OVERTHROWN BY THE PRESS: THE US MEDIA'S ROLE IN THE FALL OF DIEM
Author(s): ZI JUN TOONG
Source: Australasian Journal of American Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1 (July 2008), pp. 56-72
Published by: Australia and New Zealand American Studies Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41054100 .
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56
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
NORMAN HARPER AWARD COMMENDED
OVERTHROWN BY THE PRESS: THE US MEDIA'S ROLE IN THE
FALL OF DIEM
ZI JUNTOONG
ABSTRACT This article examineshow media coverage of the 1963
Buddhist Crisis in South Vietnam contributedto the Kennedy
administration
}s decisionto supporta coup againstPresidentNgo Dinh
Diem. The article's focus on themedia's role bringsnewperspectivesto
- it reveals the
this crucial momentin US Cold War policyformation
media's immenseinfluenceon the VietnamWar in its earlystages,and
showstheBuddhistCrisis as theturning
between
pointin the interaction
theuse ofmemoirs,
publicpolicyand opinionduringthewar. Employing
Statedepartment
papers and Americannewsmedia,thisarticleshedslight
on the complex relationshipsbetween media, public opinion and
government
policy.
1963was theyearthatBuddhistsin SouthVietnamweregiventheworld's
attention.Throughdemonstrations,
protestliterature,
hungerstrikesand
Buddhists
the
discrimination
thattheyhad been
self-immolations,
protested
to
since
French
colonialism,and then underthe U.S.-backed
subjected
Catholicgovernment
of Ngo Dinh Diem. Set in thecontextof Cold Warera of globalism,these Buddhistsrecognisedthat the introduction
of
- and more importantly,
Americanadvisors
the international
into
press
SouthVietnamas partofthewareffort
againstCommunism
providedthem
withthe opportunity
to publicisetheirsubjugationto the worldand give
impetusto theirmovement. Between May and the fall of Diem's
governmentin November 1963, each increasinglydramaticBuddhist
demonstration
whichtheSouthVietnameseGovernment
(GVN) suppressed
with mountingbrutality
forthe Buddhist
gained international
sympathy
and worldwidecriticism
movement
fortheauthoritarian
Diem government.
Withthe eyes of the worldon theU.S.-led war againstCommunism,
the
United States Governmentalso sufferedinternational
disapprovalfor
and militarily
Diem's repressive
financially
supporting
regime.Concurrent
withthe Americanpublicand Congress,governments
all over the world
to
the
means
the
in
began question
employedby
Kennedyadministration
theirbattleagainstCommunism.Diem's uncompromising
stancetowards
Buddhistswas diligently
mediaas thesituation
capturedin theinternational
Diem's
developed into a full-fledgedpolitical crisis. Furthermore,
was notaided by his sister-in-law
Madame Ngo Dinh Nhu's
unpopularity
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AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
57
anti-Buddhist
frequent
public declarationsto the Americanmedia,all of
whichDiem refusedto disavow. Afterseveralfailedattempts
at nudging
Diem towardsconciliatoryactionswith the Buddhists,the exceedingly
- and hence,international
- of Diem and
negativemediacoverage
opinion
the BuddhistCrisisplayeda centralrole in the Washington'sdecisionto
theDiem government.
a coupto overthrow
support
of Diem has been widelyexploredby several
overthrow
The controversial
as
one
ofthemajorturning
as
it
is
historians
pointsintheVietnam
regarded
the reasonswhy the Kennedy
War. There existsa debate surrounding
arrivedat the decisionto supporta coup; some historians
administration
argue that it was Diem's overturestowardNorthVietnamthatguided
based on an analysisof
supportforthecoup. My findings,
Washington's
andthenewsmedia,however,supporttheviewthat
documents
government
withinternational
itwas Diem's disfavour
opinionthatwas key.
of Diem, some historians
the overthrow
Withinthis debate surrounding
historians
These
Crisis.
Buddhist
the
on
havefocussed
invariably
agreethat
his
to
was a majorcontribution becominga
ofthesituation
Diem's handling
These analysessuggestthatpublic
to theKennedyadministration.
liability
a
to
be
role
a
liabilitywas to be a liabilityin public
opinionplayed
of themedia's
often
discountthecentrality
discussions
these
but
opinion
and
Howard
Seth
Jacobs
E.
as
such
role. Historians
Jones,
Philip Catton,
have focussedon the effectof Diem's overthrowon the subsequent
- such as
of the U.S. in SouthVietnam.1Otherhistorians
involvement
Ross A. Fisher,WilliamConradGibbonsand FrancisX. Winters- have
for
withinthe Kennedyadministration
to allocateresponsibility
attempted
John
Historians
Diem.2
a
to
the ultimatedecision support coup against
Pradoand Ellen J. Hammer,on theotherhand,recounthow theBuddhist
Crisisled to a coup.3 This essayadds significant
weightand new detailto
the idea thatDiem becamea liabilityin the way of publicopinion. My
of Diem also shows thatthe
focuson the media's role in the overthrow
Warwellbeforethe1968 Tet
Vietnam
of
the
mediawereimportant
shapers
whichis widelyregardedas a turning
Offensive,
pointinthewarbecauseof
thepress'srole.
media
The BuddhistCrisisbeganon 8 May 1963,whenthe international
on
GVN
attacks
of
the
troops peaceful
by
unprovoked
capturedsnippets
in Hue.4 The day before,Buddhistshad displayed
Buddhistdemonstrators
flags on homes and pagodas all over Hue in celebrationof the 2,507th
of Buddha. UnderSouthVietnameselaw (Decree 189), onlythe
birthday
nationalflagcouldbe flowninpublic.5Thislaw,however,was
Vietnamese
as exemplified
by the Catholics'displayof a plethoraof
rarelyenforced,
the
BuddhistCrisis, in celebrationof the
to
a
week
prior
papal flags,
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58
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
of Diem's brother
anniversary
Ngo Dinh Thuc as archbishop.6Thus on
Buddha'sbirthday,
to enforceDecree 189 were metwith
police attempts
resistance.The police thentookto tearingdownthe religiousflags. The
Buddhistsgathered
at theradiostationin Hue,
following
day,theinfuriated
wheretheirleaderThichTriQuangwas refusedpermission
to broadcasthis
of thefreedom
of
speechof protestagainsttheGVN's explicitsuppression
of Catholics.7Whenexhortations
of theProvince
religionand favouritism
Chieffailedto dispersethecrowd,GVN troopsfiredgunsandthrewat least
fifteen
grenadesintothepeacefuldemonstration,
killing9 people.8
Diem's reactionto the bloodshedof 8 May essentiallyset thetoneof his
efforts
towardsBuddhiststhroughout
thecrisis. In theclimate
conciliatory
of the Cold War, he conveniently
the
of the incidenton
blame
placed
that
a
Viet
had
thrown
a grenadeintothe
Communists,
insisting
Congagent
and
that
GVN
crowd,
troopsonly firedinto the crowd to protectthe
demonstrators.
This argument,
theGVN
however,onlyservedto discredit
and irritate
theBuddhistsas itwas widelydisbelieved- eye-witnesses
saw
the GVN troopsinitiateattackson the crowdwithoutany provocation.9
Washingtonimmediatelyrecognisedthe inflammatory
potentialof the
Buddhistaltercation
and in anticipation
of 'some international
reactionto
measuresto reconcile
[the]incident',theyurgedDiem to takeappropriate
withtheBuddhists.10
Insteadofmakingtheimmediate
efforts
to rectify
the
situation,
however,Diem onlymetwithBuddhistleaderson 15 May,thus
allowingthemtimeto consolidatetheirgrievances.
The flag disputewas quicklytransforming
into a politicalcrisis. The
Buddhistscreateda five-point
manifestowhich establishedthe political
aimsoftheprotests
thatfollowed,andbeseechedtheDiem government
to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
allowthedisplayoftheBuddhistflag;
to thoseofCatholics;
grantBuddhists
equal rights
ofBuddhistfollowers;
stopthearrestsandterrorisation
allowBuddhists
thefreedom
to preachandobservetheirreligion;
forthepeople killedon 8 May, and punish
providecompensation
thoseresponsible
forthe"murders".11
Diem maintained
an unyielding
stance
DuringtheGVN-Buddhist
meeting,
towardstheBuddhists.He assertedthattherewas no religiouspersecution
in South Vietnam,and any injusticesthat Buddhistsfaced should be
directedto local authorities.12
While Diem did promisefinancialaidto
a
amounting
meagre 500,000 piasters(US$7,000)- to the victims'
he
forthe
families, emphasisedthattheGVN wouldbearno responsibility
eventsof the8*,13 Expectedly,
thismeetingbarelyappeasedthedemands
of theBuddhists.Diem's casual treatment
of religiousdiscrimination
was
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AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
59
badly received by Buddhists,who resortedto mass meetingsand
demonstrations,
hungerstrikesand the widespreadcirculationof protest
Vietnam.14The Buddhistshad thenbecomea group
literature
throughout
a politicalopposition.15
thatwas considered
DuringtheseearlydaysoftheBuddhistCrisis,theAmericanpublicandthe
tooklittlenoteof Vietnam.The Americanmedia
Kennedyadministration
withimagesofthecivilrightsbattlethenat home. Kennedy
was saturated
was, thus,devotedto dealingwithprotestsagainsthis own government.16
Nonetheless,fromthe beginningof the BuddhistCrisis,the Buddhists
of courtingthe Westernpress; theycarried
displayeda clear intention
bannersin both Vietnameseand English,and selectedone of the few
so as to allowtheirmessages
monksas theirspokesperson
English-speaking
At thisearlystage in the
audience.17
to be accessibleto an international
thesebannerswereclearlyan
Crisis,whiletheirmediaefficacyis doubtful,
Buddhist
the
of
the
send
to
protestinto livingrooms
messages
attempt
the snowballingof the
assisted
aroundtheworld. These efforts
certainly
international
an
into
Crisis
Buddhist
spectacle.
outofcontrol.Diem
theBuddhistCrisiswas spinning
As Juneapproached,
brutalforceto suppressprotestsagainsthis
was employingincreasingly
SouthVietnam.On 2 and 3
whichwerespreading
throughout
government,
in QuangTriCityand
demonstrations
Buddhist
broke
June,GVN troops
up
and skin to
difficulties
Hue using tear gas, which caused respiratory
that67 youthswerehospitalised
On the3rdalone,itwas reported
blister.18
and 3 weredead as a resultof this.19The followingday witnessednearly
at Tu Dam pagodato protestthegovernment's
200 youthshunger-striking
the U.S. chargé de
WilliamTrueheart,
discrimination.20
and
brutality
affairesin Vietnam,insistedthatDiem makegenerousconcessionsto the
that
theKennedyadministration
to ease tensions.It frustrated
Buddhists
Inept governmenthandlinghas permitteda localized
incidentin Hue to grow intoa potentialpolitical crisis.
with
UnlessDiem is able to reach a quickreconciliation
the issue could have seriousrepercussions
theBuddhists,
ongovernmental
stability.
Diem negotiatedwiththe
Again,nudgedby pressurefromWashington,
on more
Buddhistleaderson 5 June.Thistimehe managedto compromise
of
of
the
terms
radio
announcement
make
a
and
oftheBuddhists'demands,
compromise.22
at bringing
Justas thecrisisappearedto be nearingan end,Diem's efforts
was compoundedby MadameNhu,who sabotagedthe
abouta settlement
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60
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
GVN's attempts
at makingconcessionsto theBuddhistswithanti-Buddhist
MadameNhu,through
publicstatements.The day afterthecompromise,
Movement(WSM), issueda resolution
to thepress
herWomen'sSolidarity
thatcounteredthe government's
of
It
reconciliation.23
policy
castigated
Buddhistdemonstrators
as anti-nationalists
'exploitedand controlledby
communism'.24
Trueheart
insistedthatDiem 'disavowit' as theresolution
was highlydamagingto the truce agreement.25 More importantly,
Trueheart
was concerned
that
will damageAmericanpublic
[Madame Nhu's] statement
and Congressionalsupportfor GVN. U.S. Government
cannotbe expectedcontinueaid and assist GVN at heavy
cost in men and materialunless thispolicy [is] fully
supported
byAmericancitizens26
becamethereasontheKennedyadministration
decidedto
This,eventually,
a coupto overthrow
Diem. Diem,however,said thatMadameNhu
support
was freeto expressheropinions.27Withthis,Diem set a precedent
that
emboldenedMadame Nhu laterto make public statements
directlyto
Westernmedia,onlyto assurean international
audiencethatGVN was a
crueldictatorship.
Whilemajornewspapersfollowedthe worseningsituationin Vietnam,it
was notuntil11 June1963 thatthe BuddhistCrisistook centrestage in
world news. The weekly-releasedTime magazine's coverage of the
Buddhistaffairis indicative
ofthis(see Figure1). In fact,articlesaboutthe
crisiswerepublishedonlyinthethirdweekof June,theweek immediately
focuson theGVN and
followingtheeventthatwouldcementinternational
an
international
audience
to
U.S.
involvement
inVietnam.
compel
question
Figure1. Time(magazine)
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AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
61
On the morningof 11 June1963, a seventy-three
year old monkThich
of Saigon's majorboulevards,
and
Quang Due sat downat theintersection
and curiouspassers-by,
withan audienceof some350 fellowdemonstrators
Quang Due consignedhimselfto death by fire.28 In the background,
bannersin Englishand Vietnameseread 'A Buddhistpriestburnshimself
forour fiverequests'.29This scene was capturedby the only two U.S.
the tip froma Buddhistspokesperson
who had not disregarded
reporters
would happenthatday.30 New YorkTimes
that"somethingimportant"
reporterDavid Halberstammost articulatelydescribes the sight he
a sound,
'As he burnedhe nevermoveda muscle,neveruttered
witnessed,
his outwardcomposurein sharpcontrastto the wailing people around
him.'31
Even people who were not presentat the scene were moved by
Halberstam's
reportand themonk'sselflesssacrifice.MalcolmBrowne,a
AssociatedPress,was also presentand retainedsufficient
for
the
reporter
made the front
to
composure keep takingpictures. As his photographs
Diem
the
of
critics
of
government
newspaperseverywhere,
pages
has
that'no newspicturein history
multiplied.Kennedylatercommented
so muchemotionaroundtheworldas thatone'.32 Quang Due's
generated
sacrificeturnedpublicopinionagainsttheDiem regime;even Marguerite
of Diem in theSaigonpresscorps,was
Higgins,one of thefewsupporters
Diem'
s
assume
to
guilt:
compelled
Whatwas PresidentNgo Dinh Diem doingto cause these
Buddhiststo choose such a horribledeath as selfimmolation?...Thefact that[thisquestion]presumeda
prioritheguiltofDiem botheredme notat all... it was my
too.33
presumption
is undeniable.QuangDue's suicide
ofself-immolations
The mediaefficacy
ofBuddhistsin South
to
the
attention
called
desperatesituation
successfully
Americanvalue:
most
cherished
to
the
Vietnam,whose protestsappealed
ofreligion.34
freedom
of
of Quang Due failedto capturetheattention
If theself-immolation
did.
Nhu
with
Madame
interview
the
CBS
theinternational
certainly
public,
'Whathavethe
she callouslyremarked,
Of QuangDue's ultimate
sacrifice,
Buddhistleadersdone? ...They have barbecuedone of theirmonkswhom
refusedto denounceMadame
Diem,expectedly,
theyhaveintoxicated...'35
Atthispoint,evenAmericansinclinedto givetheDiem
Nhu's statement.36
ofQuang
ofthedoubtwereappalledbythistrivialisation
regimethebenefit
andDiem's refusalto denounceit.37As Jacobsobserved,
Due's sacrifice
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62
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
MadameNhu...wasthepresident'ssister-in-law,
she lived
inthepalace, and she helda seat intheNationalAssembly.
It was naturalto assume,in theabsence of a presidential
disavowal,thatshespokeforthegovernment.38
theforemost
defenders
of 'freedom',couldnotsupport
a regime
Americans,
thatappearedovertlyand proudlyauthoritarian.
By theend of themonth,
Americanpublicopinionwas almostunanimously
againsttheDiem regime,
and worse,it opposedU.S. supportof the Diem regime. This was most
clear in a full-pageadvertisement
in theNew YorkTimeson 27 June,in
which12 Americanclergymen
in Vietnam;
opposedtheU.S. involvement
theywrote:
We protest:
1. Our country'smilitaryaid to those who denied him religious
freedom...
2. The loss of Americanlives and billionsof dollarsto bolstera
as unjust,undemocratic,
and unstable.
regimeuniversally
regarded
"39
3. Thefictionthatthisis 'fighting
forfreedom. (myitalics)
Thisviewwas reiterated
in Timemagazine,whicharguedthat'The weekly
deathand injuryof Americansoldiersand the expenditure
of morethan
$1,000,000a day forVietnamjustifymuchgreaterpressurefor...reforms
by president
Ngo Dinh Diem.'40Americansrefusedto believe thattheir
towards
South Vietnamdid not amountto any leveragein
generosity
withDiem. They were also beginningto believethatDiem
negotiations
was incapableof rallyingthepopularsupportthatwas neededforthewar
againstCommunism. Afterall, almostall the news dispatchesout of
Saigon estimatedthatBuddhistsconstituted
70, even 80 to 90, percentof
the Vietnamesepopulation.41The lack of faithin the Diem regimewas
encouragedby the Americanmedia,such as theNew YorkTimeswhich
victories
to the
speculatedthat'thecrisisis worthabout15 majorbattlefield
Communists.'42 Time magazine, as well, explained that 'Buddhist
discontent
could cause passive resistanceto government
programsin the
ruralprovinces
wherepoliticalunityis thekeyto victoryinthewaragainst
theCommunist
Viet Cong.'43ReporterHalberstameven wentas faras to
conclude that 'the United States backed the wrong man...'44 These
influenced
opinionsputforth
byreporters
publicopinionsignificantly.
The accuracyof these media assertions,however,have been disputed,
whichonlyservesto provetheeffectiveness
and influence
ofthemediaon
As
in
clarified
General
VictorKrulak's (U.S. Marine
public opinion.
Corps)report,
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AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
63
Thereligiousaspectoftheissuehas a narrowerbase than
public reportsmightsuggest...There is a tendencyto
as Buddhists.Infact,manyare
classifyall non-Christians
in theChinesetradition,
while
ancestor
worshippers
simple
in thecountryothermajorreligionsare also represented
Taoistsand Moslems.45
including
Confucianists,
This was confirmed
by a major studyof Buddhismin Vietnam,which
concludedthat only 30 percentof South Vietnamesewere practising
Buddhists.46The mythof the gravityof the BuddhistCrisis was also a
in June1963 concludedthatthere
a CIA investigation
pointof contention;
in SouthVietnam,but
ofreligiousfreedom
hadbeen'no formalsuppression
has successfullycurbedthe politicalinfluenceof some
the government
was also
sects.'47The wareffort
theminority
religiousgroups,particularly
to be successful,even withtheonslaughtof the BuddhistCrisis,
reported
rural
aremoreeffective;
withKrulak'sreport
'Militaryoperations
asserting:
is heartening;
coordination
US/Vietnamese
economicprogressis manifest;
and the morale of US militaryforces is classic...'48 These reports
fromthoseintheU.S. media,and mediaassertionsof
differed
significantly
and Diem's widespreadunpopularity
Buddhistrepression
provedheavilyto
influencepublicopinion. A New YorkTimeseditorialon 17 June,for
thewriter'simpression
ofthis. The editorialreflects
example,is indicative
and
in
that
constituted majority Vietnam, hintsat theneedto
thatBuddhists
Diem:
overthrow
// is time that Mr. Diem realised that he cannot
discriminate
against a majorityof the people of South
Vietnamand win his war againstthe Communists.If he
cannotgenuinelyrepresenta majoritythenhe is not the
mantobe President.49
(Myunderline)
or wrongly,
It is obviousthattheBuddhistCrisishad,rightly
capturedthe
ofAmericans.
attention
As public opinion swung against the Diem government,
Washington
its pressureon Diem to placatethe Buddhists. The Kennedy
intensified
was beginningto recognisethe precariouspositionof the
administration
thata largepercentage
GVN abroadand withinVietnam.It was estimated
had
within
themilitary
and thispercentage
wereBuddhists,
of themilitary
it was expectedto
thegovernment
thepotentialto rise up and overthrow
as
international
was
also
Crisis
Buddhist
The
attention,
gaining
protect.50
Prime
and
Sihanouk
Norodom
Prince
Cambodian
illustrated
Ceylonese
by
to Kennedy,expressing
whowroteletters
MinisterSirimavoBandaranaike,
in
South Viet-nam'and
of
Buddhists
the
for
concern
their
'suffering
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64
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
imploredWashington'to intercedewith the full force of your moral
thattheywere now
prestigeand thatof yourcountry'.51Understanding
associated
with
the
Buddhist
Crisis,
innately
Washingtononce again
threatened
to publiclydisassociateitself'from[the]wholeaffair'.52While
threats
ofdisassociation
had beenmadebefore,theself-immolation
marked
thebreakingpointof the Kennedyadministration's
patiencewithDiem's
Ruskwarned,'If Diem does nottakepromptand
obstinacy.Specifically,
effective
Buddhistconfidencein himwe will have to
stepsto re-establish
re-examine
ourentirerelationship
withhisregime.'53
Withthis,Washington
Diem
another
chance
to
the
situation
that,in theiropinion,had
gave
rectify
gotoutofhandunnecessarily.
however,failed once more,givingrise to more Buddhist
Negotiations,
demonstrations
and self-immolations.
Diem reopenednegotiations
Initially,
withtheBuddhistleaders,and on the 16th,
a JointCommuniqué
was issued,
outthetermsof agreement
butallocatingno responsibility
forthe8
setting
Yet, riotingbrokeout in Saigon thenextday,and police
May incident.54
once again suppressedit withbrutalforce,killingone demonstrator
and
several.55
The
Buddhist
Crisis
continued
to
and
injuring
plummet, byearly
- in their teens and twenties
- burnt
August, three more Buddhists
themselves
to death,anda younggirltriedunsuccessfully
to cutoffherarm
'as a humbleoffering
to Buddhawhile our religionis in danger',all of
whichwerereported
intheU.S. media.56
At thisstage,the BuddhistCrisiswas alreadyaccumulating
a barrageof
criticismtowardsDiem's government,
onlyto be further
complicatedby
MadameNhu once again. MadameNhu had takento writing
letters
to the
Americanmedia,rousingthepassionsoftheAmericanpublic. To theNew
YorkTimes,shedeclared,'I wouldbeatsuchprovocateurs
10 timesmoreif
wore
monks'
robes...and...I wouldclap handsat seeinganothermonk
they
barbecueshow,forone cannotbe responsibleforthemadnessof others.'57
Thesestatements
theAmericanpublic'scall fortheirgovernment
reignited
to cease support
oftheDiem regime.As an editorialarticulates,
//is preciselybecause this countryis allied withSouth
Vietnamin the latter's anti-Communist
strugglethatwe
condemnMrs. Nhu's callous and self-defeating
desire to
apply the scourge to those who legitimately
protest
injusticesinSaigon.5*
Americansdid notwantto be, in anyway,accountableforthesubjugation
oftheBuddhists
in SouthVietnam.
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AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
65
of public opinion
Already strugglingto deal with the proliferation
condemningthe Diem regimeand Diem's disregardfor the Kennedy
administration's
advice,theattackson pagodasall overSouthVietnamon
21 Augustfinallyexhaustedthepatienceof Washington.Diem explained
his actionsby assertingthatthe Buddhistpagodas were infiltrated
by the
Viet Cong and that they were using the pagodas as places to stash
weapons.59 In all, nearly2000 pagodas were raided,more than 1400
killed.60Diem thenannouncedthat
and severalhundred
Buddhists
arrested,
was undermartiallaw, and orderedthetroopsto shoot-to-kill
thecountry
anyone- includingbothAmericansand Vietnamese 'found in the
streetsduringthe curfewwho refusedto haltor fled'.61 Completepress
cut offcommunications
censorshipwas imposedas well, thuseffectively
The New YorkTimesdrewparticular
betweenSaigon and Washington.62
to this,withan emboldened
attention
stating:'The
captionon thefront-page
fromSaigon beforecensorshipwas
followingdispatchwas transmitted
imposedby theVietnameseregime.'63Timemagazinealso reportedthat
and embassy
'telephoneserviceinthehomesandofficesofall U.S. military
to
This
cut
off.'
was
clearlysignalled theU.S. that
(myitalics)64
personnel
Diem's
actions.
affected
by
theywerenowdirectly
media was also becomingmore vocal, resonatingthe
The international
inactionsfornearlytwoyears,
of Washington's
Americanmedia'scriticism
was
the
becomingincreasinglyincapable of
Saigon regime
'although
arousingthe war-wearypopulationto greaterefforts.'65Washington's
condemnationis indicatedin a government
concernfor international
of U.S.
the widespreadcondemnation
devotedto reporting
memorandum
world.
the
around
various
in
the
Diem
of
the
newspapers
regime
support
to
U.S.
on
the
called
Guardian
Burma's
give
Englishlanguage
Reportedly,
NorthKoreadescribedSouthVietnam'seventsas
theregimean ultimatum;
and
of thepeopleby theU.S. imperialists
a resultof 'ruthlesssuppression
theirstooges.'66The TimesofIndia,LondonTimes,TheScotsmanand Die
to lettheDiem regimefall,and
Welt(Hamburg),all called on Washington
to 'establishcontactwiththe non-communist
opposition.'67The Ceylon
to the
U.S.
of
the
accused
being 'committed,
Observer,mostarticulately
notwhomit hiresto engagetheenemyin the
cynicalview thatit matters
Americasafe.'68Others,
marshesiftheywillhelpto keepFortress
outlying
and Cambodiangovernments,
suchas thePhilippine
hopedthatotherAsian
nationswouldjoin themin breakingdiplomaticrelationswithSaigon; and
eventheCatholicAwanired'Italia of Bolognesaid thatbetweentheDiem
and the Buddhistsit would have to declare flatlyfor the
Government
had notonlydenouncedtheGVN, but
criticism
International
Buddhists.69
under
Washingtonas well, thus placing the Kennedy administration
tremendous
pressure.
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66
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
In face of the huge domesticand international
oppositionto the U.S.
in Vietnam,theKennedyadministration
involvement
beganto discussthe
of
a
to
In
overthrow
Diem.
a
engineering coup
government
telegram(27
August 1963), the thennewlyappointedambassadorto Saigon, Henry
CabotLodge,explainedWashington's
decisionto support
a coup:
No long rangeforeignpolicycould be carriedout by the
U.S. Government
withoutthe supportof Congressand
public opinion[and the]public opinionin the U.S. was
muchdistressedby the treatment
of the Buddhistsand
statementsmade in connectiontherewith. These have
greatlycomplicatedthejob oftheExecutivebranchof the
U.S. Government
inaidingVietnam™
Whiletherewere debatesand disagreements
betweenthe pro-Diemand
anti-Diemfactionswithinthe Kennedyadministration,
it was the pagoda
raids of 21 Augustthatgave impetusto the anti-Diemfactionin their
endeavourto overthrow
Diem. This was guidedby Lodge,a Republican
whowas clearlyopposedto theUS support
oftheDiem regime;byOctober
1963 Lodge had managedto secure approvalfromWashington'not to
thwart'a coup.71Nonetheless,
afterthepagoda raidson 21 August,itwas
to theU.S. government's
quicklyrecognisedthatDiem was an obstruction
widergoal of combating
and
as
Communism,
such,he had to be removed.
The Kennedyadministration
firstpubliclydenouncedthepagodaraids,and
statedthatDiem had breacheda vow to see through
reconciliation
withthe
Buddhists.72 On the 24 August, 3 days after the pagoda raids,
of State George Ball instructed
Undersecretary
Lodge to urge Diem to
'dramatic
actions'
to
redress
the
and
adopt
situation, 'If, in spiteof all of
Diem
remains
obdurate
and
yourefforts,
refuses,thenwe mustface the
that
Diem himselfcannotbe preserved'12"
possibility
(My italics)Along
withthisstatement
was also theinstruction
thattheVietnamcountry
team
shouldbeginto 'urgentlyexamineall possiblealternative
leadershipand
makedetailedplansas to howwe mightbringaboutDiem'sreplacement.'74
This instruction
led to the downfallof the Diem regimein
subsequently
November.
The storyof Buddhistsubjugationplayedwell againsta backgroundof
Cold Warrhetoric
andtheriseofcivilrights;theBuddhistswereperceived
the
anti-Communist
Westernworldas 'fighting
forfreedom'. Diem's
by
refusalto grantBuddhistsequal rights
thatCatholicsenjoyedonlyservedto
worsenthecrisiswitheach increasingly
dramaticBuddhistdemonstration.
At thepeak of thecrisiswiththeonslaughtof self-immolations,
Buddhists
beganactivelyto engagetheWestern
press,andthesheermedia-worthiness
of each sacrificeprovedirresistible
to the news media aroundthe world.
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AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
67
Whetheror not media reportsof the BuddhistCrisiswere accurate,they
influenced
publicopinion,and thusthreatened
Congressional
significantly
In
war
Communism.
this
for
the
U.S.
against
way, the media
support
decision to supporta coup
influencedthe Kennedy administration's
Diem.
overthrowing
ENDNOTES
1Cattonhas
to SouthVietnam,as
cementedU.S. commitment
arguedthatDiem's overthrow
war
thuspaving
derailed
the
s
Diem'
from
4thepoliticalturmoil
effort,
overthrow]
[resulting
Howard
thisargument,
oftheconflict.'Extending
Américanisation
thewayfortheill-fated
with
Jones- as thetitleofhisbooksuggests- examineshowDiem's overthrow,
together
- PhilipE. Catton,Diem's Final
War.
the
Vietnam
assassination,
prolonged
Kennedy's
ofKansas,Kansas,2002,p. 205;
Failure:PreludetoAmerica'sWarin Vietnam,
University
SethJacobs,Cold WarMandarin:Ngo DinhDiemand theoriginsofAmerica'swar in
Lanham,Md.,2006,pp. 185-189;Howard
Vietnam,
1950-1963,Rowman& Littlefield,
How theAssassinations
ofDiem & JFK ProlongedtheWar,
Jones,Deathofa Generation:
2003.
New
York,
OUP,
2 Fisherhas
as well as criticswithinthe
ofadmirers
arguedthat4Diemhada largecontingent
an episodeoverwhich,
makingtheAmericanroleinhisoverthrow
Kennedyadministration,
as RobertKennedylaterputit,4thegovernment
splittwo." Ross A. Fisher,The Kennedy
ofNgo DinhDiem: WhatHappened,WhyDid It Happen,
andtheOverthrow
Administration
andWas Ita Good Idea?', in Ross A. Fisher,JohnNortonMooreandRobertF. Turner
CarolinaAcademic
in Vietnam,
(eds.), To OpposeAnyFoe: TheLegacyofU.S. Intervention
Press,Durham,NorthCarolina,2006,p. 4; WilliamConradGibbons,The U.S. Government
PartII: 1961-1964
War:Executiveand LegislativeRolesand Relationships,
and theVietnam
The YearoftheHare:
Princeton
NJ.,1986;FrancisX. Winters,
Press,Princeton,
University
ofGeorgiaPress,
15, 1964,University
Americain Vietnam,
January25, 1963-February
AthensandLondon,1997.
3 John
War(Chicago:IvanR. Dee, 1995); Ellen
Prados,TheHiddenHistoryoftheVietnam
1963 (New York:E.P. Dutton,
Americain Vietnam,
A DeathinNovember:
J.Hammer,
How theAssassinations
ofDiem & JFK
1987); HowardJones,Deathofa Generation:
ProlongedtheWar,OUP, New York,2003.
4 1963was the
the
yearinwhichBuddhistsdecidedto beginactivelypressuring
opportune
hadbegunduringFrench
fortheirreligiousfreedom.Buddhistsubjugation
government
ofCatholicVietnamese;
withtheopenfavouritism
colonialruleinthenineteenth
century
and
attainment
of
educational
concentration
a
ensured
this
disproportionate
consequently
VietnameseBuddhismblossomed
wealthtothisfavoured
religiousgroup.Nonetheless,
ofBuddhistassociationsincreasing
between1956and 1962,withmembership
dramatically.
whichrepresented
onlysix of South
By 1962,theGeneralAssociationofBuddhists,
Vietnam'ssixteenMahayanasects,claimedto havesome3000 monks,600 nuns,and3
millionlaymembers,
70,000to 90,000inyouthgroups.Thusby 1963 Buddhists
including
the
oftheVietnamesepopulation.Nonetheless,
a sizeableproportion
cameto constitute
oftheFrenchofcolonialruleinthe1950sdidnotaccompanythedissolution
dissolution
laws,suchas Decree 10,whichwas centralto theBuddhistCrisis. It
imposedanti-Buddhist
was theheightofwhatTopmillerlabels'theRenaissanceofVietnameseBuddhism'that
unleashedtheirsimmering
Buddhists
rageagainststatediscrimination.Prados,TheHidden
War,pp. 89-90.
HistoryoftheVietnam
5
August1963,sourced
JanuaryFRUSoftheUnitedStates,1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
2007
accessed4 September
fromhttp://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
FRUS'
[hereafter
This content downloaded from 149.171.67.164 on Sun, 4 May 2014 17:16:53 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
68
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
6
inSouth
Ibid;RobertJ.Topmiller,TheLotusUnleashed:TheBuddhistPeace Movement
PressofKentucky,
Vietnam,
1964-1966,University
2002,p.2.
Kentucky,
7 John
of State'(9 May
Helble,'TelegramFromtheConsulateat Hue totheDepartment
1963,sourcedfrom
1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,Volume111,Vietnam,
January-August
accessed4 September
httD://www.state.eov/r/Da/ho/frus/kennedvif/iii/8
163.htm.
2007.
8 Two ofthedeadwerechildren.
- Ibid.
9 The
oftheGVN was exemplified
inthefailureofa government-sponsored
discrediting
- tocondemnthe'VietCongterrorist
acteveningMay 8' - to drawan audience.
meeting
a
Comparatively,meetingorganisedbyBuddhistleadersat Tu Dam PagodainHue on May
- JohnHelble,TelegramFromthe
10 drewa crowdoffiveto sixthousandBuddhists.
Consulateat Hue totheDepartment
of State'(2a.m.,10 May 1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,
VolumeHI, Vietnam,
JanuaryAugust1963,sourcedfrom
accessed4 September
2007;
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
Frederick
ofState'(18
Nolting,'TelegramFromtheEmbassyinVietnamto theDepartment
May 1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
1963,sourcedfrom
January-August
http://www.state.eov/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedvif/iii/8
163.htm.accessed4 Sentemher
2007
10John
ofState'(3p.m.,10
Helble,TelegramFromtheConsulateat Hue totheDepartment
May 1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
JanuaryAugust1963,sourcedfrom
accessed4 September
2007; Dean
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
of Stateto theEmbassyinVietnam'(9 May 1963),
Rusk,TelegramFromtheDepartment
FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
1963,sourcedfrom
January-August
accessed4 September
2007.
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedvif/iii/8163.htm,
11The Buddhists
also urgedDiemto repeala French-imposed
law,Decree 10,whichlabelled
Buddhismas an "association"rather
thana religion,
andthus,Buddhists
wererequiredto
obtainofficialpermission
to conductanypublicactivities.Blatantly
Decree
discriminatory,
10 also providedthat4aspecialstatusshallbe prescribed...
forCatholicandProtestant
missions'.'ManifestoofVietnameseBuddhistClergyand Faithful'(10 May 1963),FRUS,
1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
1963,sourcedfrom
January-August
accessed4 September
2007;
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
JanuaryAugust1963.
12In
Diem statedthatbothCatholicsandBuddhists
wereguiltyof
responsetothemanifesto,
the'disorderly
use' ofreligiousflags,andthenationalflagmustbe givensupremacy.
WilliamTrueheart,
of State'(30
TelegramfromtheEmbassyinVietnamtotheDepartment
May 1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeHi, Vietnam,
JanuaryAugust1963,sourcedfrom
accessed4 September
2007;
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
of State'(18 May
Nolting,TelegramFromtheEmbassyin Vietnamto theDepartment
1963).
13
of State'(18 May
Nolting,TelegramFromtheEmbassyinVietnamto theDepartment
1963); Jacobs,Cold WarMandarin,p. 144.
14
of State'(18 May
Nolting,TelegramFromtheEmbassyin Vietnamto theDepartment
1963).
15William
ofState'
Trueheart,
TelegramfromtheEmbassyin Vietnamto theDepartment
(31 May 1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
1963,sourcedfrom
January-August
accessed4 September
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedvif/iii/8163.htm,
2007.
16WhenNational
Councilstaffer
MichaelV. Forrestal
hima report
on the
Security
brought
Buddhistdemonstrations
inHue,Kennedyactuallyasked,'Who arethesepeople?'JohnF.
Kennedycitedin SethJacobs,Cold WarMandarin:Ngo DinhDiem and theoriginsof
America'swarin Vietnam,
1950-1963,Rowman& Littlefield,
Lanham.Md.. 2006. p. 144.
On 10 May,forexample,bannershoistedbya crowdoffiveto six thousandBuddhistsat
Tu Dam PagodareadinEnglish:'killus,readyto sacrificeblood,BuddhistsandCatholics
andkidnapping;
a Buddhistflagwill
equal. CancelDecreeNumber10,requeststopofarrests
nevergo down'.Helble,TelegramFromtheConsulateat Hue to theDepartment
ofState'
(3p.m.,10 May 1963).
This content downloaded from 149.171.67.164 on Sun, 4 May 2014 17:16:53 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
69
18William
of State'(3
Trueheart,
'TelegramfromtheEmbassyinVietnamto theDepartment
June1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
1963,sourcedfrom
January-August
accessed4 September
2007;
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
of State'(4
WilliamTrueheart,
'TelegramfromtheEmbassyinVietnamtotheDepartment
June1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
1963,sourcedfrom
January-August
accessed4 September
2007.
httD://www.state.eov/r/Da/ho/frus/kennedvif/iii/8
163.htm,
19John
of State'(2p.m.,
Helble,'TelegramfromtheEmbassyinVietnamto theDepartment
3 June1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
1963,sourcedfrom
January-August
2007.
accessed4 September
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
20
of State'(4 June
Trueheart,
'TelegramfromtheEmbassyin VietnamtotheDepartment
1963).
21'Current
Central
Memorandum
Intelligence,
PreparedintheOfficeofCurrent
Intelligence
JanuaryAugust
Agency'(3 June1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
Intelligence
accessed4
1963,sourcedfromhttp://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
2007.
September
22William
ofState'
Trueheart,
'TelegramfromtheEmbassyinVietnamtotheDepartment
sourced
Volume
6
June
Vietnam,
III,
1963,
1961-1963,
FRUS,
JanuaryAugust
1963),
(lp.m,
2007.
accessed4 September
fromhtto://www.state.eov/r/Da/ho/frus/kennedyif/iii/8163.htm,
23William
the
to
in
Vietnam
from
the
(Trueheart)
Trueheart,
Embassy
'Telegram
ofState(Hilsman)'(la.m, 9 June1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII,
Department
Vietnam,
JanuaryAugust1963,sourcedfrom
2007.
accessed4 September
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
24'Resolutionissued theCentralCommittee
Movementof
oftheWomen'sSolidarity
by
ofState'(8
Vietnam'citedin 'TelegramfromtheEmbassyinVietnamto theDepartment
June1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
August1963,sourcedfrom
January2007.
accessed4 September
httD://www.state.eov/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
25
of State
the
to
in
Vietnam
the
from
(Trueheart)
Department
Trueheart,
Embassy
'Telegram
(Hilsman)'(la.m, 9 June1963).
26Dean
ofStatetotheEmbassyinVietnam'
Rusk,'TelegramfromtheDepartment
Volume
June
1963,
8
III, Vietnam,
1961-1963,
FRUS,
January-August
1963),
(12.55p.m,
accessed4
sourcedfromhttp://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
2007.
September
27
of State
totheDepartment
Trueheart,
'TelegramfromtheEmbassyin Vietnam(Trueheart)
(Hilsman)'(la.m, 9 June1963).
28David
TheMakingofa Quagmire(New York:RandomHouse),p. 21 1;
Halberstam,
Jacobs,Cold WarMandarin,pp.147-149.
29William
of State'
Trueheart,
'TelegramfromtheEmbassyinVietnamtotheDepartment
Volume
11
June
III,
Vietnam,
1963,
1961-1963,
FRUS,
-August
January
1963),
(noon,
accessed4
sourcedfromhttp://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
2007.
September
30Jacobs,Cold WarMandarin,p. 147.
31Halberstam.
TheMakingofa Ouasmire*p. 21 1.
32JohnF.
withHenryCabot
interview
KennedyquotedbyHenryCabotLodge,'Oral history
August1963,
JanuaryLodge,August4, 1965',FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
accessed4
sourcedfromhttp://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
2007.
September
33Marguerite
Hiegins,Our Vietnam
Nightmare,
HarperandRow,New York,1965,pp.2-3.
34
StatetotheEmbassyinVietnam'
of
the
from
Ball,
Department
'Telegram
George
August1963,
January(8.52p.m.,1 July1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIV, Vietnam,
accessed4
sourcedfromhttp://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iv/8202.htm,
TheLotusUnleashed,3.
2007; Topmiller,
September
35Madame
Ngo DinhNhu,'MadameNhu's ResponsetoThichQuangDue' (video),sourced
2007.
accessed 13 September
fromhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d_PWM9gWR5E,
This content downloaded from 149.171.67.164 on Sun, 4 May 2014 17:16:53 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
70
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
36Diem evenendorsediton a radio
that'a numberofpeoplegot
address,proposing
intoxicated
andcausedan undeserved
deaththatmademe verysorry.'Ngo DinhDiem,
'Diem AsksPeace inReligionCrisis', New YorkTimes,12
quotedbyDavid Halberstam,
July1963,p. 3; "TrialbyFire",Time,21 June1963,sourcedfrom
accessed9 October
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,874895,00.html,
2007.
37Even
was "barbaric",
andarticulated
the
Higginsconcededthatthe"barbecue"statement
ofAmericans
thoughts
exposedto MadameNhu's insensitivity:
andcallousa remark
Anyonecapableof so insensitive
surelyqualifiedas the
villainessina scenariooftorture,
andworse.
persecution,
Higgins,Our Vietnam
Nightmare,
dp. 59-60.
38Jacobs.Cold WarMandarin,p. 149.
39Theseconcernswerenot
In theiradvertisement,
unfounded.
theclergymen
substantiated
theirconcernsbyquotingSenatorMansfield'sreport
ofhisvisitto SouthVietnamearlier
thatyear. Mansfieldhadwritten:
All ofthecurrent
difficulties
existedin 1955,alongwithhopeandenergyto meet
them.Butitis 7yearslaterand $2 billionofU.S. aid later. Yet,substantially
the
samedifficulties
remainif,indeed,theyhavenotbeencompounded...(italicsin
advertisement)
New YorkTimes.27 June1963.d. 21.
'We, Too, Protest'(Full-pageadvertisement).
40Max
"Vietnam's'Untidv'War".New YorkTimes.3 Julv1963.d. 8.
Frankel,
David Halberstam,
'ReligiousDisputeStirsSouthVietnam:BuddhistStrugglePoses
MajorThreatto Diem Rule andtheWarEffort
AgainsttheVietcong',New YorkTimes,16
June1963,IV, p. 6; HomerBigart,'WarAgainstRedsDominatedNews', New YorkTimes,
22 August1963,p. 3; Higgins,Our Vietnam
Nightmare,
p. 4; Jacobs,Cold WarMandarin,p.
185.
42
Halberstam,
'ReligiousDisputeStirsSouthVietnam',New YorkTimes.
43"Trial
byFire",Time,21 June1963,sourcedfrom
accessed9 October
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,874895,00.html,
2007.
44
Halberstam,
'ReligiousDisputeStirsSouthVietnam',New YorkTimes.
45Ambassador
Frederick
withDiem,i
Noltingalso observedon a triptothecountryside
was... impressed...
betweenwhatis actuallyhappening
inthiscountry
bythevastdifference
andthereflection
of itintheoutsideworld.' The CIA memorandum
read:'The vastmajority
of SouthVietnam'spopulation
of 14 millionis nominally
eventhoughonlya small
Buddhist,
havebeenconsidered
activepractitioners.
. . ' 'ReportbytheJointChiefsof Staffs
proportion
forCounterinsurgency
and SpecialActivities
SpecialAssistant
(Krulak)'(1963), FRUS,
1961-1963,VolumeHI, Vietnam,
1963,sourcedfrom
January-August
accessed4 September
2007;
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
'Current
Memorandum
Central
Intelligence
PreparedintheOfficeofCurrent
Intelligence,
Intelligence
Agency'(3 June1963); Frederick
Nolting,'TelegramFromtheEmbassyin
Vietnamto theDepartment
ofState'(4p.m.,17 May 1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII,
Vietnam,
1963,sourcedfrom
January-August
accessed4 September
2007.
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyif/iii/8163.htm,
46This
thattheremaining
70 percentofthe
studywas completedin 1965,andalso affirmed
consistedmostlyofancestorworshippers
anda minority
ofCatholics.Dodd,
population
Introduced
IntotheRecordwiththe
'SpeechtotheUnitedStatesSenateandInformation
in
Speech'(23 February
1965),citedin To OpposeAnyFoe: TheLegacyofU.S. Intervention
Vietnam.
47A UnitedNations
teamalso concludedthatDiem hadnotoppressedthe
fact-finding
Buddhists
at all,andthattheallegationsofsystematic
of Buddhistswere
repression
unsubstantiated
Memorandum
'hearsay'. 'Current
Intelligence
PreparedintheOfficeof
This content downloaded from 149.171.67.164 on Sun, 4 May 2014 17:16:53 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
71
CentralIntelligence
Current
Intelligence,
Agency'(3 June1963); Fisher,"The Kennedy
ofNgo DinhDiem...", p. 24.
Administration
andtheOverthrow
48
forCounterinsurgency
and Special
'ReportbytheJointChiefsofStaffs SpecialAssistant
Activities
(Krulak)'(1963).
4 'Diem andtheBuddhists'
New YorkTimes,17 June1963,p. 24.
(editorial),
theKennedyadministration
hadreceived
FollowingQuangDue's self-immolation,
ColonelDo Khac Mai (SouthVietnameseAirForce)
thatBuddhistLieutenant
information
andotherseniorofficials'couldnotunderstand
whyAmericansstoodbyand lostgolden
of
inVietnam,bywhichhe clearlymeantoverthrow
situation
to rectify
opportunity
- Halberstam,
'ReligiousDisputeStirsSouthVietnam',New YorkTimes',
government."
Higgins,Our Vietnam
Bigart,'WarAgainstReds DominatedNews', New YorkTimes',
'TelegramfromtheEmbassyinVietnamto the
p. 4; WilliamTrueheart,
Nightmare,
ofState'(5p.m.,11 June'963), FRUS, 1961-1963,Volume111,Vietnam,
Department
JanuaryAugust1963,sourcedfrom
2007.
accessed4 September
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
NorodomSihanouk,'TelegramfromPrinceSihanoukto President
Kennedy'(14 June
1963,sourcedfrom
January-August
1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,Volume111,Vietnam,
accessed4 September
2007;
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
1963,sourcedfrom
FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
January-August
2007.
accessed4 September
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
52
State'
of
in
to
the
Vietnam
from
the
(5p.m.,11
Department
Trueheart,
Embassy
'Telegram
ofStateto theEmbassyin Vietnam'
June1963);Dean Rusk,'TelegramfromtheDepartment
1963,
January-August
(11.03p.m.,11 June1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
accessed4
sourcedfromhttp://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
2007.
September
53Ibid.
54The failureofthe
theBuddhistleadersinfavourofmoderateand
discredited
Communiqué
Buddhistswhowere
to militant
theBuddhistleadership
thustransferring
passiveresistance,
it.William
thanreforming
theDiem government
withoverthrowing
moreconcerned
of State'(4p.m.,16
Trueheart,
'TelegramfromtheEmbassyin VietnamtotheDepartment
1963,sourcedfrom
June1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,VolumeIII, Vietnam,
January-August
4
accessed
September
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm, 2007;
Jacobs,Cold WarMandarin,150.
55'The Overthrow
ofNgo DinhDiem', ThePentagonPapers,Volume2, Graveled. (Boston:
BeaconPress,1971),sourcedfrom
accessed16 October2006.
http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon2/pent6.htm,
56'Suicide
from
sourced
23
1963,
Series',Time, August
access 9 October2007;
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,875098,00.html
Jacobs,Cold WarMandarin,152.
57Madame
New YorkTimes,14
Ngo DinhNhu,'Mrs.Ngo DefendsStand'(editorial),
August1963,32.
58'Vietnam'sWarandtheBuddhists'(editorial),
New YorkTimes,14 August1963,32.
59
ofStateDaily StaffSummary'(21 August1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,Volume
'Department
1963,sourcedfrom
III, Vietnam,
January-August
accessed4 September
2007;
http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
ofNgo DinhDiem...', p. 32.
andtheOverthrow
Fisher,'The KennedyAdministration
60
ofStateDaily StaffSummary'(21 August1963); Jacobs,Cold War
'Department
Mandarin,p. 153.
61'TextofDecree
byDiem',New YorkTimes,22 August1963,p. 2; David Halberstam,
'Diem OrdersMartiallaw; MorePagodasareRaided',New YorkTimes,22 August1963,
OrderIssued',New YorkTimes,22 August
'Shoot-to-Kill
p.l; UnitedPressInternational,
2.
1963,p.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
72
AUSTRALASIAN JOURNALOF AMERICAN STUDIES
62David
'VietnamesePutUnderArmyLaw', New YorkTimes,22 August1963,
Halberstam,
'Shoot-to-Kill
OrderIssued',New YorkTimes.
p. 2; UnitedPressInternational,
63
'Diem OrdersMartiallaw', New YorkTimes.
Halberstam,
64The
Crackdown',Time,30 August1963,sourcedfrom
httD://www.time.com/time/maeazine/article/0.91
7 L940704.00.html.
access 9 October2007.
Bigart,'WarAgainstRedsDominatedNews', New YorkTimes.
EdwardR. Murrow,'Memorandum
fromtheDirectoroftheUnitedStatesInformation
Agency(Murrow)tothePresident'(28 August1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,Volumeill,
Vietnam,
JanuaryAugust1963,sourcedfrom
httD://www.state.eov/r/Da/ho/frus/kennedvif/iii/8163.htm.
accessed4 September
2007.
67Ibid.
68Ibid.
69Ibid.
70
ofState'
HenryCabotLodge,TelegramfromtheEmbassyinVietnamtotheDepartment
(5p.m.,27 August1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,Volume111,Vietnam,
1963,
January-August
sourcedfromhttp://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
accessed4
2007.
September
71
TelegramfromtheEmbassyinVietnambyAmbassadorHenryCabotLodge tothe
ofState'(5 October1963).
Department
72'U.S.
DenouncedVietnamForDriveOn Buddhists;ChargesBreachofVow', New York
Times,22 August1963,p. 1.
73
of StatetotheEmbassyinVietnam'
GeorgeBall, TelegramfromtheDepartment
(9.36p.m.,24 August1963),FRUS, 1961-1963,Volume111,Vietnam,
1963,
January-August
sourcedfromhttp://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/iii/8163.htm,
accessed4
2007.
September
74Ibid.
This content downloaded from 149.171.67.164 on Sun, 4 May 2014 17:16:53 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions