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TI{E LA\^/ OF THE
EXECUTTVE BRANCH
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Contents
xvll
Preface
Acknowledgments
xx
Note on Citations
xxll
l. Fundamental
1.
I
Concepts
I
Enumerated and Implied Powers
2. Overlapping Powers
1
3. Judicial Misconceptions
3
4. Historical Framework
4
British Model
5
6. Articles of Confederation
6
7. Constitutional Convention and Ratification
6
8. Separation of Powers
7
5. The
9. Articles
I and II
9
10. Evolving Powers
1
1.
12.
10
Approaches by Lawyers and Professors
12f
Interpretive Theories
2. Election and Removal of the President
1. Choosing the President by Electors
A.
15
15
t6
Views of the Framers
ir
11 r
IX
i
CONTENTS
B.
A Tie
Vote
in
1840
18
C. The Election of 1876
D, Electoral Count Act of 1887
E. Supreme Court Guidance
F. The Election of 2A00
G. Reform ProPosals
19
2.
Eligibility; "Natural Born Citizen"
26
3.
Multiple Terms; Twenty-Second Amendment
29
4. Compensation and Emoluments
19
20
2t
24
30
Oath
31
6. Disability and Death
32
5. The President's
7. The
Twenty-Fifth Amendment
34
8. Vice President
36
9. Impeachment and Censure
39
A. Scope of ImPeachment
B.Impeachment Eforts
C. Censure Motions
40
10. Executive
ImmunitY
A.
Filing a "Bivens action"
B. Immunity for Presidents and Executive Oficials
C. Presidential Immunity for l'Jnofi.cial Acts
3. The Powers of the President
1. Enumerated and
ImPlied Powers
2. The Vesting Clause
3. The
"Herein-Granted" Debate
A. Pacificus-Helvidius
B. Ro osevelt-Taft Mo dels
C. Contemporary Analysis of "Herein Granted"
43
45
48
50
51
57
58
58
62
63
64
65
66
4. Inherent Powers
68
5. Prerogative Powers
73
6.
Ministerial and Discretionary Powers
76
A. Attorney General OPinions
B. Amos Kendall Case
77
79
Contents
C. Other Court Rulings
7. Removal Power
xi
82
84
A. Confrontations with Andrew lackson and Andrew lohnson
85
B. Court Interpretations
86
C. From ltfyers to Humphrey's Executor
88
8. Pardon Power
9T
9. Opinion Clause
95
10. Take Care Clause
97
A. Scope of Presidential Control
B. The "Unitary Executive" Debate
C. Nonenforcement of the Law
11. Executive Orders and Proclamations
A. Statutory Policy
B. Presidential Lawmaking
C. Presidential Control over Agency Rulemaking
97
98
99
101
101
103
106
12. Presidential Commissions
108
A. Congressional Support
109
B. Presidential
110
organization
C. Pearl Harbor and Kennedyb Assassination
Re
4. The President and Congress
1.
Inaugural Address
r!2
115
11s
2. State of the Union Message
1t7
3. Recommendation Clause
118
4. Convening and Adjourning Congress
r20
5.
Appointments Clause
A.
The President
"ShallNominate"
B. Who Participates?
C. Senatorial Courtesy
D. "Inferior" Oficers
E. Statutory Controls
6. Recess Appointees
A. Pro Forma Sessions; Obamab Initiative
B. Funding Restrictions
l\
r22
123
124
127
I29
131
t32
134
136
CONTENTS
C. Holdover Clauses
138
D. Temporary Appointments
r39
7. Presidential "Czars"
I4T
8. Independent Counsels
t43
9.
A. Statutory Support
B. The Ofice is Upheld
C. Termination of the Ofice
D. Presidents Safeguarding Their Ofice?
149
Ineligibility and Incompatibility Clauses
149
r46
t48
A.Ineligibility
149
B. Incompatibility
t52
10.
Bill of Attainder Clause
1s3
11. Delegation of Power
15s
A. N ondelegat ion D o ctr ine
156
B. Reasons
157
for Delegation
C.ludicial Invalidations: the NRA
158
D. Subdelegation
161
12. Independent Agencies
A.
161
Ev alu at ing C ommi s si o ns
r63
B. Presidential Control
5. Vetoes and Access to
165
Information
168
1. Presidential Veto
168
A. Council of Revision
B. Qualifed, not Absolute
C. Hamilton\ Analysis
D. Use of the Veto
E. Constitutional Pro cedures
F. Statements of Administration Policy
2. Pocket Veto
3.
144
168
169
170
t7I
173
(SAPj
176
177
A. Eforts at Political Accommodation
B. A Statutory Solution?
180
A Hybrid Veto
181
t78
Contents
4.Item Vetoes
xiii
185
A. Omnibus Bills and Riders
B. OLC\ Analysis in 1988
C. Line ltem Veto Act
5. Signing Statements
18s
187
189
191
A. Contemp orary Disputes
t92
B. Searching for Boundaries
194
6. Legislative Vetoes
A. Early History
B. Presidential En couragement
C. Legislative Veto Struck Down
D. They Survive
7. Executive Privilege
197
r97
199
202
205
207
A. Some Early Lessons
208
B. Congressional Leverage
210
Iudicial Leverage
D. ClarifyingNixon
214
2L6
C.
8. Employee Access to Congress
A. Lloyd-LaFollete Act
B. Treatment of Whistleblowers
C. Appropriation Controls
6. Budgetary Duties
2t7
218
2r9
220
223
1. Power of the Purse
223
2. Statement and Account Clause
224
3,
Controlling the Treasury
229
4. Submitting a Budget
23r
5. Budget and Accounting Act
234
6. Impounding Funds
237
Actof1974
240
8. Reagan and Gramm-Rudman
243
9. Seeking Outside Funds: Iran-Contra
247
7. Budget
A.
The Boland Amendments
B. The Story Breal<s
1\
247
249
CONTENTS
C. UsingOutside Funds
10.
252
Controlling the National Debt
A.
Fiscal Commission
B. Statutory Action
2s7
259
in 2011
7. Foreign Affairs
1. The
261
British Model
A. Creating
256
26t
a Republic
264
B. Sole-Organ Doctrine
265
2. Foreign Relations
268
3. Treaty Power
271
A. Treaty Negotiation
B. The lay Treaty
C. The Logan Act
279
D. Supremacy of Treaties
281
272
276
4. Role of the House
283
A. FundingDisputes
283
B. Statutes vs, Treaties
C. Fast-Track Procedures
285
286
5. Treaty Termination and Reinterpretation
A.
The Goldwater Case
B. Tr e aty Re inter pret ati on
287
289
6. Executive Agreements
290
A. Litigation
B. The Case Act
7. Ambassadors and Recognition
A. Special Envoys
B. Recognition Policy
286
291
293
policy
294
294
296
8. Right to Travel
298
9. Excluding Aliens
300
10.
Loyalty Dismissals
304
CONTENTS
4. Advisory Opinions
369
5. Nominating |udges
373
6. Recess Appointments
377
7. FDR's Court-packing
A.
381
The proposal
381
B. Senate Repudiation
383
8. National Security and
|udicial Deference
A. Reflections by lustice lackson
B. The Judicial Record: 1936 to 2001
C. After 9/11
385
387
394
9. State Secrets privilege
A.
385
401
Burr Trial
B. Lincoln's Spy and lts progeny
C. A B-29 Explodes in Midaír
The
402
404
405
408
409
D. Fraud Against the Court
E. State Secrets After 9/11
Conclusions
414
About the Author
419
Index ofCases
421
Index ofSubjects
433
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