УДК 172: 930. 85 (37 + 38)
ETHICS AND MORALITY AS A MANIFESTATION OF TOLERANCE IN THE CULTURE OF
ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME
Petro Paranyak
Lviv National Ivan Franko University
Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Theory and History of Political Science
Street. , 1, 79000, Lviv, Ukraine
e-mail [email protected]
The place of tolerance, as a special form of its manifestation in the form of ethics and morality in ancient days is analyzed.
Emphasis is placed on the features of philosophical ideas of ancient Greek and Roman thinkers. The aspect of ratio of ethics and
morality, as the manifestation of tolerance, and their influence on the formation and development of civil society is considered in this
article. The role of social and cultural influence on the formation of distinct political thought in ancient days is examined.
Key words: Tolerance, Epicureanism, Stoicism, Skepticism, Ethics, Neopythagoreanism.
Ethics in antiquity was diverse, constantly developing. Therefore, the history of ethics in this segment can be
divided into several periods and movements. Great thinkers and philosophers of this period had somewhat similar and
somewhat different views on morality, ethics and philosophy. The purpose of this article is to analyze the ethical
teachings of antiquity as the manifestation of tolerance.
Antiquity in the history of ethics begins with the great philosopher Socrates. He is considered the "father" of ethics,
a teacher of European humanity. He was the first who tried to formulate the basic moral principles. The doctrine of
Socrates consisted in his conversations and communications with people. He did not create philosophical works but he
lived in the same way as he taught his followers. Thinker endeavored to convey to people the idea what is good in itself,
good and evil all by itself. In his view, beauty, peace, love and good exist as the general principles and ideas. We need
to cognize these ideas in our life and only by comprehending them, we become moral beings. As Socrates said: wisdom
comes from knowledge and young people should have their own thoughts, to learn all aspects of life on their own to
become wise. If a man can do and cope with it, it will never make mistakes in life, because it calculates a few steps
forward [1, p. 35].
The followers of Socrates divided into several schools among which we can distinguish Cynics and Cyrenaica.
Cynics are called cynic which in Greek mean a "dog". Diogenes of Sinope is the chief representative of the school
Cynics. He was a very smart man, but he made some rash acts in his youth that caused Diogenes’ slavery. But lord
noticing his mind began to listen to the advices of Diogenes and even entrusted him an education of his two sons.
Diogenes believed that man should live like dogs in a simple and unpretentious way. He was well acted, saying: we
need to give up wealth, luxury and security as abundance, the ideal internal self-sufficiency, pride and indifference to
everything external .
The philosophy of Cyrenaics’ school was based on the principle of pleasure that is the reason to consider them to be
the founders of hedonism. In Cyrenaics’ opinion, the meaning of life is to get pleasure, so everyone should just do
everything in his pleasure and we need to avoid all things that bring us suffering. Aristippus is an outstanding
representative of this trend. He stated that everything in the world is just the vanity. We have not to get attached to
anyone and anywhere, then the person will remain in its original being. The man himself defines the goal of life.
Except Cynics’ and Cyrenaics’ schools the other Socrates’ followers were remained. Plato also belonged to them.
Plato (427–347 B.C.) inherited from the teacher the idea that the good and justice, beauty and nobility, courage and
humanity exist in the world independently. However, the human world pollutes them by distorting with their
weaknesses and vices.
The major scientific work of Plato is "State". The Thinker examines social problems in this scientific work,
reaching the conclusion that the viciousness of the state lies in the moral decline of citizens, and not in bad power. Thus,
the great philosopher was linking the theory of the state and the study of ethics. He compared the human soul with the
state, believing that in the state and in the human soul there are two principles: irrational and disciplining and he
distinguished three mental levels of personality: reckless and involuntary impulses, volitional commitments, objective
and impartial mind.
According to Plato, Justice has three components - the wisdom, courage and prudence. They allow a person to
know the truth, although a major role in the knowledge of the truth nevertheless plays mind. The truth lies in the
philosophy, the philosophy is the meaning and purpose of human life.
Besides "State", among the works of Plato we distinguish dialogue "Gorgias", written on behalf of Socrates. The
issue of death is examined in this work in details. Socrates says in the dialogue: death is a separation of soul and body.
Body after death is the same as it was in its life but the soul is revealing, which means that all sins, transgressions and
virtues of man become visible and known. Life after death arrives before a judge who determines what she deserved.
Plato, as we mentioned, was a pupil of Socrates and Aristotle was Plato's pupil, though his thoughts are somewhat
different from the Plato’s and Plato’s thoughts are different from Socrates’. Aristotle ( 384-322 B.C.) also worked on
the development of ethics’ science and wrote many papers. "Nicomachean Ethics" and "Big ethics" are viewed among
them. Aristotle sees happiness in virtue and spiritual wealth. The higher level of integrity to which the person wants to
get,so the level of happiness is fully achieved in mental activity, such as the study of philosophy. Aristotle also stated:
besides emotional benefits we need health, wealth and social status for our happiness [1. p. 87].
According to Aristotle, the ethics is a practical science but philosophy is theoretical. He recognizes that actions are
the purpose of ethics and knowledge is the purpose of philosophy. According to the philosopher thoughts, the truth
exist not in order to know what the virtue is but in order to become virtuous. He shares all virtues on ethical and
intellectual.
Epicurus (341–270 B.C.) – a supporter of atomic theory and eudemonism who considered that the meaning of life
is enjoyment. Considering this trend, we must clarify what is the difference between hedonism and indulgence.
Hedonism involves bodily pleasure and indulgence – the spiritual. According to Epicurus, enjoyment of life is based on
carefree and not on truth and mind. Epicurus believed that fear of death, fear of the gods and hope are the main enemies
of human. He said that it is silly to have fear of gods and death but hope is the strongest enemy. Man always hopes for
something but her hopes are not always met. Epicurus believed that luxury and wealth are unnecessary, as a person can
meet the needs of ordinary food and shelter. All excess is excessive and unnatural. To be the master of your own desires
and passions is the main thing, while there will appear less problems and worries, so life will be easier and more
understandable. Epicurus’ indulgence is limited because it tends to moderate but not to infinite pleasure.
Stoicism was a popular trend in antiquity which had many followers. The apathy and indifference were the ideal
position of moral life for Stoics. The brightest representatives of this movement are Chrysippus, Cleanthes, Seneca,
Marcus Aurelius.
Seneca (4 B.C. – 65 A.D.) got natural, legal and philosophical education. He successfully engaged in the practice
of law for a long time. Later he became the tutor of the future Emperor Nero and after Nero’s ascending to the throne he
got the highest social position and honors. Seneca devotes his treatise "On Mercy" to emperor in which he encourages
Nero as a governor to follow the spirit of Republican [3, p.71]. The growing of Seneca’s prestige and wealth had caused
conflict with his environment. The hate to him deepened after a fire in 64 A.D. in Rome, thus he left Rome and lived in
a nearby estate. Seneca commits suicide after the accusation in conspiracy.
Among the significant philosophical heritage of Seneca we distinguish such scientific papers as: "Moral letters to
Lutsiliyu", "Discourse on Providence", "On the stability of the philosopher", "On a happy life", "On free time", "On
Virtue". All of his work, with the exception of "Items of nature" are devoted to ethical issues. Seneca, like other
representatives of Stoicism is a fan of ancient sensationalism. He emphasized that the mind has its roots in feelings.
Considering the issue of activity of the soul Seneca takes some elements of Plato's philosophy, which is primarily in
recognition of the immortality of the soul and physicality is a prison for the soul. Therefore, Seneca sees the meaning of
life in achieving an absolute peace of mind, which can be achieved by overcoming the fear of death. This problem is
mentioned a lot of times in his works. Seneca characterizes a typical view of man as an individual who strives for
perfection in the virtues in ethics. He finds life in which a man devotes all efforts to improve his own to be the most
honorable and important. His ethical views are imbued with individualism, which was a reaction to the turbulent
political life in Rome.
Another well-known representative of Roman Stoicism is Epictetus (50–138 A.D.) was a slave. He devoted himself
entirely to philosophy after receiving the freedom. Epictetus did not leave any works and his thoughts were fixed by
pupil Arrian of Nicomedia in his treatise "Reflections Epictetus" and "Manual Epictetus". According to the views of
Epictetus, philosophy is not only knowledge but also a practical guidance for life. The study of nature is important and
useful not because the nature can be changed on its bases but also because man could organize his life in accordance
with the nature. He was not an original thinker but the main his achievement is the popularization of the Stoic
philosophy. He followed the principles of Greek Stoicism in his ontological beliefs and attitudes in the theory of
knowledge. [1, p. 101]. Epictetus criticizes and condemns the ancient government. He emphasizes the equality of
human beings and condemns slavery. The thinker convinces us that we have not to think just about the welfare, comfort
and bodily pleasure, but only of the soul.
Just as the mind dominates the man and the world's reigning world mind. It is the source and determining factor in
the development of world. Epictetus limits the freedom and independence only of spiritual freedom, freedom of
humility and reality. Although, the ethics of Epictetus is clearly marked by subjectivity it is still rationalist and protects
the power of human reason.
The Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121–180 A.D.) refers to the Roman Stoics too. During his reign the crisis
intensified but the higher social classes refuse to change anything in order to preserve the existing social order. Some
means of moral regeneration of society they see in Stoic ethics. Marcus Aurelius understood the world as everchanging substance. The traces of mysticism which are closely associated with the decline of Roman society are found
in Marcus’ works, Marcus as the last representative of antique Stoicism. Stoic doctrine, emphasizing particularly the
need to subordinate gods, had a significant influence on the formation of early Christianity.
Epicureanism was the only materialist philosophy in ancient Rome, which became popular in the last years of the
Roman Republic and the early Imperial rule. Its most prominent representative was Titus Lucretius Carus (95–55 B.C.)
– author of philosophical poem "On Nature", which is both a valuable work of art and contemporary literature.
Lucretius fully identifies his views from the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus; he considered Epicurus the best
Greek philosopher. The thinker skillfully explains, proves and promotes the views of representatives of early atomic
theory, consistently defends the fundamental principles of atomism in his works. Lucretius considers atoms and the void
to be the only existent. According to Lucretius, atoms inherent movement. He stood on the principles of Epicureanism
for the purposes of movement. He considers that soul is material, it is the connection of air and heat. It flows through
the body and is created of the finest and smallest atoms.
Atomic theory of Lucretius has already contained the outline of evolutionism. He held the view that everything
organic originated from inorganic complex and organic species evolved from protozoa. Lucretius tried to explain
naturally the emergence of society. He argued that the first people lived in semi-state, with ought knowing fire and
shelter. Only the development of material culture has led to the gradual transformation of the human herd on society. Of
course, he could not come to a materialist understanding of the causes and development of human society but his views
on society were then much more advanced in comparison with the idealistic approach. Like Epicurus, he believed that
society and its organization arises as a product of mutual agreement of people [2, p. 41].
Materialism of Lucretius had atheistic implications: Lucretius not only excluded the gods from the world, in which
everything has a natural cause, but also opposed any believes in gods. He criticized the idea of life after death and other
religious myths instead he argued that belief in gods arises quite objectively - as a product of fear and ignorance of
natural causes, pointing to the epistemological origins of religious beliefs .
Lucretius consistently upholds the principles of peaceful and happy life in the field of Epicure’s ethics. The means
to achieve happiness is knowledge. Man should also get rid of fear, including fear of the gods in order to live happily
.These views he had defended from the stoic and skeptical critics and from some of their supporters of the higher circles
of society. After 313, when Christianity became the official state religion, begins a stubborn and ruthless struggle
against Epicureanism and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Carus that ultimately has led to the gradual decline
of this philosophy.
Another significant philosophical movement of ancient Rome was skepticism. His chief representative
Aenesidemus of Knossos (about I cc. B.C.) in his views was close to the philosophy of Pyrrho. Aenesidemus had seen
in skepticism the way to overcome dogmatism in all philosophical currents. Much attention he paid to the analysis of
contradictions in the teachings of other philosophers. The main conclusion of his skeptical views was thesis about the
inability to judge reality which is based on direct experiences.
The most prominent representative of the so -called junior skepticism was Sextus Empiricus. His teaching is also
based on the Greek skepticism. This is evidenced by the title of one of his works – "Fundamentals pyrrhonism". In other
works ("Against the dogmatists", "Against the Mathematicians"), he sets out the methodology of skeptical doubt, based
on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of ancient knowledge. Critical evaluation is aimed not only against the
philosophical concepts but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, etc. He also
mentioned the question of the existence of gods that brought him to atheism.
Roman skepticism was a specific manifestation of progressive crisis of Roman society. Finding and analyzing the
contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems led skeptics to the thoughtful study of the
history of philosophy. Although in this direction skepticism creates a lot of value, it became the general philosophy that
has lost that spiritual power that raised ancient thinking on its top. In fact, skepticism has more direct rejection than
methodological critique.
Eclecticism in Rome becomes more widespread and significant than in Hellenistic Greece. Its supporters include a
number of prominent personalities of political and cultural life in the last years of the Roman Republic and Empire in
the first period. The most famous among them was a politician and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–45 B.C.).
Representatives of the Roman eclecticism possessed enormous knowledge and were real encyclopaedists of their
era. The combination of their different philosophical schools was not random and baseless as the conceptual approach
was strengthened with a deep knowledge of individual views. The gradual convergence of theory with ethics’ field
reflected the general situation in philosophy.
Social attitudes of Cicero reflect its position of a representative of the upper strata of Roman society during the
period of the Republic. He considers the best social order in the combination of three basic forms of government:
monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He defines the purpose of the state to ensure the safety of citizens and the free
use of property. Theoretical views of Plato were greatly influenced by his real political activity. In ethics he largely
adopts the views of the Stoics, focusing on the problems of virtue. He considers Man a reasonable creature, which has
something divine in itself.
Late ancient philosophy is a long step in the history of European philosophy, which is directly connected with the
Christian religion. Only those philosophers, who shared religious and secular positions of Christianity, could hope on
the popularity and recognition. This philosophy of late antiquity differs from the previous one.
Christianity appears in the I-II centuries of our era in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire and spreads on
the Mediterranean coast. Time of its appearance is marked by a profound crisis of the slave system, which was
accompanied by enhanced exploitation of the peoples of the Roman Empire, including slaves and frees the poor. Many
slave rebellions were suppressed and their resistance was useless – they could not be the carriers of the revolutionary
new social relations. All attempts to change the actual social conditions suffered a defeat, believe and hope for a miracle
were the only way. This faith has brought a new religion – Christianity, which among other things addressed to all
people , regardless of their nationality or status as to equals before God [4, p. 309]. The official Roman religion could
not offer a solace to the masses because it was too closely linked with an oppressive Roman state. Effects of different
Eastern religions were growing, which is pronounced for the items that have been borrowed by Christianity later on the suffering of the dying god and his resurrection, hope for the life after death.
The main source of Christianity was the Jewish religion, which was monotheistic. Philosophies of Philo of
Alexandria became one of the sources of Christian doctrine about Christ.
Christianity was originally formed as a movement of discontented masses, slaves, freedmen and the poor. It was
an expression of protest of the oppressed while giving them illusory solace – hope for a better future, to life after death.
Christianity, however, is gradually accepted by wealthy Roman society from the ranks of Roman and provincial
aristocracy, the rich, the merchants, the craft workshops, whose position as a result of political powerlessness was very
deteriorated [2 , p.94]. The social structure of the Christian community, which consisted at first only of slaves and free
of the poor, began to change. Church organization, which was led by monarchical episcopate, is forming. At the same
time begin to dominate calls for humility, which showed recognition of the imperial power of the political and
ideological significance of Christianity. During the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great (306–337 A.D.) Christianity
was declared the official state religion. It finally wins after the pagan worship being banned (391–392 A.D.). Council of
Chalcedon in 451 consolidated the position of Christianity as the state religion in the eastern and the western part of the
Roman Empire.
The spread of Christianity and early Christian philosophy attributable to the period of religious and mystical
aspects of idealist philosophy caused the collapse of the Roman Empire. The decline of Roman society is clearly
characterized by Neopythagoreanism, the teachings of Philo of Alexandria and Neoplatonism.
Neopythagoreanism resurrects the ancient Greek numerical mysticism. At one times, Neopythagoreanism
opposed to Christianity itself. Its meaning is magic, religious quackery and fraud. The main features of this not
philosophic direction are most reflected in the work of one of the main representatives Neopythagoreanism I century
B.C. – Apollonius of Tyana – mysticism, asceticism, miracle worker, who attributed the divine, superhuman strength,
similar to the power of Jesus. This teaching is consistent with notions of Roman patricians. In a philosophical sense, it
has no value as a whole and it is dedicated to religious and mystical problems, the main aim of his philosophy is the
worship of God.
Teaching Philo of Alexandria – one of the forerunners of the early Christian philosophy – had a significant impact
on the ideology of Christianity. The greatest rate of decline of Greek philosophy in Rome was Neoplatonism, whose
roots were vulgarized and visibly mystified - contained in the idealism of Plato. The most significant representative of
Neoplatonism was Plotinus – mystic, an ascetic, who was ashamed of his body. Plotinus declared hierarchical theory of
life. God is the first being, "isolated", from which mind, soul, and finally – nature are gradually synthesized. This
gradual ascent from darkness to light from imperfection to perfection. Neoplatonism originally played the role of
counterweight of Christianity but after the recognition of Christianity as state religion of his main ideas were adopted
paradoxically. It became one of the most important starting points of philosophy and theology.
List of references
1.
2.
3.
4.
Гаспаров М.Л. Занимательная Греция : рассказы о древнегреческой культуре / М.Л. Гаспаров. – М. :
Греко-латин. кабинет Ю.А.Шичалина : Новое лит. обозрение, 1995. – 381с.
Тавадов Г. Политология / Г.Тавадов. – М. : Гранд, 2000. – 383 с.
Уолцер М. Про толерантність / М. Уолцер. – Х. : Видавн. група «РА-Каравела», 2003. – 148 с.
Філософський енциклопедичний словник. – К. : Абрис, 2002. – 737с.
Received by the Editorial Board 04.21.2013
Accepted for publication 22.05.2013
ЕТИКА І МОРАЛЬ ЯК ВИЯВ ТОЛЕРАНТНОСТІ У КУЛЬТУРІ
АНТИЧНОЇ ГРЕЦІЇ ТА РИМУ
Петро Параняк
Львівський національний університет імені Івана Франка,
філософський факультет, кафедра теорії та історії політичної науки,
вул. Університетська 1, 79000, Львів, Україна
e-mail: [email protected]
Проаналізовано місце толерантності як особливої форми її вияву у вигляді етики і моралі в Античну добу. Акцент
зроблений на особливостях філософських поглядів давньогрецьких та давньоримських мислителів. Розглянуто
співвідношення етики та моралі як вияву толерантності та їхнього впливу на формування та розвиток громадянського
суспільства. З’ясовано роль соціокультурного впливу на формування особливостей політичної думки в Античну добу.
Ключові слова: толерантність, епікуреїзм, стоїцизм, скептицизм, етика, неопіфагореїзм.
ЭТИКА И МОРАЛЬ КАК ПРОЯВЛЕНИЕ ТОЛЕРАНТНОСТИ В КУЛЬТУРЕ
АНТИЧНОЙ ГРЕЦИИ И РИМА
Петр Параняк
Львовский национальный университет имени Ивана Франко
философский факультет, кафедра теории и истории политической науки
ул. Университетская, 1, 79000, г. Львов, Украина
e-mail: [email protected]
Проанализировано место толерантности, этики и морали в античный период. Акцент сделан на
особенностях философских взглядов древнегреческих и древнеримских мыслителей. Рассмотрено соотношение
этики и морали как проявления толерантности, их влияния на формирование и развитие гражданского
общества. Выяснена роль социокультурного влияния на формирование особенностей политической мысли в
античный период.
Ключевые слова: толерантность, эпикуреизм, стоицизм, скептицизм, этика, неопифагореизм.