Ecological Settings and Theory of Community Action: “There is Nothing More Practical
Than a Good Theory” in Community Psychology
Isidro Maya Jariego
Universidad de Sevilla
Keywords: Theory, Science, Community Psychology, Framework, Ecological Settings,
Community Action
Author Biography: Isidro Maya Jariego, Doctor in Psychology, is Associate Professor at
the Department of Social Psychology at the University of Seville (Spain), and director of
the Laboratory of Personal Networks and Communities. He was founder and
coordinator of the Master in Psychology of Social and Community Intervention (20102013) and coordinator of the Doctorate Program “Community and Social Intervention”
(2007-2013). Editor of the journal REDES, Revista Hispana para el Análisis de Redes
Sociales since 2002; his main interests are social network analysis, cultural diversity
and community intervention.
Recommended Citation: Maya Jariego, I. (2016). Ecological Settings and Theory of
Community Action: “There is Nothing More Practical Than a Good Theory” in
Community Psychology. Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, 7(2), pages
1-6. Retrieved Day/Month/Year, from (http://www.gjcpp.org/).
Correspondence should be addressed to Isidro Maya Jariego, Departamento de
Psicología Social, Universidad de Sevilla, Calle Camilo José Cela s/n. 41.018 – Sevilla
(Spain). [email protected].
Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice
Volume 7, Issue 2
February 2016
EcologicalSettingsandTheoryofCommunityAction:“ThereisNothingMore
PracticalThanaGoodTheory”inCommunityPsychology
"There is nothing more practical than a good theory" (Lewin, 1952, p. 169). Since its
inception, community psychology has been characterized by simultaneously pursuing
the social utility of scientific knowledge and the theoretical value of practice (Lewin,
1946). Theories contribute to community change, while the lessons learned in
communityinterventioninturncontributetoimproveourknowledgeofsocialreality.In
termsofactionresearch,theoreticalmodelsperformacentralroleinmediatingbetween
scienceandpractice.
However,whenweaskcommunity
psychologistswhichmodelstheyconsider
essentialforcommunityresearchandaction,
thepictureisverycomplex.Jason,Stevens,
Ram,Miller,Beasley,andGleason(2016)did
thisexercise,consultingtheelectronic
mailinglistoftheSocietyforCommunity
ResearchandAction.Bothresearchersand
professionalsinvolvedincommunity
interventionparticipateonthislist,andthe
inquiryresultedinalistofapproximately32
theoreticalframes.Withoutbeingexhaustive
intheinquiry,itisstrikingthenumberand
diversityoftheoreticalmodelsmentioned.
Someofthemarenottheoreticalmodels.
Othersarenotevenpartofpsychology.
Thelistshowsthat,tomediatebetween
researchandaction,wepreferablyresortto
short-rangemodels,asindeedisproperin
socialpsychology(Collier,Minton&
Reynolds,1991).However,community
psychologistsalsousemeta-models,schools
ofthought,ideasthatguideprofessional
practice,ideologicalframes,andmetaphors
thatguideaction,amongotherconceptual
tools.Ontheotherhand,alongwithconcepts
thatappearinanyhandbookofcommunity
psychology(e.g.,psychologicalsenseof
community,empowerment,behavior
settings),therearealsoreferencesof
sociology,politicalscience,socialwork,
politicalphilosophy,andotherareas.Perhaps
thisreflectsthefactthatcommunity
psychologyhasbeenshapedasapragmatic
andmultidisciplinaryfield.
Theresultingimpressionisthatthereisnota
commonbodyofsolidknowledge,oratleast
thecommondenominatorisverysmall.
"Perspectivism"mentionedbyJasonetal.
(2016)mayberevealingsomeconfusion
betweentheepistemological,methodological,
andsubstantiveplanesamongscholarsand
practitioners.Itseemsthatrespectforthe
diversityofviewsinthecommunityhasbeen
transposedtothecoexistenceoftheoriesthat
areimmeasurablefromanepistemological
pointofview.Thisissimilartotheemphasis
onthediversityofcontextsappearingtohave
preventedthesearchforregularitiesofa
theoreticalcharacter.
Nevertheless,50yearsofcommunity
psychologyhavepavedthewaytodevelop
thepromiseofactionresearch:"a
comparativeresearchontheconditionsand
effectsofvariousformsofsocialactionand
researchleadingtosocialaction"(Lewin,
1946p.35).AsIwillelaboratebelow,
communityresearchofthelastseveral
decadesprovidesabasisforproposinga
systematicviewofcommunitysettingsanda
theoryoftheprocessesofcommunityaction
andchange.
Contexts,ecologicallevels,andcommunity
collaboration
Letusadoptforamomentthepointofview
ofanundergraduatestudentinpsychology.In
asubjectofintroductiontocommunity
psychology,thestudentusuallylearnsthat
(a)contextmatters,(b)itisadvisableto
assessandinterveneatdifferentecological
levels,and(c)communityinterventions
frequentlyincludedeployingprocessesof
collaborationwiththecommunitytofacilitate
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empowerment.Withthatbackground,the
studenttakesacontextual,multi-level
perspectiveaimedatboostingthe
developmentpotentialofcommunities.That
is,theskillstheydeveloparesogenericthat
theycouldbeconsideredpartofametamodel,anapproachtoresearchandaction,
whichcanactuallybeappliedinmany
differentprofessionalfields.Thiscommunity
approachcanbemadeoperational,for
example,intheprovisionofhealthservices,
thestudyofthedifferentstagesofthelife
cycleoreveninclinicalpractice,amongmany
others.
Whenagroupofpsychologistsmetatthe
SwampscottConferencein1965,an
encounterthatissymbolicallyrecognizedas
thebeginningofcommunitypsychology,they
justreviewedtheroleofpsychology
professionalsinaddressingmentalhealth
needs.Sincepsychologicalprocesses(and
thereforementalhealthproblems)areclearly
connectedwiththesocialsystem,
psychologistsshouldplaytheroleof
communitychangeagents,bothtobe
effectiveininterventionandtoadequately
meettheneedsofthepopulation.Therefore,
thinkingabout(andtransforming)the
professionalroleofpsychologistsisdirectly
linkedtotheoriginsofcommunity
psychology.
However,ifweopenthefocus,thechanges
proposedinthe1960saffectthewholeof
psychologytovaryingdegrees.Ontheone
hand,manypsychologicalandsocialissuesof
interestareincorporated,withoutany
reductiontoonlymentalhealthproblems.
Furthermore,therepertoireofintervention
strategiesisextendedbeyondindividual
psychologicaltreatment.Sogenericskillsthat
weusuallyassociatewithacommunity
approachcanbedevelopedinpracticein
differentprofessionalfieldsofpsychology.
Forexample,nothingpreventsa
developmentalpsychologisttopaying
attentiontofamilycontexts,usingthemodel
ofBronfenbrenner(1979)onthemultiple
ecologicallevelsofhumandevelopment
February 2016
contexts,orevenimplementingamentoring
programtoimproveacademicperformance
ofchildren,withthecollaborationof
membersofthecommunity.Wecanevensee
thatthisapproachhasalsobeendevelopedin
otherdisciplines.Concernsaboutcontexts
andcollaborationarealsopresentin
communitynursingorincommunity
medicine,justtoillustrateitwiththecaseof
publichealth.
Torecap,communitypsychologyarisesfrom
areflectiononprofessionalpracticethat
producesameta-modelofresearchand
action.However,theemphasisonsocial
contextsandincollaborationwiththe
communityisnotuniquetothediscipline,
andthereforecannotbeconsidereddefining
modelsofcommunitypsychology.Thatdoes
notmeanthatcommunitypsychologyhasnot
beenabletotheorizesuccessfullytheroleof
participant-conceptualizer,empowerment,
andcollaborationwiththecommunity.We
returntothispointlater.Whatthenarethe
modelsandthebodyofknowledgeownedby
thearea?
Atypologyofecologicalsettingsanda
theoryofcommunityaction
Ecologicalsettings,psychologicalsenseof
community,andempowermentare,inmy
opinion,agoodselectionofbasictheoretical
referencesoncommunitypsychology.The
threetheoriesthatJasonetal.focuson(a)
haveconsensustobeconsideredasacentral
partofthediscipline,(b)havegenerated,
comparedtoothermodels,alargervolumeof
empiricalresearch,and,lastbutnotleast,(c)
haveenormouspotentialtobuildthefuture
ofcommunitypsychology.
Thenotionofpsychologicalsenseof
communitythatwasintroducedbySeymour
Sarason(1974)hasafoundational
significanceincommunitypsychology.Itisa
centraltheoreticalaxisandisalsoacore
valueofthediscipline.Empiricalresearchhas
dedicatedapartofitsefforttoanalyzethe
factorialstructureoftheconcept(Chipuer&
Pretty,1999;Jason,Stevens&Light,inpress;
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Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice
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Jason,Stevens&Ram,2015;McMillan&
Chavis,1986;Stevens,Jason,&Ferrari,2011),
andispreferablyappliedtothebehaviorsof
neighboringandcitizenparticipation(Kloos,
Hill,Thomas,Wandersman,Elias&Dalton,
2012).Thestudiesonsenseofcommunity
showthatnaturalleaders,behaviorsettings,
andgrass-rootsorganizationshaveakeyrole
intheprocessofsocialcohesion(MayaJariego,2004).Researchonneighborhoods–
theecologicalsettingofchoice–hasshown
therisksassociatedwithurbandistricts
wherelowincome,overcrowding,pollution,
anddailyexposuretoviolenceandvandalism
predominate,amongotherfactors(Shinn&
Toohey,2003;Wandersman&Nation,1998).
However,theresearchconductedsofaralso
allowsustoidentifyshadowareasaswellas
theelementsthatneedgreatertheoretical
development.First,communitypsychology
seemstohavepaidmoreattentiontothe
subjectiveexperienceofcommunitythanto
thespecificcontextsinwhichitdevelops.In
thewordsofSarason,thecommunityisa
"readilyavailable,mutuallysupportive
networkofrelationshipsonwhichonecould
depend"(1974,p.1).So,toimproveour
understandingofcommunitycontexts,we
needtocompletetheassessmentoffeelings
ofbelonging(ortheperceptionof
interdependence)withtheobjectiveof
describingthestructuresinwhichindividuals
areinsertedaswellasthepropertiesofthe
ecologicalenvironment(Maya-Jariego,2004).
Inmyopinion,thestudyoftheregularitiesof
behaviorassociatedwithaspecificplace(i.e.,
behaviorsettings),asinnetworkanalysis,can
respondquitewelltothatpurpose.
Second,communitypsychologyseemstohave
proceededtoaccumulateempiricalevidence
onfactorsthatarerelevantinthecommunity
contextwithoutelaboratingsufficientlyon
theirnaturefromapsychologicalpointof
view.Forexample,weknowthatjuvenile
delinquencyismoreprevalentin
neighborhoodswithhighturnoverof
residentsandalowproportionofowner
occupiedhousing.Perhapswecaninterpret
February 2016
residentialmobilityintermsofsocialcontrol,
orpeople'sexpectationsofresidinginthe
sameplaceinthefutureintermsof
commitmentandresponsibilityin
environmentalconservation.Thusweseek
basicpsychosocialprocessesthatallowusto
comparethebetweendiversityof
neighborhoodcontexts.Althoughtheriskand
protectivefactors'frameworkhasbeen
practicalinthedesignofeffective
interventions,weneedtotakeanotherstepin
theformalizationofknowledgetocontribute
tocommunitypsychologyfromasubstantive
pointofview.
Perhapsthisexplainswhythescalesforthe
assessmentofpsychologicalsenseof
communityhavebeenappliedequallyto
classroomsandschools;cityblocks,
neighborhoods,andcities;orevenself-help
groups,associations,andpoliticalparties
(Hill,1996),regardlessofthelevelsof
analysis.Communitiesaremadeupoflarge
groupingsofindividualswhofeelamutual
commitment,althoughnotnecessarilyknow
eachother.Theyarestructuresofamesosociallevel:theyrefertounconsciouseffects
ofsocialstructureintheindividualand
representthepowerofindirectrelations.
Therefore,neitheraretheysmallgroupsnor
aretheycomparabletomacro-social
phenomena.Ithinkweneedtodevelopa
typologyofcommunitysettings,ecological
environments,toguideresearchinamore
systematicway.Thatentailsreferenceto
contextsandsettings,whichareatthecenter
forconcernofcommunitypsychology,with
morecomplexityandprecision.Italsoimplies
afine-grainedanalysisofhowsomecontexts
arenestedinothers,andhowthistranslates
tothesubjectiveexperienceofcommunity.
Aftersenseofcommunity,thesecondconcept
withpossiblymoreimpactoncommunity
psychologyisempowerment.Partlyitis
connectedwithreflectionsontheroleof
collaborationwiththecommunity,andpartly
itworksasaninspiringmetaphorfor
communityaction.Whilerecognizingthe
limitsofthedefinitionoftheconceptfroma
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formalpointofview(Jasonetal.,2016),I
believeitrepresentsasecondlineof
theoreticaldevelopmentforcommunity
psychology,whichisconcernedwiththe
theoryofsocialactionandcommunity.For
example,theliteratureonthe
implementationofprogramshasshownthat
scientificknowledgeisnecessarybutnot
sufficientforobtainingpositiveresults
(Biglan&Taylor,2000;Goodman,2000;
Maya-Jariego,2010).Theeffectiveness
normallygoesthroughaprocessof
communityappropriation,wherepublic
awarenessoftheproblem,socialnorms,and
thedegreeofcommunityorganizationare
alsodecisivefortheresults.Hencethe
specificcontextsmaydifferinthedegreeof
communityreadinessforchangethatis
intendedwiththeintervention(Edwards,
Jumper-Thurman,Plested,Oetting&
Swanson,2000).Theresults(i.e.,
effectiveness),dependontheinteraction
betweentheactionscarriedout(whether
plannedoremerging)andprevious
dispositionofcommunitycontextinwhich
theydevelop.Theeffectiveimplementationof
programs,therefore,isoftenlinkedindirectly
tothedynamicsofcommunity
empowerment.
Inthetraditionofactionresearch,thiswork
hasbeencarriedinductively(indicating
whichactionsworkunderwhat
circumstances).Theevidence-basedpractices
havefollowedahighlypragmaticapproach.
However,alsointhiscaseIthinkweareina
positiontoformulateasystematicviewofthe
processesofscience-practicetransference,
theprocessofintervention,andthedynamics
ofcommunitychange.
Coda
Inshort,communitypsychology(a)has
providedameta-theoreticalframeworkon
theimportanceofcontextualfactorsat
differentlevels,bothinhumanbehaviorasin
interventionprocesses;and(b)ithashelped
redefinetheroleofpsychologistsaschange
agents,workingincollaborationwiththe
community.Inthiscontext,anddespitethe
lackoftheoreticalencouragementofthe
discipline,bothsystematicvisionof
communitycontextsandacomparative
analysisoftheeffectsofcommunityactions
(withdifferentpeopleindifferentcontexts)
maybeabletoarticulatethetheoretical
developmentofcommunitypsychologyinthe
mediumterm.
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