Ó Springer 2006
Journal of Business Ethics (2006) 69:237–247
DOI 10.1007/s10551-006-9088-3
Ethics in countries with different cultural
dimensions
ABSTRACT. This paper compares ethics in countries
with different cultural dimensions based on empirical data
from 12 countries. The results indicate that dimensions of
national culture could serve as predictors of the ethical
standards desired in a specific society. The author divided
societal cultural practices into desired and undesired
practices. According to this study, ethics could be seen as
the means for achieving a desired state in a society: for
reducing some societal characteristics and increasing
others. Finally, a model of the impact of cultural
dimensions on desired ethical standards is proposed.
KEY WORDS: ethical values, cultural dimensions, motivation theory
Introduction
Culture and the social world influence the values
held by individuals. These values, in turn, affect
attitudes and behavior (Bowditch and Buono, 2001).
Individual behavior is also directed by moral beliefs
(Kohlberg, 1978). Morality is the standards that an
individual or group has about what is right and
wrong, or good and evil (Velasquez, 2002). Values
have been defined as the principles or standards that
people use, individually or collectively, to make
judgments about what is important or valuable in
their lives (McEwan, 2001). People at the first stage
of moral development try to be good people and
seek to do what their fellows consider to be good
(Kohlberg 1978). All moral judgments are ethnocentric (Adler, 1991) and what one ethnic group
thinks about what is right or wrong depends on
culture and environmental circumstances and is
different across the cultures. Therefore, national
culture plays a fundamental role in forming cultural
values.
Ruth Alas
This article aims to explore the impact that
dimensions of national culture have on the importance people place on the need for well-established
ethical values. The results of previous studies have
not indicated any clear connections (Furnham et al.,
1994).
The research question in this case is, which
characteristics of national culture indicate a higher
need for ethics. In order to discover the answer, the
desire for well-established ethical standards and values is compared with societal practices and values on
the basis of the GLOBE study.
In this paper, the author analyzes ethical theory in
connection with cultural theory. A presentation of
the theoretical framework is followed by an analysis
of results from empirical studies in 12 countries, and
finally, a model for the impact of cultural dimensions
on the desire for ethics is proposed.
Ethics and values
Ethical issues are all around those who work in
organizations, whether we recognize them or not
(Lawton, 2000).
Morality refers to the standards that an individual
or group has about what is right and wrong, or good
and evil. Moral standards are not established or
changed by the decisions of particular authoritative
bodies. Instead, the validity of moral standards rests
on the adequacy of the reasons that are taken to
support and justify them. So long as these reasons are
adequate, the standards remain valid (Velasquez,
2002).
Values have been defined as the principles or
standards that people use, individually or collectively, to make judgments about what is important
or valuable in their lives (McEwan, 2001). Values
238
Ruth Alas
exist and are communicated through social connections and may vary in different cultures and different countries (Fisher and Lovell, 2003). A small
number of core ideas or cognitions are present in
every society about desirable end-states (Rokeach,
1973). Values form the basis for principles and virtues and are necessary to bring the ethical principles
into moral practice (Lawton, 2000).
Ethics is the discipline that examines one’s moral
standards or the moral standards of a society
(Velasquez, 2002). If something is ethical, this means
it is of an acceptable standard in terms of one’s
personal and social welfare.
Research results from Estonian organizations
indicate that the specific environment created
during the Soviet era had an impact on peoples’
value systems. A survey of values conducted in the
second half of the 90s indicated that Estonian
business students underestimated social values when
compared with Finnish students (Ennulo and
Türnpuu, 2001).
National culture
Social scientists use the term culture to mark a set of
parameters for collectives that differentiate each
collective in a meaningful way.
The GLOBE study could be considered one of
the most comprehensive studies of national cultures.
It is a worldwide, multiphase, multi-method project,
where 170 social scientists and management scholars
from 62 cultures representing all major regions of the
world are currently engaged in a long-term programmatic series of cross-cultural studies (House and
Javidan, 2004). In the GLOBE study, culture is
defined as shared motives, values, beliefs, identities,
and interpretations or meanings of significant events
that result from common experiences among
members of collectives that are transmitted across
generations (ibid.).
There are nine core cultural dimensions in the
GLOBE project (House and Javidan, 2004):
Uncertainty Avoidance is the extent to which
members of an organization or society strive to avoid
uncertainty by relying on established social norms,
rituals, and bureaucratic practices. People in high
uncertainty avoidance cultures actively seek to decrease the probability of unpredictable future events
that could adversely affect the operation of an
organization or society and remedy the success of
such adverse effects.
Power Distance is the degree to which members of
an organization or society expect and agree that
power should be stratified and concentrated at
higher levels of an organization or government.
Institutional Collectivism is the degree to which
organizational and societal institutional practices
encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action.
In-Group Collectivism is the degree to which
individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness
in their organizations or families.
Gender Egalitarianism is the degree to which an
organization or society minimizes gender role differences while promoting gender equality.
Assertiveness is the degree to which individuals in
organizations or societies are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in social relationships.
Future Orientation is the degree to which individuals in organizations or societies engage in futureoriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the
future, and delaying individual or collective gratification.
Performance Orientation is the degree to which an
organization or society encourages and rewards
group members for performance improvement and
excellence.
Humane Orientation is the degree to which individuals in organizations or societies encourage and
reward individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous,
caring, and kind to others.
These dimensions reflect two distinct kinds of
cultural manifestations: values and practices.
Empirical study of employee attitudes
Methodology and sample
The current article is based on data from two
international surveys—from the GLOBE study and
from the Denki Ringo research group. The author
of this article organized these surveys in Estonian
organizations.
The data about cultural dimensions was taken
from the Globe study (House et al., 2004). The core
cultural dimensions were measured in terms of two
Ethics in countries with different cultural dimensions
manifestations of culture—practices and values.
Practices are measured using the responses of middle
managers to questionnaire items concerning ‘‘What
Is,’’ or ‘‘What Are,’’ common behaviors, institutional practices, proscriptions, and prescriptions.
Values are expressed in response to questionnaire
items concerning judgments of ‘‘What Should Be,’’
which are intended as a measure of the respondents’
values concerning the practices reported by the
respondents. A 7-point scale was used, where ‘1’
indicated ‘strongly disagree’ and ‘7’ ‘strongly agree’.
In Estonia, 170 questionnaires were completed,
53% of the respondents were men and the average
age of the respondents was 35.5 years. The average
work experience was 14.4 years.
The data about ethical values was collected during
the Denki Ringo study (Ishikawa et al., 2006). This
was a survey of attitudes in the electronics industry,
the third phase of which was conducted between
1999 and 2001. A research partner from each
country was requested to select two plants: one
producing telecommunications equipment and the
other electrical goods for household use. The author
organized the survey of two plants in Estonia with
536 respondents.
There were 4,874 respondents from 12 countries
(Appendix I). Ethical values were evaluated by using
the question—‘What kind of society do people
prefer?’ The following items were given for
evaluation:
1. People are provided with a good material
standard of living
2. Everyone cooperates with each other in solidarity
3. People live life by observing well-established
values and ethics
4. Social equality among people is highly developed
5. Individuals can develop their lives with great
opportunities
6. Social order is well kept with few criminal
offences
7. People can live with peace of mind
8. People can acquire all the results of their
own work
A 4-point scale was used where ‘1’ signifies ‘very
important’ and ‘4’ ‘not important’. This scale is or-
239
ganized in the opposite direction to the scale used
for the dimensions of organizational culture.
Results
The results of both studies are brought together in
the table in Appendix I. The desire for ethics is
presented in the table in two ways—first, the
average score that the respondents gave on the 4point scale regarding ethical values, and second, the
ranking of ethical values from among all eight
values given.
The author proposes that culture and ethical
values are connected and that by knowing a society’s
culture helps us to predict how ethics is valued in
that society. In order to predict the importance of
ethics in this way the author analyzed the results
from the ethics survey and the questionnaire on
societal culture by using Linear Regression analyses.
In the analyses, ethics was taken as a dependent
variable and the nine scales of societal culture as
independent variables. The analysis was performed
twice, first with societal practices and second with
values.
The author calculated the coefficient Beta (ß),
which enables us to predict how orientations of culture forecast ethics. The Linear Regression analysis
method revealed that almost 18% of the variability in
ethics could be explained by reference to the nine
orientations of societal culture. This result was similar
for both practices and values. For values: R2 = 0.185,
F(9,4864) = 123.628, p < 0.001, for practices:
R2 = 0.184, F(9,4864) = 123.290, p < 0.001. But
there are differences in direction (Appendix II).
Statistically significant connections between ethics
and culture are also shown in Figure 1.
Groups according to ethical evaluations
According to the evaluation of ethical values and the
position of ethical values in the value hierarchy,
countries were divided into two groups. The first
group of six countries—China, Poland, HongKong, South Korea, U.S.A. and Hungary—forms a
group that valued ethics more highly. The other six
countries—Japan, Italy, France, Finland, Estonia,
and Spain—did not value ethics as highly as the first
group.
Ruth Alas
240
Practices
Values
Institutional collectivism
In-group collectivism
Humane Orientation
Performance Orientation
Power Distance
-
Institutional collectivism
In-group collectivism
+
Importance of ethics
Assertiveness
+
Future Orientation
Gender egalitarianism
Uncertainty Avoidance
Humane Orientation
Performance Orientation
Power Distance
-
Assertiveness
Future Orientation
Gender egalitarianism
Uncertainty Avoidance
Figure 1. Impact of social values and practices on ethics.
A T-test for both groups indicated statistically
significant differences in all societal practices and
values (Appendix III).
Due to the results from the comparative analysis
of societal practices and values in the two groupings
of countries according to a higher or lower desire
for ethics, dimensions of national culture were also
divided into two groups according to evaluations of
societal practices by these two groups of countries
(Figure 2). The first group was formed on the basis
of cultural practices that were higher in the group
that evaluated the need for ethics more highly.
These practices were Assertiveness, Performance
orientation, Power distance, and Group collectivism. The second group was formed from practices
that were lower in the group that evaluated the
need for ethics more highly. These were Institutional collectivism, Future orientation, Gender
egalitarianism, Humane orientation, and Uncertainty avoidance.
In order to find connections between ethical
values and societal practices, a correlation analysis
was performed for both groups of countries
(Appendix IV).
Conclusions and discussion
The research results indicate that lower scores in
regard to some societal cultural practices are connected with a greater need for well-established
ethical standards and values. Higher scores for these
same scales are connected with less of a need for
ethics. The author has called this group of practices
desired societal practices. At the same time, there are
also some societal cultural practices where higher
Group with higher desire for ethics
Group with lower desire for ethics
Assertiveness
Power distance Future orientation
Gender egalitarianism
Institutional collectivism
In-group collectivism
Humane orientation
Performance orientation
Uncertainty avoidance +
Importance of ethics
Institutional collectivism
Future orientation
Humane orientation
Performance orientation
In-group collectivism
Power distance
Assertiveness
Gender egalitarianism
Uncertainty avoidance
+
Figure 2. Impact of societal practices on ethics in two groups of countries with different evaluations of ethics.
Ethics in countries with different cultural dimensions
scores for these practices were connected with a low
valuation of the same practices. This means, that
people do not desire to have these practices in
society to such a great extent. The higher scores for
these practices are connected with a greater need for
well-established ethical standards and values. The
lower scores for these scales are connected with a
lower need for ethics. People are satisfied with the
current level of these practices. These could be called
undesired societal practices.
The first group was formed from the practices
Institutional collectivism, Future orientation, Gender
egalitarianism, Humane orientation, and Uncertainty
avoidance. The second group was formed from the
practices Assertiveness, Performance orientation,
Power distance, and Group collectivism. The model
of the impact of cultural dimensions on the desire for
ethics is presented in Figure 3.
Undesired practices
High assertiveness practices value aggressive, dominant, and tough behavior, and emphasize results
over relationships. Lower assertiveness practices value
people, relationships, cooperation, modesty, and
tenderness (Den Hartog, 2004, p. 405). In many
cultures people want less assertiveness in the
interpersonal relationships in society than they have
(ibid., p. 408).
Performance orientation has an impact on the way a
society defines success in adapting to external challenges and on the way society manages inter-relationships among its people (Javidan, 2004, p. 243).
Societies that score higher on performance orientation emphasize results more than people and value
assertiveness, competitiveness and materialism. The
scores for performance orientation practices tend to
High
Desired practices:
Institutional collectivism
Future orientation
Gender egalitarianism
Humane orientation
Uncertainty avoidance
Low
be related to the lack of a single dominant religion
(ibid.). Societies that score lower on performance
orientation tend to value societal and family relations, loyalty and belongingness, and have a high
respect for quality of life (ibid., p. 245). In the study
of 41 countries no relationship was found between
work ethics and improvement orientation (Lynn,
1991). There is a statistically significant negative
correlation between performance orientation practices and values (Javidan, 2004, p. 245).
In societies that practice power distance, there is less
emphasis on integrating different societal groups—only a few people have access to resources, skills,
and capabilities (Carl et al., 2004, p. 531, 536).
Lower power distance enables better access to
information and higher upward social mobility
(ibid., p. 536). Power distance has a significant
negative correlation with societal health and general
satisfaction (ibid., p. 558). Higher power distance
values predict greater corruption and lower civil
liberties (ibid., p. 558). There is a statistically significant negative correlation between power distance
practices and values (ibid., p. 541).
In cultures with a high score for collectivism,
group goals take precedence over individual goals
and there is lower subjective well-being than in
societies with lower collectivism (Gelfand et al.,
2004, p. 454). Realo and Allik (1999) found even
three clearly distinguishable types of collectivism —
relations with family, peers, and society. The
institutional collectivism scale is highly distinct
from the in-group collectivism scale—these scales
are negatively correlated (Gelfand et al., 2004, pp.
467–468). This may explain why in-group collectivism is in the group of undesired practices and
institutional collectivism is in the group of desired
practices. In societies with high in-group
High
Need for ethics and
well-established
Low
241
High
Undesired practices:
Assertiveness
Performance orientation
Power distance
In-group collectivism
Low
Figure 3. Impact of two groups of societal practices on need for ethics.
242
Ruth Alas
collectivism, authority is respected (ibid., p. 474).
Societies with high institutional collectivism are less
assertive and have less power distance (ibid., p.
472). In-group collectivism has a statistically significant negative correlation with societal health,
life expectancy, and general satisfaction. At the
same time institutional collectivism has modest
positive correlations with the same indicators (ibid.,
pp. 484–485). This could explain why institutional
collectivism and in-group collectivism belong to
different groups of practices.
To summarize, the desired practices scales have a
statistically significant negative correlation with
societal health, and in general, people wish to have
less of these practices. These practices are positively
correlated with each other. Where these practices
were higher, the need for ethics was also higher.
Where these practices were lower, the need for
ethics was also lower. People feel that they need
some kind of regulation mechanism in an aggressive
society, a mechanism with strong interest groups and
a strong hierarchy. They expect ethics and wellestablished values to be able to serve as this mechanism for achieving the desired society with lower
levels of undesired practices.
Desired practices
Societies that show a higher score for future orientation tend to have individuals who are more
intrinsically motivated (Ashkanasy et al., 2004, p.
302). Countries with higher-level future-oriented
practices tend to enjoy a higher quality of life
(ibid., p. 316). Past-oriented individuals and collectives do so by recalling and showing appreciation
for prior learning, obligations, and traditions (Keough et al., 1999). Societies with a higher time
horizon for the past tend to have a higher time
horizon for the present and future (Trompenaas
and Hampden-Turner, 1998). Societies with low
future orientation display the need to move toward
a more strategic and spiritually fulfilling perspective
(Ashkanasy et al., 2004, p. 306).
Societies with more gender egalitarian practices
have greater member longevity, knowledge, and
standard of living (Emrich et al., 2004, p. 368).
Respondents would prefer less male dominated
industries than they have now (ibid., p. 362).
In societies with a high score for humane orientation, others are important and members of society
are expected to provide social support for each
other. Therefore, there are fewer psychological and
pathological problems (Kabasakal and Bodur, 2004,
p. 570). In societies with a low score for humane
orientation, people are expected to solve their personal problems on their own. In these societies
people express the desire to reach a higher level
of humane orientation in their relationships (ibid.,
p. 575).
Societies with high levels of uncertainty avoidance
have a tendency to formalize their interactions with
others and have less tolerance for the breaking of
rules (De Luque and Javidan, 2004, p. 618). High
uncertainty avoidance practices are positively correlated
with societal health, life expectancy, and general
satisfaction (ibid., p. 632). Cultures with weaker
uncertainty avoidance practices have stronger uncertainty
avoidance values (ibid., p. 621).
To summarize, the scales of desired practices are
positively correlated with societal health and general
satisfaction. These scales are also mostly positively
correlated with each other. When these practices
were valued less, then the need for ethics was higher.
If these practices were seen as highly represented in
society, then the need for ethics was lower. People
desire a society with such characteristics and if the
reality is not consistent with this desire, then they
hope that ethics will help them to achieve this kind of
society. It could be stated here that ethics and wellestablished values are like a functional mechanism for
achieving the desired society. If the desired state is
achieved, the need for ethics is not so high any more.
Maslow’s (1954) theory about the satisfaction of
needs could serve as an explanation here. According
to Maslow (1954), unsatisfied needs motivate people
while satisfied needs are no longer motivating.
As societal cultural values and practices have a
significant and strong positive relationship with
organizational culture and practices (Ashkanasy
et al., 2004, p. 324; Den Hartog, 2004, p. 426;
Emrich et al., 2004, p. 381; Gelfand et al., 2004,
p. 491; House and Javidan, 2004, p. 18; Javidan,
2004, p. 266) the results of the current survey could
be connected with organizational practices, values,
and ethics. Based on this, in order to create a
motivating work environment, managers could develop more humane and future-oriented practices,
Ethics in countries with different cultural dimensions
which give equal opportunities regardless of gender.
Organizations should not be over-regulated—using
too many rules and procedures. Instead, the inner
climate of the organization could encourage creative
solutions, risk taking, and learning from mistakes.
Institutional collectivism instead of group collectivism should be emphasized and organizational goals
should dominate over group goals. Certain groups
should not enjoy too much power so they can form
‘inner-groups’ that actually lead the organization,
and neither should they enjoy too many privileges.
Managers should avoid aggressiveness in social
relationships and also avoid high levels of power
distance. Performance orientation should not be the
only strong or dominant element in an organization
as this may hinder the development of social capital.
Following these guidelines will contribute to the
creation of a learning environment, necessary for
surviving and competing in uncertain environments.
243
In order to strengthen ethical practices in organizations, managers could build up levels of ethical
competence in their companies and create a code of
ethics. In order to develop such ethical competence,
people should be trained to bring moral considerations into the decision making process. Writing a
code of ethics is actually not enough on its own.
Such a code can only start to work if it is integrated
into the everyday management processes, if it is
connected to pay, if ethical behavior is rewarded and
there are in turn consequences for unethical
behavior.
To conclude, dimensions of national culture
could serve as predictors of how people desire high
ethical standards in a particular society. Ethics could
be seen as the means for achieving a desired state in
society—by reducing some practices and increasing
others.
428
340
209
509
234
827
566
539
251
148
248
521
4874
N
1.27
1.78
1.82
1.51
1.98
2.31
1.46
1.41
1.45
1.62
1.47
1.64
1.67
EV
2
6.
8.
3.
8.
8
2.
5.
5.
5.
4.
6.
PE
3.77
4.05
4.44
4.71
4.12
3.69
4.36
4.11
4.53
4.39
4.39
4.04
4.15
P
1
4.67
4.77
4.20
3.63
3.75
5.23
5.20
4.51
4.03
3.87
3.87
3.71
4.44
P
2
5.86
4.23
4.66
5.31
4.99
4.72
5.71
5.55
5.33
5.53
5.53
4.79
5.18
P
3
3.68
4.39
3.74
3.31
3.34
4.29
3.90
3.23
3.88
3.52
3.52
4.20
3.80
P
4
3.03
3.55
3.81
4.02
3.30
3.17
2.45
3.94
3.26
3.06
3.06
3.60
3.36
P
5
4.29
4.19
3.60
3.39
3.66
4.34
3.73
3.67
3.72
3.29
3.29
3.39
3.79
P
6
4.37
4.02
4.43
3.50
3.66
4.22
4.53
3.96
4.69
4.00
4.00
3.87
4.10
P
7
Notes:
EV – Ethical values according to Denki Ringo research
PE – Position of ethics among other values according to Denki Ringo research
P – societal practices in GLOBE study
V – societal values in GLOBE study
1 – Assertiveness
2 – Institutional collectivism
3 – In-Group Collectivism
4 – Future Orientation
5 – Gender egalitarianism
6 – Humane Orientation
7 – Performance Orientation
8 – Power Distance
9 – Uncertainty Avoidance
China
Finland
France
Hungary
Italy
Japan
Korea
Poland
Hong-Kong
Spain
USA
Estonia
Total
Country
5.02
5.08
5.68
5.47
5.45
5.23
5.69
5.09
4.94
5.53
5.53
5.16
5.29
P
8
4.81
5.11
4.66
3.26
3.85
4.07
3.52
3.71
4.17
3.95
3.95
4.01
4.02
P
9
5.52
3.91
3.57
3.42
3.87
5.84
3.69
3.95
4.80
4.01
4.01
3.90
4.34
V
1
4.52
4.34
5.27
4.57
5.20
4.01
3.84
4.24
4.35
5.25
5.25
4.33
4.40
V
2
Cultural practices and values together with ethical values
APPENDIX I
5.12
5.60
5.88
5.58
5.76
5.44
5.50
5.69
5.11
5.82
5.82
4.95
5.47
V
3
4.70
5.24
5.35
5.74
6.01
5.42
5.83
5.17
5.52
5.66
5.66
5.04
5.40
V
4
3.73
4.47
4.71
4.65
4.88
4.41
4.23
4.53
4.27
4.82
4.82
4.73
4.46
V
5
5.34
5.80
5.91
5.48
5.57
5.53
5.61
5.32
5.38
5.63
5.63
5.36
5.51
V
6
5.72
6.23
6.10
5.97
6.11
5.37
5.41
6.06
5.71
5.85
5.85
5.68
5.76
V
7
3.01
2.46
2.96
2.59
2.51
2.76
2.39
3.19
3.00
2.23
2.23
2.87
2.73
V
8
5.34
4.04
4.65
4.74
4.52
4.40
4.74
4.75
4.52
4.80
4.80
4.31
4.62
V
9
244
Ruth Alas
Ethics in countries with different cultural dimensions
245
APPENDIX II
Connections between ethical values and societal practices and values (according to standardized
regression coefficient Beta)
Practices
Assertiveness
Institutional collectivism
In-Group collectivism
Future orientation
Gender egalitarianism
Humane orientation
Performance orientation
Power distance
Uncertainty avoidance
Values
Beta
Sig.
Beta
Sig.
)0.233
)0.228
)0.516
)0.192
)0.096
0.299
0.166
0.129
)0.296
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.005
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.717
)0.549
)0.395
0.201
0.796
0.542
0.394
0.067
0.447
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.005
0.000
0.000
0.003
0.000
Notes: All coefficients are statistically significant, p < 0.01.
APPENDIX III
Means of societal practices and values in groups with different ethical values
Assertiveness
Institutional collectivism
Group collectivism
Future orientation
Gender egalitarianism
Humane orientation
Performance orientation
Power distance
Uncertainty avoidance
Practices
lower ethics
N = 2679
Practices
higher ethics
N = 2374
Values
lower ethics
N = 2679
Values
higher ethics
N = 2374
3.98
4.48
4.74
4.09
3.39
3.89
4.06
5.28
4.23
4.29
4.41
5.57
3.55
3.34
3.70
4.14
5.31
3.83
4.59
4.45
5.45
5.38
4.59
5.57
5.74
2.70
4.39
4.14
4.37
5.49
5.42
4.36
5.45
5.79
2.76
4.83
Notes: All scales are statistically significantly different according to T-test, p < 0.01.
Bold indicates higher societal practices and values compared to the other group.
APPENDIX IV
Correlation coefficients for ethical values and societal practices in both groups
Assertiveness
Institutional collectivism
Group collectivism
Future orientation
Gender egalitarianism
Lower ethics N = 2679
Higher ethics N = 2374
)0.281**
0.298**
)0.036
0.089
)0.241**
0.122**
)0.053**
)0.098**
)0.018
0.025
246
Ruth Alas
APPENDIX IV
Continued
Humane orientation
Performance orientation
Power distance
Uncertainty avoidance
Lower ethics N = 2679
Higher ethics N = 2374
0.298**
0.178**
)0.017
)0.082**
)0.118**
)0.052**
0.082**
)0.114**
Note: **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The connections are opposite here because of the difference of the evaluation scales.
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Institute of Management,
Estonian Business School,
Lauteri 3, Tallinn,
Estonia, 10114,
Estonia
E-mail: [email protected]