2012). Tucson bans Mexican American studies program and over 80 books. Retrieved
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Chicago Grassroots Curriculum. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://grassrootscurriculum.org
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Jay, G. (1991). The end of “American” literature: toward a multicultural practice. College English, 53(3),
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VOICELESSNESS
Theorizing the Silence
Critical multiculturalists are concerned with the distribution of power within society
and the impact this social stratification has on various groups of people. Educators must
be aware of the role schools play in maintaining the cultural dissonance and hegemonic
practices that prevail in the classroom. Critical multicultural education offers a way to
engage in social justices and equities of power in our society. Education is never neutral;
instead, it is often shaped by sociopolitical forces dictated by the value system of the
group in power (Freire, 2006). According to DiAngelo and Sensoy (2010), critical
multicultural education requires “a deep and sophisticated analysis, self-awareness,
intergroup experience, and on-going education” (p. 102). In classrooms where critical
multicultural education is practiced, teachers employ curricula that affirm identities,
give voice, and build classroom communities where students begin to understand,
respect, care for, and act on behalf of one another. This philosophy requires educators to
examine their own assumptions and practices regarding various groups of people and to
deconstruct power structures that may work against certain students in society.
Critical multiculturalism also requires educators to be a part of a learning process
that transforms how we address inequity and power structure in the classroom.
Critical multicultural education uses students’ life experiences and stories to
empower decision-making and problem solving. A major difference between critical
teachers and traditional teachers is the critical teachers’ objectivity in revealing
their solidarities to social justice and how it is displayed in their teaching. Teachers
practicing critical multiculturalism assist students in reflecting on their own lives
in order to become cognizant of everyday injustices in society. This reflexivity
results in students developing concrete strategies to reform social structures that
maintain inequality and encourages students to act on behalf of the disenfranchised
(Kincheloe & McLauren, 2003; Sleeter & Grant, 2009). Multicultural education
curricula promote social and global awareness and connectivity for these students,
thus affording them a more enriching literacy experience. It is vital for pre-service
and in-service teachers to utilize pedagogical tools for enhancing openness and
respect for others in the classroom, rather than emphasizing forms of instruction and
evaluation that insist on exclusion and clichéd images according to race, ethnicity,
or gender. Critical multiculturalism and critical feminism share abhorrence for
discrimination that is rooted in the intersectionality of various identity markers.
While this critical idea continues to prevail within the canon, there are women
writers of color who have introduced protagonists facing the painful dilemma of
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silence brought on by a host of factors, namely societal norms that dictate who and
what is valued, as well as publishing limitations wanting to only publish and market
literature that is going to appeal to a certain target audience, of which young, females of
color are excluded. Touraine (1995) argues that young adults seeking such validation
are sometimes displaced or marginalized individuals who are a part of a “social
world divided between people who are part of the global flow and people caught in
an increasingly desperate world of tribal competition” (p. 86). (In)Visible Presence
concentrates on the intersectionality of gender, race, and class identities and how these
identifiers serve as criteria for privilege and marginalization, even in YA literature.
CRITICAL RACE THEORY
Traditionally, educational theories have ignored or silenced historically marginalized
groups by not addressing their needs or by responding to their needs from a majority
vantage point. Critical Race Theory exposes dominant norms and assumptions that
appear neutral, but systematically marginalize, silence, and misrepresent people of
color (Ladson-Billings, 2009). CRT’s major tenets include: permanence of racism
(racism is normalized/endemic in society); whiteness as property (in education this
refers to policies and practices that restrict access to students of color including
resources, curriculum, higher-level classes, etc.); interest conversion (equality is
given to students of color only when it converges with the interest of whites); critique
of liberalism (rejects the notion of colorblind policy, and equality versus equity); and
finally, counter storytelling (accepting the knowledge and voice of people of color).
From CRT, other theoretical frameworks were created to give a stage for groups
of people not included in the Black-White binary. Latino Critical Theory (LatCrit)
addresses issues pertinent to Latino/a people—language immigration, culture identity,
ethnicity—often ignored by other theoretical frameworks. Bernal (2002) summarized
LatCrit as a “theory that elucidates Latinas/Latinos’ multidimensional identities and can
address the intersectionality of racism, sexism, classism, and other forms of identity”
(p. 108). Asian Critical Theory (AsianCrit) was pioneered by Chang (1993) who
started addressing the needs of Asian American citizens in the legal system. Currently,
AsianCrit is used in other systems of discrimination such as nativism, model minority
stereotype, immigration and naturalization issues, and disenfranchisement issues.
Tribal Critical Race Theory (TribalCrit) was developed by Brayboy (2005) to examine
the endemic nature of colonization from indigenous people’s perspective. This includes
addressing issues of language loss, natural resource management, graduation rates and
representation of American Indians in special education (Brayboy, 2005). Finally, we
must acknowledge Critical Race Feminism (CRF) as a foundation for the creation of this
manuscript. As an outgrowth of CRT, CRF is anti-essentialist in nature, acknowledging
and addressing the intersectionality of women of color. In addition, CRF is centered on
theory and praxis, using storytelling as the methodology of choice (Wing, 2003). The
commonality of all of these theoretical frameworks is their legacy of resistance and
change and their focus on social justice.
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Dominant groups often legitimize knowledge; however, we, as women of color are
in charge of writing our own script and our description of who we are. Narratives are
not traditionally accepted in the dominant methodological canon, but are an essential
component of critical race feminism. As women of color we rely on narratives to
provide a stage for us to name our reality and to tell our stories.
The argument of counter-narratives introduced in CRT (Delgado, 1998/1999;
Delgado & Stepfancic, 2012) is not to replace one narrative for another but to give
voice to the experiences and ways of knowing, regarding groups who are Othered
(Ladson-Billings, 2009). Counter-narratives can “serve as a pedagogical tool that
allows educators to better understand the experiences of their students of color through
deliberative and mindful listening techniques” (Taylor, 2000, p. 10). According to
Delgado (1988/1989), counter-narratives can build a sense of community among
marginalized groups by offering a voice to one another and space to be understood by
others. The counter-narratives can then be offered as an alternative to the dominant
group’s perspective, used to counter hegemonic perspectives that combat destructive
stereotypes (Harper et al., 2009), to gain a deeper understanding of racial dynamics
(Solórzano & Yosso, 2009), and to serve as a source of empowerment for the narrator
and an audience that’s Othered (Etter-Lewis, 1997; Pollard, 2006).
This is particularly important to women of color whose lives and stories have
been historically neglected or misrepresented. McKay (2010) suggests that counternarratives are used in two ways: to challenge dominant culture’s notions about a group
“by providing a context to understand and transform an established belief system” and
“to authentically represent marginalized people by showing them ‘the shared aims of
their struggle’” (p. 27). (In)Visible Presence explores the voices of women of color,
as well as our attempt as authors of this book to give voice to future generations of
women of color who are energized to self-name, self-define, and self-empower.
As African American women, professors, and mothers, we feel it is important
to tell our story, and the story of our daughters, by offering a critical journey into
feminism and critical literacy. As outsiders of other racial/ethnic groups, we recognize
that on many levels we do not fully possess the language or cultural scope or depth
necessary to inform the social, political, or cultural ideologies that undergird the
literature introduced. Yet, our analysis does aim to broaden interpretive discourse
across multiple literary canons. Our analysis does not approach selected YA literary
works assuming we possess a language of access and analysis that validly offers
authentic interpretation (hooks, 1991). Instead, our analysis examines fluid themes
in YA literature with female adolescent protagonists of color that are informed
by gender-based, sociopolitical trajectories, which prescribe new meaning to the
text for readers. Latina scholar Robello (1990) insists scholars “look across the
literature to contextualize and theorize from within but also to decolonize our ways
of looking at the literature outside of the mainstream perspective” (quoted in Medina,
2006, p. 72).
A primary purpose of our analysis will be to “move the reading of this literature
out of the neutral place in the curriculum to develop culturally visible literacy
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experiences in the classroom” for marginalized and underrepresented students
(Medina, 2006, p. 76). As noted by Bamberg (2004),
…narratives order characters in space and time and, therefore, as a format,
narrative lends itself not only to connecting past events to present states (as
well as imagined, desired states and events) but also to revealing character
transformation in the unfolding sequence from past to future.” (p. 354)
When considering the primary intention of the narrative, one must consider how
format, when figuratively redefined according to a different set of precepts, creates
new meaning for the character transformation and how the past informs the future. To
that point, counter-narratives encourage connection between lines of difference—the
past and present, race/ethnicity, as well as male and female. The utilization of counternarratives in multicultural literature is a powerful tool for identity validation, especially
when examining female protagonists represented in literary works by women of color.
Counter-narratives allow literature to be interpreted through a different set of analytic
lenses, ones that provide a more authentic literary interpretation into the worlds
of groups often othered. The analysis of adolescent literature serves as a means to
subjugate powerful discursive practices, confront discourses that require adolescent
girls of color to critically examine how they are being represented in literature, and to
empower future generations of feminists to create their personal counter-narratives by
disrupting public truths and sharing their real selves to the world.
CRITICAL LITERACY
Literacy, from a critical perspective, is not a set of strategies to be taught or skills to
master but rather is the instrument for promoting social change. Freire and Macedo
(1987) identified critical literacy as a continual process of reading the word and the
world within the framework of a greater commitment to democratic practices and
opportunities for all. While great strides have been made in the last forty years in YA
literature to demonstrate its significance to student development, “there continues
to be a great need for educational and literary scholars to study the genre from a
critical, research-oriented perspective” (Alsup, 2010, p. 1). (In)Visible Presence aims
to explore YA literature written by women of color in order to critically examine the
genre’s effectual impact on literary trends and pedagogical development at secondary
levels within public school environments as well as offer constructive analysis of the
genre’s systematic bearing on readers’ development according to gender, race, and
class identities.
Currently in the United States, state and school district-approved reading lists are
designed to suggest literary works that are intended to assist teachers with classroom
instruction, as indicated by most districts. District-approved reading lists are used by
educators, teachers, policy makers, parents, and students to provide guidance about
literature that best suits academic levels, subject/topic interests, and instructional
design. There is often an additional statement or disclaimer that “no teacher
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should select a book without giving some consideration [for] student diversity”
(Polk County School District). However, when the district-approved lists are more
closely examined, there is little opportunity to consider diversity because these
lists fail to include the literary work of multicultural authors, specifically women
of color. In preparation for writing this book, more than thirty district-approved
reading lists were examined to determine just what type of YA literature is deemed
“appropriate,” and some of the findings were startling yet enlightening. While many
of the approved reading lists reflected literature from various time periods, subject
matter, and academic levels (specifically lexile levels), there were limitations in the
diversity among authors listed. There were more literary works written by white
males and females, primarily from the 20th century, while there were fewer works
represented by women of color. Florida’s Sunshine State Reading list for the 20132014 academic year included 2 of 15 books for middle school students written
by women of color. With further investigation we discovered that the two Asian
American authors’ books were white-washed, where the content was not culturallyspecific and the characters were either not of Asian ancestry or their experiences
did not reflect Asian culture. During the 2012-2013 academic year Texas’s reading
lists included Latina authors comprising only 10% of the authors on the reading
lists; however, the content of the two books written by Latinas reflected the authors’
culture and experiences. California was by far the most disappointing state with
less than 1% of its suggested/required books (three of 48 for middle school and five
of 59 for high school) included women of color authors. New York’s reading list
was limited to books whose setting was exclusively in New York; even with this
limitation it had the most diverse list of authors of the four states. Its list included
African American, Latina, and Asian American women authors. With three of the
four most diverse states having such a limited list of works by women of color, the
silence continues for the authors and for students who need them. These reading lists,
and others around the country, further marginalize women of color and illustrate the
need for books like (In)Visible Presence.
Authors of multicultural literature with engaging stories and positive characters can
positively impact the literacy experiences of young adolescents. Multicultural literature
is defined as literature by and/or about people who are members of groups considered
to be outside the socio-political mainstream of the USA (Harris, 1994). While this genre
is evolving, it is noteworthy to mention that an important dimension of these works is
that the authors should present an authentic, inside view of the culture (Norton, 2001).
It should strive to improve self-esteem, develop cultural integrity, acknowledge and
celebrate differences, and provide insight on social issues and various value systems.
Multicultural literature has its place in helping to increase equity for racial and ethnic
minority students in the middle school curriculum and should be integrated into the
classroom’s daily activities and content (Boston & Baxley, 2007). As Dangora (2010)
asserts, “Creating a more accurate and complete historical picture for history’s sake
is vitally important, as is the inclusion of Black literature in the English language arts
curricula in order to impact identity development positively” (p. 19).
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Moje, Young, Readence and Moore (2000) called for a focus on the needs of
traditionally marginalized adolescent students and for the inclusion of critical
literacy in secondary literacy programs. The authors emphasized that educators need
to teach young adults that there is an inequity of privilege, power, that is based
on race/ethnicity, gender and class (Freire, 2000). Educators must teach students
to interact with texts and be mindful of the ideology behind the texts. Adolescents
should experience how to probe texts to uncover the ideologies embedded in them.
Finally, students must be taught that texts can be deconstructed to show whose reality
is presented and whose is excluded and rendered silenced or invisible.
Critical literacy supports a student’s understanding of the role history plays in
their current lives and substantiates their existence in society, while assisting students
in navigating the political, social, and cultural changes that may affect their lives
(Tatum, 2001). As women of color, we are especially interested in how adolescent
females of color begin to define what it means to be a person of color and female
in our society and how literature, examined using critical feminist framework, can
assist in self-identity.
A reader’s engagement with text is vastly affected by prior experiences, cultural
background, and views of the world. As critical multiculturalists, we view literacy
as a system of pedagogical practices used to analyze the social construction of
ourselves (Shor, 1999). Therefore, our perception of literature as sociocultural
artifacts that mirror the value and belief systems of our society, helps guide the
writing of (In)Visible Presence. We, as authors, believe critical literacy: (1) is
centered on the deconstruction of oppressive structures in society; (2) supports the
notion that all texts are forms of political practice; and (3) considers the power of
texts to transform or liberate one’s self and society. According to Gopalakrishnan,
authentic multicultural literature “especially from an insider’s perspective, offers
multiple ways of intersecting with students’ experiences and their learning”
(2011, p. 34).
What is the Role of YA Literature and Critical Literacy?
Adolescence is often the time period in one’s life when searching for individual
identity, struggling with society’s norms, and grappling with moral issues can create
constant personal conflicts. As adolescents search for their place in the world, they
find that “[it] is filled with powerful messages to conform to some unspecified norm
and deviation from that norm results in derision and discrimination” (Darby & Pryne,
2002, p. 5). As teens begin to turn away from concerned adults and toward their
peers for acceptance and answers, educators need to develop ways to reengage their
students and “... to realign their curriculum to include opportunities for students to
examine the problems of society and explore and devise possibilities” (Sills-Briegel
& Camp, 2001, p. 280).
YA multicultural literature and critical literacy pedagogy are effective tools to
redirect adolescents by providing charted guidance into the often controversial social
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issues that are relevant to the teens’ lives (Elliott & Dupuis, 2002). The young adult
reader can view characters as extensions of themselves, and these characters assist
students in their search for identity and social understanding in their own lives. Botelho
and Rudman (2009) describe children’s literature as mirrors, reflecting the lives of the
reader; windows, viewing other cultures or experiences; or doors, looking at society
differently and taking action. All students need to see reflections of themselves and
their culture in the curriculum. Authentic literature adds to their understanding of
how they view themselves and how others view and value them (Gates & Hall Mark,
2006; Taylor, 2000). Students who see evidence of their lives and learning experiences
mirrored in the books they read gain an affirmation of themselves and their identities.
Students who do not see themselves reflected in the books may begin to believe that
they have no value or worth in the classroom or society.
Multicultural literature is grounded in the inclusion of groups who have been
marginalized in American society due to race, ethnicity, gender, religion, sexual
orientation, social class, age, and/or ability. Teachers should carefully determine
the relevancy of the themes and the characters of the contemporary YA novels
they introduce to their students because the books become vital sources of self
and social realization, particularly multicultural texts attempting to validate the
ethnic significance of experience, further supporting the claim that this genre is
critical to encouraging shifts within social, academic and personal paradigms. By
exposing all students to selected multicultural literature, the students are given the
opportunity to increase their knowledge of the lives, behaviors, and challenges
of cultures around them. Multicultural literature allows students to experience a
culture through the eyes of other adolescents and facilitates awareness, empathy,
and understanding; additionally, it helps students to recognize stereotypes, make
intercultural connections, and possibly change the way they see themselves (Darby
& Pryne, 2002; Gates & Hall Mark, 2006). According to Taylor (2000), “We risk
miseducating all of our students if we allow them to use their own cultural attitudes
and values as the sole measuring stick for ‘normal human nature’” (p. 25). Using
multicultural literature in a critical classroom can create space for students to begin
unlearning stereotypes and to dispel cultural myths and assumptions. “[R]egardless
of their backgrounds and experiences, all students need to recognize the diversity
that defines and strengthens our society” (Taylor, 2000, p. 25). When students are
exposed to literature that offers various viewpoints, it increases their ability to
analyze, evaluate, and make judgments (Darby & Pryne, 2002).
Teaching culturally relevant texts can be difficult because the positionality of the
educator can pose challenges, and on some occasions silence students of different
backgrounds from that of the educator. “Many teachers who feel confident selecting
literature on the basis of curricular goals or literary criteria lose that confidence
when it comes to selecting multicultural literature. Aware of past controversies
over specific books and general charges of stereotyping or racism, they fear being
accused of insensitivity or worse” (Bishop, 1992, p. 39). Despite these challenges,
multicultural texts examining issues that marginalize groups should not be avoided;
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there should be greater emphasis placed on teachers to insist that these texts are
integrated into instruction. By avoiding multicultural texts and other controversial
texts, educators, in fact, avoid groups of students. This example of not considering
race/culture in curricular decision-making represents the CRT tenet “critique of
liberalism” (color blindness) that so often is exemplified in a typical classroom
setting. Although the notion of color blindness originated out of a progressive
movement with “good intentions,” in today’s neoliberal context it is quite dangerous
and even detrimental to the success of students of color.
Multicultural education offers the adolescent reader, especially one whose race/
ethnicity is commonly underrepresented, an opportunity to understand cultural
differences and how they are significant to both personal and social development.
Students should not have to choose between cultural elements of his or her home and
the information/material introduced at school. When this level of conflict surfaces,
the self-esteem of an adolescent can potentially suffer. For adolescents of color,
multicultural literature can be an instrument for personal and social validation within
the classroom.
In order to motivate students and assist them in dealing with taboo subject matters
like race or sexual orientation, educators must first remove personal barriers in an
effort to objectively introduce, teach, and critically explore the presence of these
controversial issues in books. Pre-service and in-service teachers need continuous
professional development in order to broaden their awareness about the availability
and utilization of multicultural texts with diverse groups of students (Au, 2001;
Ladson-Billings, 2009). While all of these social issues are equally as important
when choosing literature to introduce to students, the method of pedagogical infusion
should also be carefully considered.
CULTURALLY RELEVANT PEDAGOGY
Practicing culturally relevant pedagogy in the classroom can make school literacy
learning personal, meaningful, and rewarding for students of diverse backgrounds
because it “makes a link between classroom experiences and the students’ everyday
lives” (Ladson-Billings, 1994, p. 94). Ladson-Billings (1994) defined culturally
relevant teaching as “a pedagogy that empowers students intellectually, socially,
emotionally, and politically by using cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills,
and attitudes” (pp. 17-18). Culturally responsive practices include methods that
attempt to bridge the gap between students from marginalized cultures and those of the
non-Hispanic white/Caucasian culture. Teachers need to be aware of the incongruent
value systems that are present for many students in traditional classrooms and
should take the opportunity to create classrooms that culturally affirm, understand,
and encourage students (Gay, 2010; Pang, 2006). Practicing culturally relevant
pedagogy requires teachers to practice cross-cultural communication skills. This can
be in the form of getting to know the culture of the students, the families, and the
communities from which their students reside.
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VOICELESSNESS
Moll (1994) insisted that teachers make use of the “funds of knowledge” that
students bring from their home lives. Knowing your students should influence the
decisions regarding content and methodology. A culturally responsive teacher is
sensitive to the cultural values and uses this knowledge to connect and build on
the experiences the students bring to the classroom. These practices should validate
and affirm the cultures of traditionally marginalized students while focusing on
fundamental knowledge needed to become capable readers and writers (Baytops,
2003; Delpit, 1995; Tatum, 1997). Sleeter and Grant (2009) proposed teachers ask
themselves two vital questions: (1) What standard/concept is being taught, and (2)
what funds of knowledge do my students have that can make this standard/concept
relevant? Literacy curricula focused on the rote learning of lower level skills, where
personal connection is not a goal, would not be beneficial for marginalized students
seeking culturally responsive instruction (Au, 2001). Instead, culturally responsive
teachers address literacy through the use of multicultural literature, which can
ultimately assist students in achieving academic success, maintaining cultural
competence, and critically addressing injustices in the world around them (Gay,
2010; Ladson-Billings, 1995).
Studies show that because of society’s ascribed gender roles, adolescent females,
as a whole, experience loss of voice, self-confidence, and positive feelings about
themselves and seek identification and acceptance within specific groups (American
Association of University Women [AAUW], 1992; Orenstein, 1994; Phillips,
1998; Sadker & Sadker, 1994; Walkerdine, 1990). According to some scholars, the
educational system covertly silences girls. Allen (2004), specifically, discussed the
“deeply gendered” societal beliefs entrenched in our school system. “Schools are
primary arenas in which gender ideologies are produced, reinforced, and perpetuated
through interactions between and among teachers, administrators, students and
parents. Schools help to create and affirm normalized institutional definitions
of femininity and masculinity” (p. 50). While gender is certainly important in
developing one’s identity, gender identity is further compounded by an individual’s
race, culture, and class.
FINAL THOUGHTS
Throughout (In)Visible Presence, we focus on contemporary YA literature written by
women of color represented by African American, Asian American, Indian American,
and Latina Americans. We acknowledge and respect the numerous differences
between and within each of the broad groups. For us, being women of color allows
us to share commonalities, including “a history of oppression and exclusion and a
shared desire to combat racist and sexist domination” in a forum that empowers the
margins (Stanley, 1998, p. 2). It is this uniqueness that drives the creation of this
book. This theoretical perspective focuses on the connection of race, gender, and
class that is exclusive to women of color. The construction of “voice” and “space” is
important for readers to hear from those once silenced.
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Phillips (1998) acknowledges the fact that although there are beginning to be more
mainstream studies recognizing the differences between girl and boy gender issues,
studies neglect to distinguish between the varying issues of race, ethnicity, and social
class. She recognizes that “social barriers often create even more difficult hurdles
for girls of color and/or low socioeconomic status . . . who are marginalized within a
society that confers privilege on not only maleness, but also whiteness and so-called
middle class values” (p. 6). A positive racial identity as well as gender identity in
students of color has been associated with academic aspirations, achievement, and
preschool attitudes and behaviors (O’Connor, 1997; Oyserman, Harrison, & Bybee,
2001; Resnicow, Soler, Braithwaite, Selassie, & Smith, 1999). The writers of the
selected YA literature represented in (In)Visible Presence invite the readers on a
journey to be a part of their insiders’ cultural and gendered experiences in unique
and authentic means. (In)Visible Presence is a book that will best serve novice and
seasoned educators unfamiliar with marginalized writers and their works, as well as
parents interested in finding literature that gives voice to their teenagers and explores
their cultural backgrounds.
WORKS BY FEMINISTS OF COLOR
Allen, P. G. (1986). The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminism in American Indian
Traditions.
This book highlights the current traditions in Native life and the crucial role that
women play in honoring those traditions.
Anzaldúa, G. (1987). Borderlands/La frontera: The new Mestizo.
This book explores the complexities of living in a binary society and creates voice
for those living between (marginalized) spaces.
Collins, P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the
Politics of Empowerment.
This book gives a historical overview of Black feminism, but moves beyond, creating
a standpoint theory for Black women.
Shah, S. (2000). Dragon Ladies: Asian American Feminist Breathe Fire
A collection of essays written by various Asian-American activist, this book captures
the diverse cultural experiences within Asian Americans
TEACHABLE MOMENTS
1. Identify a book (that you are unfamiliar with) in which the main character is a
female from an underrepresented minority group. Create a lesson plan that will
reflect critical practices and teach it to your students.
22
VOICELESSNESS
2. Based on the lesson plan developed, what culturally relevant practices do you
introduce? How is this lesson plan different from a literary work you have taught
before?
3. How is your preparation to teach a YA text by people of color different from your
preparation to teach a traditional YA text?
4. What role do you believe autobiographies and memoirs play in introducing
students to ideas about culture, race, ethnicity, gender, and class? How can these
books assist you in your teaching?
IN THE CLASSROOM
1. Have you ever read a book in which the main character had the freedom to express
his or her feelings freely? Have you ever felt that a character in a book was saying
what you wanted to say but could not?
2. Write a letter from a character to an adult expressing the need to be heard.
3. What factors do you believe limits a person’s ability to express themselves
freely—whether verbally, physically or artistically? Explain your answers with
details and examples.
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