Causes of the Scientific Revolution
The development of new technology
and scientific theories became the
foundation of the Scientific Revolution.
Causes of the Scientific Revolution (cont.)
• By mastering Greek, European humanists
were able to read newly discovered works by
the philosophers Ptolemy, Archimedes,
and Plato.
• New technology such as the telescope and
microscope enabled individuals to make new
scientific discoveries.
• The printing press helped spread
new ideas quickly and easily.
Causes of the Scientific Revolution (cont.)
• Advances in mathematics made calculations
easier and played a key role in scientific
achievements.
• Advances in algebra, trigonometry, and
geometry allowed scientists to demonstrate
proofs for their theories.
Scientific Breakthroughs
Scientific discoveries expanded
knowledge about the universe and the
human body.
Scientific Breakthroughs (cont.)
• Astronomers of the Middle Ages constructed
a model of the universe called the Ptolemaic
system after the astronomer Ptolemy.
• The Ptolemaic system is geocentric
because it places Earth at the center of the
universe.
• During the Scientific Revolution, Nicolaus
Copernicus offered the heliocentric theory,
which put the sun at the center of the
universe.
Scientific Breakthroughs (cont.)
• Johannes Kepler added to this theory by
confirming the central position of the sun and
adding information about the elliptical orbits
of the planets.
• Galileo Galilei used a telescope to observe
mountains on the moon, sun spots, and new
moons in the heavens. His ideas were
revolutionary and brought him into conflict
with the Catholic Church.
Scientific Breakthroughs (cont.)
• Isaac Newton explained how the planets
continually orbit the sun. Central to his
argument was the universal law of
gravitation.
• Newton’s ideas created a new picture of the
universe. He is often considered the greatest
genius of the Scientific Revolution.
Scientific Breakthroughs (cont.)
• Breakthroughs in medicine occurred as
scientists learned about human anatomy from
dissections. New ideas about organs and
blood flow replaced older fallacious
understandings.
• In chemistry, Robert Boyle conducted
controlled experiments on the properties
of gases.
• Antoine Lavoisier invented a system for
naming chemical elements that is still
used today.
Women’s Contributions
Women scientists faced obstacles to
practicing what they had learned.
Women’s Contributions (cont.)
• Despite overwhelming obstructions from
male-dominated societies, women also
contributed to the Scientific Revolution.
• Margaret Cavendish wrote against the new
ideas that man could use science to master
the natural world.
• Maria Winkelmann made contributions to
astronomy, including the discovery of
a comet.
Philosophy and Reason
Scientists came to believe that reason
is the chief source of knowledge.
Philosophy and Reason (cont.)
• René Descartes was a French philosopher
who is known as the father of rationalism.
• Rationalism is based on the belief that
reason is the chief source of knowledge.
• An English philosopher named Francis
Bacon developed the scientific method.
Philosophy and Reason (cont.)
• The scientific method was a systematic
procedure for collecting and analyzing
evidence that was crucial to the evolution
of science.
• Bacon believed that scientists should not
rely on the ideas of ancient authorities, but
rather reach conclusions by using
inductive reasoning.
Path to the Enlightenment
Eighteenth-century intellectuals used
the ideas of the Scientific Revolution
to reexamine all aspects of life.
Path to the Enlightenment (cont.)
• The Enlightenment was a philosophical
movement that attempted to apply reason to
human behavior.
• The ideas of the Enlightenment would be
influential for political and social reform.
• John Locke was an Englishman who
argued that humans were born with a blank
mind and were influenced by
experiences in their environment.
Path to the Enlightenment (cont.)
• Enlightenment thinkers thought that by
applying the scientific methods of Isaac
Newton to the natural laws that governed
human society, an ideal society was
possible.
Ideas of the Philosophes
The philosophes wanted to create a
better society.
Ideas of the Philosophes (cont.)
• The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were
known by the French term philosophe.
• Philosophes were social reformers who
came from the middle class and nobility of
European society.
• Philosophes wanted to change the world and
often disagreed about how to do this.
Ideas of the Philosophes (cont.)
• Influential Philosophes:
– Montesquieu
• French noble
• Wrote The Spirit of the Laws (1748) about
governments
• Montesquieu identified three kinds of
government (republics, despotisms, and
monarchies).
• Argued for a separation of powers within the
government
Ideas of the Philosophes (cont.)
– Voltaire
• Lived in Paris and gained wealth and fame
from his writings
• In his 1763 work Treatise on Toleration he
argued for religious toleration.
• Was a proponent of deism, a philosophy based
on reason and natural law
Ideas of the Philosophes (cont.)
• Diderot
• Studied at the University of Paris and was a
writer
• Wrote a 28-volume Encyclopedia series
between 1751 and 1772
• The Encyclopedia spread Enlightenment ideas.
New Social Sciences
The belief in logic and reason
promoted the beginnings of social
sciences.
New Social Sciences (cont.)
• Adam Smith, a Scottish philosopher, along
with Physiocrats, studied natural economic
laws that governed human society. Their
work led to the modern discipline of
economics.
• Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, in
which he asserted that the state should not
interfere with economic matters by imposing
regulations on the economy.
New Social Sciences (cont.)
• Smith’s contention that the state should not
interfere with the economy is known by the
French term laissez-faire.
• In a time when most European court
systems dealt only in cruel punishments,
Cesare Beccaria argued that punishment
should not be cruel.
• In his work On Crimes and Punishments,
Beccaria reasoned that cruel and capital
punishment did not deter others from
committing crimes.
The Spread of Ideas
From the upper classes to the middle
classes and from salons to pulpits, the
ideas of the Enlightenment spread.
The Spread of Ideas (cont.)
• One of the most famous Enlightenment
philosophes was Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
who lived in Paris and wrote about
government.
• Rousseau wrote The Social Contract, in
which the society agrees to be governed by
its general will. A social contract is an
agreement between the government and the
governed.
The Spread of Ideas (cont.)
• Because the general will represents what is
best for the entire community, Rousseau
argued that liberty could be achieved if
people were forced to follow the general will
of the society.
• Rousseau also wrote that education should
foster children’s natural instincts and that
women should receive education on how to
be mothers and wives.
The Spread of Ideas (cont.)
• The English writer Mary Wollstonecraft is
often viewed as the founder of the women’s
rights movement in Europe and America.
• Wollstonecraft debunked the idea of male
domination by comparing it to the
relationship between monarchs and
subjects, which many Enlightenment
thinkers claimed was wrong.
The Spread of Ideas (cont.)
• The Enlightenment witnessed the growth of
publishing and reading. Books were written
for a literate middle class, and many
newspapers and magazines appeared.
• The first daily newspaper was published in
London in 1702.
• Enlightenment ideas were also spread
though the salons of upper-class homes.
The Spread of Ideas (cont.)
• Although many of the philosophes attacked
the Church, most were still Christians and
religion was central to European life.
• In England, John Wesley began a new
movement known as Methodism. Wesley
stressed hard work and religious contention
with his preaching.
Enlightenment and Absolutism
Philosophes believed that, in order to
reform society based on
Enlightenment ideals, people should
be governed by enlightened rulers.
Enlightenment and Absolutism (cont.)
• The idea of enlightened absolutism refers
to the reaction of European rulers to the
ideas spread by the Enlightenment.
• In Prussia, King Frederick William
maintained a highly efficient bureaucracy of
civil service workers and a large, formidable
army. Many of the officers of the Prussian
army were landholders and were
very loyal to the king.
Enlightenment and Absolutism (cont.)
• Frederick II, known as Frederick the Great,
was a well-educated and cultured monarch.
• Frederick the Great enlarged the army,
ended most torture, granted limited free
speech and press, and religious tolerance.
However, he did not end serfdom or change
the rigid social structure of Prussia.
Enlightenment and Absolutism (cont.)
• Maria Theresa took control of the Austrian
Empire in 1740. While she was not open to
the Enlightenment ideas, she did work to
improve the lives of the serfs.
• Her son, Joseph II, attempted reform by
freeing the serfs, enacting religious
tolerance, and abolishing the death penalty.
Enlightenment and Absolutism (cont.)
• The reforms of Joseph II were unpopular
with the Austrian nobles and the Catholic
Church, and most of his reforms were
undone by his successors.
• In Russia, Catherine the Great ruled from
1762 to 1796. She was familiar with works of
the philosophes and seemed to favor
enlightened reforms.
Enlightenment and Absolutism (cont.)
• After consideration of these ideas, Catherine
determined that the reforms would upset the
nobility too much and ended a peasant revolt
without freeing the serfs.
• While the enlightened absolutist monarchs of
the eighteenth century spoke about reforms,
they were primarily interested in using their
power to collect taxes to build armies, wage
wars, and gain more power.
The Seven Years’ War
The Seven Years’ War (1756–1763)
became global as new alliances were
formed and as war broke out in
Europe, India, and North America.
The Seven Years’ War (cont.)
• After the Austrian emperor Charles VI died in
1740, Frederick II of Prussia invaded
Austrian Silesia, beginning the Austrian War
of Succession (1740–1748).
• France seized Madras and the Austrian
Netherlands, while Britain seized Louisbourg
in North America. In 1748, a treaty returned
all of the land except Silesia.
• The refusal of Prussia to return Silesia to
Austria set the stage for the Seven Years’
War (1754–1763.)
The Seven Years’ War (cont.)
• War in Europe:
– France, Austria, and Russia allied against
Prussia and Great Britain.
– Frederick II of Prussia fought against the
French, Austrian, and Russian forces.
– Prussia faced defeat until sympathetic
Peter III of Russia withdrew Russian
forces and the war became
a stalemate.
The Seven Years’ War (cont.)
– All territories were returned except for
Silesia, which Prussia kept.
• War in India:
– British forces defeated the French, forcing
France to relinquish all claims in India to
Great Britain.
The Seven Years’ War (cont.)
• War in North America:
– France controlled Canada, the Ohio River
Valley, the Mississippi River, and Louisiana
but all were thinly populated.
– France had support from the Native
Americans.
The Seven Years’ War (cont.)
– Great Britain had established colonies
along the eastern seaboard of North
America and had an advantage in
population.
– Despite initial victories on land, the French
navy was defeated and the war turned in
Britain’s favor.
The Seven Years’ War (cont.)
– The Treaty of Paris (1763) granted the
French Canada, the lands up to the
Mississippi, and Spanish Florida to Britain,
and Spain received Louisiana.
Enlightenment and Arts
The eighteenth century was a great
period in the history of European
architecture, art, music, and literature.
Enlightenment and Arts (cont.)
• Many European rulers emulated Louis XIV
and his palace at Versailles by building
grand palaces.
• Balthasar Neumann, one of the greatest
architects of the time, masterfully integrated
secular and religious characteristics in his
buildings.
• In art, rococo became the most popular style.
Rococo was very secular and emphasized
charm, grace, and gentle action.
Enlightenment and Arts (cont.)
• Antoine Watteau painted elegant scenes of
upper-class gentlemen and women living a
life of pleasure and joy.
• Giovanni Battista Tiepolo painted frescos
of vivid pastels and airy scenes that adorn
the walls of churches and palaces.
• Two of the greatest composers of all time,
Bach and Handel, perfected the baroque
musical style.
Enlightenment and Arts (cont.)
• Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart were innovators who wrote
classical music.
• In literature, Henry Fielding wrote novels
about people without morals who survive on
their wit. His characters reflect real types of
people in eighteenth-century England.
Britain and the American Revolution
Drawing on the theory of natural
rights, the Declaration of
Independence declared the colonies
to be independent of Britain.
Britain and the American Revolution (cont.)
• George I became King of England and
started the Hanoverian dynasty of British
monarchs.
• Robert Walpole was the head of the cabinet
in Parliament who strove to have peaceful
foreign relations. However, an expanding
middle class and trading economy favored
British expansion.
Britain and the American Revolution (cont.)
• The colonists in North America had grown
accustomed to governing their lives
economically and politically.
• Following the Seven Years’ War, Britain
wanted new revenues from the colonies and
imposed the Stamp Act, which was very
unpopular with the colonists.
Britain and the American Revolution (cont.)
• The British enacted other policies to tighten
control of its American colonies. The colonies
organized the First Continental Congress in
1774 to discuss taking up arms against the
British.
• In 1775 fighting began between the British
and American rebels. The Second
Continental Congress acted as a
government, and George Washington led
the army.
Britain and the American Revolution (cont.)
• One year later, in July 1776, the Second
Continental Congress approved the
Declaration of Independence written by
Thomas Jefferson, and the Revolutionary
War had officially begun.
• France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic
entered the war against Great Britain as well.
Following the surrender of General
Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781,
the British decided to end the war.
Britain and the American Revolution (cont.)
• The Treaty of Paris of 1783 recognized
American independence and granted
American control of the land east of the
Mississippi River.
Land Claims After the American Revolution, 1783
The Birth of a New Nation
The formation of the United States
convinced many eighteenth-century
philosophes that a new age and a
better world could be created.
The Birth of a New Nation (cont.)
• The first government under the Articles of
Confederation (1781) was ineffective and did
not give the government the power it needed
to deal with the nation’s problems.
• A new government was established as a
federal system under the United States
Constitution, in which the national
government and the state governments
shared power.
The Birth of a New Nation (cont.)
• The Bill of Rights was added to the
Constitution in ten amendments that
guaranteed the rights of citizens.
• Many of the rights in the Bill of Rights were
derived from the philosophes and embodied
Enlightenment ideals.
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
• The Scientific Revolution changed
the way Europeans viewed
their world.
• Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo
provided new explanations of the
universe.
• Breakthroughs in chemistry and
medicine changed the
understanding of human anatomy.
• Women scientists made important advances, but
faced many obstacles.
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
• Philosophes applied the scientific
method to examine government,
justice, and religion.
• The ideas of the Enlightenment
became a force for social reform.
• Some rulers considered
governing by Enlightenment
principles but ultimately were
more interested in
maintaining power.
• Architecture, art, music, and literature were
influenced by Enlightenment ideas.
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
• American colonists revolted
against British rule.
• France, Spain, and the
Dutch Republic helped the
American colonies win
independence.
• Many believed the
American Revolution
confirmed Enlightenment
principles.