J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
DOI: 10.1002/jpln.200700023
483
Podzol development with time in sandy beach deposits in southern
Norway§
Daniela Sauer1*, Isabelle Schülli-Maurer1, Ragnhild Sperstad2, Rolf Sørensen3, and Karl Stahr1
1
Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim University, Emil-Wolff-Str. 27, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
Norwegian Institute of Forest and Landscape, 1431 Ås, Norway
3 Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 1432 Ås, Norway
2
Abstract
The coastal areas of SE Norway provide suitable conditions for studying soil development with
time, because unweathered land surfaces have continuously been raised above sea level by
glacio-isostatic uplift since the termination of the last ice age. We investigated Podzol development in a chronosequence of six soils on sandy beach deposits with ages ranging from 2,300 to
9,650 y at the W coast of the Oslofjord. The climate in this area is rather mild with a mean annual
temperature of 6°C and an annual precipitation of 975 mm (Sandefjord). The youngest soil
showed no evidence of podzolization, while slight lightening of the A horizon of the second soil
(3,800 years) indicated initial leaching of organic matter (OM). In the 4,300 y–old soil also Fe
and humus accumulation in the B horizon were perceptible, but only the 6,600 y–old and older
soils exhibited spodic horizons. Accumulation of OM in the A horizons reached a steady state in
<2,300 y, while in the B horizons OM accumulated at increasing rates. pH dropped from
6.6 (H2O)/5.9 (KCl) in the recent beach sand to 4.5 (H2O)/3.8 (KCl) within approx. 4,500 y
(pHH2O)/2,500 y (pHKCl) and stayed constant thereafter, which was attributed to sesquioxide buffering. Base saturation showed an exponential decrease with time. Progressive weathering was
reflected by increasing Fed and Ald contents, and proceeding podzolization by increasing
amounts of pyrophophate- and oxalate-soluble Fe and Al with soil age. These increases could
be best described for most Fe and Al fractions by exponential models. Only the increasing
amounts of Fep could be better described by a power function and those of Feo by a linear model.
Key words: soil chronosequences / Podzols / beach deposits / Norway
Accepted August 20, 2007
1 Introduction
Podzol formation has attracted scientists since the beginning
of modern pedology. Keilhack (1912) already used different
stages of weathering and podzolization in sand dunes to
reconstruct the coastal development of an area along the Baltic Sea. Since then, many Podzol chronosequence studies
have been conducted.
In this paper, we report observations on Podzol development
in sandy beach sediments along the SW coast of the Oslofjord (Norway). Our results are then compared to those obtained from other areas of the world in order to draw some
general conclusions about Podzol development.
A look through the existing literature shows that the rates of
Podzol formation vary in a wide range, depending on parent
material, precipitation, temperature, and vegetation (Tab. 1).
However, in most studies incipient podzolization was observed through formation of a weak E horizon after about 200
to 500 y (Burges and Drover, 1953; Jauhiainen, 1973; Zech
and Wilke, 1977; Singleton and Lavkulich, 1987; Lichter,
1998; Barrett, 2001; Mokma et al., 2004). In some cases,
podzolization was perceptible already after 100 or less years
(Tamm, 1915, 1920; Mellor, 1985; Alexander and Burt, 1996;
Stützer, 1998), while in some other studies it took >500 y until
first signs of podzolization occurred (Protz et al., 1984; Little,
1986; Tonkin and Basher, 2001). The maximum time required
was 3,000 to 4,000 y (Birkeland, 1984).
The development of mature Podzols usually took approx.
1,000 to 5,000 y (Tamm, 1915, 1920; Burges and Drover,
1953; Protz et al., 1984; Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992, 1993;
Bäumler et al., 1997; Egli et al., 2001; Mokma et al., 2004;
* Correspondence: Dr. D. Sauer;
e-mail: [email protected]
§ Focus Issue Imprint of Environmental Change on Paleosols
(editors: D. Sauer and R. Jahn). Selected Papers presented during
the 18th World Congress of Soil Science (WCSS), July 9–15, 2006 in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.plant-soil.com
Study area
Mendenhall Glacier,
SE Alaska
Inner Himalaya
(Central Nepal)
Cairngorm Mts.
(Scotland)
N-shore of Lake
Michigan, USA
Emmet County,
NE-shore of Lake
Michigan, USA
Mt. Cook area
and Ben Ohau
Range, S-Alps,
New Zealand
NSW, Australia,
Pacific coast
S of Woy Woy,
New South Wales,
Australia
Two areas,
Swiss Alps
South of
Sandane,
SW-Norway
Author(s)
Alexander and Burt
(1996), Burt and
Alexander (1996)
Bäumler et al. (1997)
Bain et al.
(1993)
Barrett (2001)
Barrett and Schaetzl
(1992, 1993)
Birkeland
(1984)
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Bowman
(1989)
Burges and Drover
(1953)
Egli et al.
(2001)
Evans,
(1999)
Not reported
1.2 (Gletsch)
0.5 (Schmadri)
Not reported
(Narara: 16.8)c
2,500
not reported
not reported
succession:
dune-colonizing flora
→ Australian tea tree
→ eucalyptus + gum
myrtle
1,312
(Gosford)
2,000
eucalyptus forest
931
150 y to
10,500 y
recent beach to
approx. 4,000 y
recent beach to
6,500 y BP
moraines of gneiss
220 y to
and quartz monzonite, >10,000 y
17 (four age groups)
granitic glacial till,
6 (Gletsch), 2
(Schmadri)
beach ridges of
calcareaous sand,
number not reported
(at least 23 locations
studied)
beach ridges of
calcareaous sand, 7
loess, eolian sand, till, 100 y to
colluvium, debris-flow 9,000 y
deposits, bedrock:
greywacke and argillite
Mt. Cook: succession
to subalpine shrub +
low forest
Ben Ohau: grasses
10 y to
5,000 y
80 y BP to
13,000 y BP
sandy lake terraces, 4 3,000 y BP to
1992: 18 drills + 1 pit 11,000 y BP
per terrace, 1993: 6
more drills per terrace
included
sandy eolian
sediments
on beach ridges, 24
river terraces from
acid schists, 6
135 y BP to
late glacial
<220 y /
<220 y
>700 to ≤3,300 y /
>700 to ≤3,300 y
>200 to ≤250 y /
>1,000 to ≤2,000 y
>0 to ≤2,500 y /
>5,000 to ≤5,800 y
approx. 8,000 to 9,000 y
>3,000 to ≤4,000 y /
<3,000 y BP /
>4,000 to ≤10,000 y BP
>10 to ≤230 y /
>5,000 y
>80 to ≤1,100 y BP /
>5,460 to ≤10,000 y BP
>550 to ≤2,500 y BP /
>550 to ≤2,500 y BP
>38 to ≤70 y /
>90 to ≤240 y
10 to >240 y
kame and moraines
from granite, granodiorite, and metamorphic rock, 6
moraines from acid
gneiss, 4
Age at which first signs
of podzolization
occurred / age at which
first a mature Podzol
occurred
Timespan of
chronosequence
(youngest to
oldest soil)
Parent material,
no. of soils of
different ages
studied
mixed forest
mixed forest
dry calluna moor and
lichen rich calluna
moor
dwarf shrubs
succession:
fireweed → alder +
willow
→ cottonwood +
spruce
→ spruce only
Vegetation
Sauer, Schülli-Maurer, Sperstad, Sørensen, Stahr
15.3
Mt. Cook:
approx. 4,000,
Ben Ohau Range:
approx. 1,000
730–830
5.2
Mt. Cook:
7–8
Ben Ohau Range:
4
806
1,050
1,224
>2,500
Mean annual
precipitation
[mm]
10.5
Not reported
(Braemar: 6.3)c
2.7
4.4–6.1
Mean annual
temperature
[°C]
Table 1: Holocene chronosequences of Podzol development reported in the literature.
484
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
www.plant-soil.com
Study area
Gulf of Bothnia,
SW of Oulu, Finland
Ivalojoki (NE-Finland)
and Oulankajoki
(E-Finland)
river valleys
Emmet County,
NE-shore of
Lake Michigan
Fraser Island,
SE-Queensland,
Australia
Two areas:
Austerdalsbreen
and Storbreen,
Jotunheimen Mts.,
S-Norway
S-Finland, chronosequence:
Siunto Pickala,
4 older soils:
Jalasjärvi, Toholampi,
Sotkamo, Mikkeli
Hudson Bay, Ontario
SJames Bay, Ontario
Author(s)
Jauhiainen (1973)
Koutaniemi et al.
(1988)
Lichter
(1998)
Little (1986)
Mellor
(1985)
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Mokma et al. (2004)
Protz et al. (1984)
Protz et al. (1988)
–0.1
–5.5
Mikkeli: 6
Toholampi: 5
Siunto Pickala and
Jalasjärvi: 4
Sotkamo: 3
Storbreen:
–1
810
510
500–600
Storbreen: 1,500
Austerdalsbr.: 2,250
not reported
(whole island:
1,200–1,800)
not reported
(whole island:
14.1–28.8)d
Austerdalsbreen:
5
772
450–550
417
Mean annual
precipitation
[mm]
6.2
–1 to 0
3.0
Mean annual
temperature
[°C]
recent beach to
approx. 4,150 y
>345 to ≤400 y /
not reported
<300 y BP /
<300 y BP
340 to 500 y BP /
>570 to ≤1,070 y BPb
Age at which first signs
of podzolization
occurred / age at which
first a mature Podzol
occurred
spruce with a few bal- sandy–fine gravely
1,100 y BP to
sam poplar, lichens,
storm beach ridges, 9 2,740 y BP
(mosses)
lichens, mosses, with candy–gravely
<100 y BP to
increasing density of storm beach ridges, 6 5,440 y BP
spruce from the coast
to the inland
4 older soils:
8,300 y to
11,300 y
chronosequence:
230 y to
1,800 y
43 y to
moraines, Austerdalsbreen area: from 230 y
acidic granitic
gneiss, 9
Storbreen area: from
basic pyroxene-granulite gneiss, 7
≤1,100 y BP /
>1,100 to ≤1,160 y BP
750 to ≤1,893 y BP /
>2,300 to ≤4,540 y BP
≤230 y /
>1,800 to ≤8,300 y
(estimated approx. 4,780
y)
Jotunheimen area:
≤43 y (E horizons) /
Podzols: not reported
Jostedalsbre area:
no Podzols, also beyond
the Neoglacial zones
beach and dune sand, <150 y to
>300 to ≤2,000 y /
13
approx. 500,000 y >2,000 to ≤5,000 y
(studied in 52 soil profiles)
Giant Podzols: 40,000 y
beach sand and
Sotkamo, Jalasjärvi,
sandy glacial
and Siunto Pickala:
scotch pine with silver outwash,
birch,
chronosequence: 7
Toholampi and Mikkeli:
arable land surrounolder soils: 4
ded by coniferous
forests
Storbreen:
low alpine zone
Austerdalsbreen:
subalpine birch
woodland zone
not reported
130 y BP to
3,010 y BPa
Timespan of
chronosequence
(youngest to
oldest soil)
sandy river terraces, 300 y BP to
in granulite area
9,500 y BP
(Ivalojoki) / schist area
(Oulankajoki),
4 groups of similar
terrace heights/ages
sandy beach ridges
overlying granite and
granodiorite, 16
Parent material,
no. of soils of
different ages
studied
young ridges: grasses, Lake Michigan
sand dune–capped
shrubs, ridges ≥225
years:
beach ridges, 22
coniferous forest
crowberry, blueberry,
heather, mosses,
lichens
pine, spruce, birch,
cranberry, crowberry,
heather
Vegetation
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
Podzol development with the time in sandy beach deposits 485
www.plant-soil.com
Lake Ragunda area
(N Sweden)
Western S-Alps,
New Zealand
8
Lake Huron,
Pinery Provincial Park,
SW-Ontario, Canada
Tamm
(1915, 1920)
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Tonkin and Basher
(2001)
VandenBygaart and
Protz (1995)
1,800
856
9,850
succession: sites
1 + 2: grasses, sites
4–7: juniper, pine,
heather, cranberry
site 0: foredune slack
(sand reed, marram
grass)
site 1: cedar savanna
Sites 2–5: black oak
savanna
subalpine zone:
snowgrass, scrub,
and low forest
coniferous forest
b means
≤25 y /
>80 y
≤100 y /
≤ 1,000 y,
depending on vegetation
>500 to ≤1,000 y /
>1,275 to 7,000 y
<25 y to
80 y
<20 y to
7,000 to 8,000
≥70 y /
approx. 10,000 y
moraines, 7
approx. 50 y to
approx. 625 y
>125 to ≤200 y
>375 to ≤625 y
>100 to ≤1,000 y /
>4,700 y
>339 to ≤1,019 y /
>1,019 to ≤2,085 y
>170 to ≤265 y /
>265 to ≤371 y
>193 y
>193 y
>400 to ≤3,000 y /
>400 to ≤3,000 y
Age at which first signs
of podzolization
occurred / age at which
first a mature Podzol
occurred
339 y to
5276 y
127 y to
550 y
sand dunes (from
100 y BP to
lime-/dolostone, chert, 4,700 y BP
sand-/siltstone,
metamorphic rock,
mafics, felsics), 6
alluvium + colluvium
from psammitic +
pelitic schist
sandy moraines,
sandy and silty lake
terraces, 8
sand dunes,
5
y = years before sampling, y BP = years before 1950
that the 240 y–old soil was a Podzol, while the next younger soil studied, in this case the 90 y–old soil, was still no Podzol
c http://www.worldclimate.com
d http://www.getaboutoz.com/fraser_island.htm#climate
a
0
5.5 (Cropp Hut,
1982–1985)
1.84
490.5
(Östersund, Jämtland)
site 1: beachgrass
site 2: heathland
sites 3–5: conifers
(planted)
700
sandy esker
deposits, 5
sitka spruce forest
beach sand, 7
with shrubs and mosses
scots pine (+ alder at
the youngest site),
cranberry, crowberry,
mosses, lichens
80 y to
6,500 y
Timespan of
chronosequence
(youngest to
oldest soil)
moraines, containing 33 y to
193 y
80% calcium
carbonate,
6 (10 pits per moraine)
stony moraines, 4
bare → meadow →
blueberry → rhododendron + larch
spruce, birch, willow,
shrubs, mosses,
lichens
Parent material,
no. of soils of
different ages
studied
Vegetation
526
1,270
737
951
Mean annual
precipitation
[mm]
Sauer, Schülli-Maurer, Sperstad, Sørensen, Stahr
Zech and Wilke (1977) Ziller Valley,
Austrian Alps
W Jutland, Denmark
Stützer (1998)
July: 16
February: 1
(7.5 in Ålborg)c
3 (Kruunupyy airport)
Central
W-coast
of Finland
2.1
Starr and Lindroos
(2006)
Robson Glacier,
British Columbia,
Canada
Sondheim and
Standish (1983)
3.6
9
(Tofino airport)
Mont Blanc
(N-Alps, Switzerland)
Righi et al. (1999)
Mean annual
temperature
[°C]
Sondheim et al.
Vancouver Island
(1981), Singleton and (British Columbia,
Lavkulich (1987)
Canada)
Study area
Author(s)
486
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
www.plant-soil.com
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
Starr and Lindroos, 2006). Some authors found Podzols
already in 200 to 600 y–old sediments (Zech and Wilke,
1977; Singleton and Lavkulich, 1987; Koutaniemi et al., 1988;
Alexander and Burt, 1996; Evans, 1999), while in other studies, Podzol formation required >5,000 y (Birkeland, 1984;
Bowman, 1989; Bain et al., 1993; Barrett, 2001). Comparing
these different studies, it must be mentioned that different
classification systems, in which requirements for a Podzol differ to some extend, were used, and that also within each system definitions changed over time.
2 Study area
The study area is located in Vestfold, at the W side of the
Oslofjord (SE Norway), 59°04′ to 59°11′ N and 10°04′ to
10°20′ E (Fig. 1). Despite the rather high latitude, the climate
is comparatively mild due to the influence of the Gulf Stream
and other sea currents. The mean annual temperature is 6°C
(Sandefjord), with average monthly temperatures ranging
from –2°C in February to 16°C in July. Daily temperatures
<0°C occur on averaged 117 d y–1. The mean annual precipitation is 975 mm, distributed to averaged 245 d, including 79 d
with snow. Due to the mild climate and the vegetation cover,
consisting mostly of mixed forest, Podzols only develop in
sandy sediments, while soil formation in loamy parent materials leads to Albeluvisols (Schülli et al., 2007).
Since the retreat of the inland ice at the termination of the last
ice age, fresh sediments have been raised above sea level
by glacio-isostatic uplift. The sea level curves of the area
show a steady regression, so that the sediments continuously
get older from the coast inland, while no distinct terraces
were formed. The thickness of the beach sediments is usually
limited, because at each location, beach conditions were only
present during a transitional phase leading from a marine to a
terrestrial environment. In the soils under investigation, the
beach sediment thickness varies between 75 and 125 cm.
5 km
Sw
ed e
d
lan
Fin
G, 1, 2
x
Sandefjord
x3
Nor
way
n
N
500 km
x x6
5
x
4
Larvik
xV
Figure 1: Locations of pedons 1–6, forming the soil chronosequence.
G and V indicate the places, where unweathered sand samples were
taken from the recent beach (Gleabukta and Vesterøya).
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Podzol development with the time in sandy beach deposits 487
The sediments are sandy with some gravel (Tab. 2). Below
the beach sands usually loamy marine sediments occur,
leading to stagnic conditions at some depth. The rock which
underlies the sediments is larvikite, a variety of monzonite
which is of Permian age (Sørensen, 1988; Lutro and Nordgulen, 2004). Larvikite is a coarse-grained plutonic rock, rich
in plagioclase and apatite, readily releasing plant nutrients
(Sørensen et al., 2007).
3 Methods and material
We dug six soil pits on sandy beach deposits ranging from
2,300 to 9,650 y in age and sampled additional two samples
from the recent beach. The ages of the land surfaces were
deduced from several local sea-level curves based on calibrated radiocarbon datings (Henningsmoen, 1979; Sørensen
et al., 2007). The soil profiles were described according to
FAO (1990, 2006), classified according to IUSS Working
Group WRB (2006), and sampled horizon-wise. The samples
were air-dried and passed through a 2 mm sieve. All analyses
were carried out on air-dried fine earth using two replicates.
The results were then referred to 105°C-dried soil including
rock fragments. pH(KCl) and pH(H2O) were measured with a
glass electrode at a soil-to-solution ratio of 2.5:1. The C contents were measured by a Leco CN-analyzer and considered
as organic C (OC), since the samples contained no carbonates. Particle-size analysis was done by sieving of the sand
fractions and using the pipette method for silt and clay fractionation (ISO/CD 11277). Samples with organic-matter (OM)
contents >1% were treated with H2O2 prior to particle-size
analysis. The cation-exchange capacity (CEC) was determined according to Chapman (1965) at pH 7 saturating all
charges with Na+ ions, exchanging Na+ with NH‡
4 acetate,
and analyzing Na+ in the solution by flame photometer. Also
the base saturation was determined according to Chapman
(1965) at pH 7 by exchanging the adsorbed cations with NH‡
4
acetate and analyzing the solution for Ca, K, Na (flame photometer), and Mg (AAS). Iron and Al were extracted by dithionite (Fed and Ald, Mehra and Jackson, 1960), oxalate (Feo
and Alo, Tamm, 1932; modified by Schwertmann, 1964), and
pyrophosphate (Fep and Alp, McKeague et al., 1971). The
amounts of these Fe and Al fractions were measured by
inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spetrometry
(ICP-OES). The total element contents (Fet, Alt) were determined by X-ray fluorescence analysis of fused discs (only
one replicate).
The horizon data were transformed to pedon data which were
plotted vs. soil age to obtain chronofunctions. For this purpose, weighted mean values of pH, CEC, and base saturation (BS) were calculated for each pedon up to 90 cm depth
(mean values of the horizon data, weighted according to horizon thickness). The pH values were delogarithmized before
averaging and afterwards again logarithmized. Pedon data of
the amounts of different Fe and Al fractions (kg m–2) were calculated from the horizon data, considering rock-fragment
content, bulk density, and horizon thickness, and summed up
to 90 cm soil depth. Relationships were tested for statistical
significance (a = 0.05) by Pearson’s correlation coefficient
and t-test (linear relationships) or Spearman’s rank correlation (nonlinear relationships).
www.plant-soil.com
488
Sauer, Schülli-Maurer, Sperstad, Sørensen, Stahr
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
4 Results and discussion
80
70
The youngest soil investigated, with an estimated age of
2,300 ± 150 y (these uncertainties include those of 14C dating
and those of the elevation estimate, from which the ages
were derived, based on local relative sealevel curves), had
two Ah horizons (8 and 17 cm thick) followed by a Bw horizon, and exhibited no signs of podzolization (Tab. 2). Assuming the thickness of the upper Ah horizon (8 cm) as the normal Ah horizon thickness, the upper 17 cm of the soil were
interpreted as colluvium. This assumption was confirmed by
the absence of rock fragments up to this depth. The soil was
classified as Endostagnic Umbrisol (Colluvic, Brunic, Hyperdystric, Endoskeletic, Arenic) according to WRB (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006). The term “Endostagnic” is due to the
underlying loamy marine sediments, causing stagnic conditions in the lower part of the soil. At the second site, the original soil with an approximate age of 3,800 ± 150 y was covered by a 37 cm thick colluvium, which exhibited slight
bleaching of the A horizon, indicating incipient podzolization.
The colluvial material consisted of beach sand eroded from
the adjacent slope and hence was similar to the autochthonous beach sand. The buried soil had a BC horizon but
showed no signs of podzolization. The complete pedon was
classified as Brunic Arenosol (Colluvic, Protospodic). The
third pedon with an age of approx. 4,300 ± 200 y showed
clear bleaching in the lower part of the topsoil and accumulation of OM and Fe oxides in the subsoil. It was classified as
Endostagnic Endoleptic Cambisol (Protospodic). Pedons 4 to
6 included three soils of 6,600 ± 170 y, 7,650 ± 130 y, and
9,650 ± 100 y in age, which all had spodic horizons. Pedons
4 and 6 were classified as Folic Endostagnic Podzols, pedon
5 as Endostagnic Podzol.
Solum depth (including A, E, B, and BC horizons, excluding
colluvium) increased from 39 cm in the 2,300 y–old soil to
87 cm in the 3,800 y–old soil, which corresponds to average
rates of solum-depth increase of 2.3 cm per 100 y during the
first 3,800 y of soil development. After 3,800 y, the solum
depth varied between 74 and 105 cm showing no trend.
Evans (1999) also reported a rapid initial increase in solum
depth (5 cm per 100 y), which slowed down after 700 y (to
0.06 cm per 100 y). However, it has to be considered that in
the four older soils of our sequence, the solum depth is influenced by sedimentary preconditions, since in pedon 3 it is
limited by hard rock, in pedon 4 the sediment shows an
increasing clay content below the solum depth, and in pedons
5 and 6 the sediment changes from sandy beach deposit into
the loamy marine facies, which is less suitable for podzolization.
Thickness of B horizons (including BC horizons) exhibited a
time-dependent progress similar to that of solum depth (R2 =
0.41 for the power function). Increases in solum depth and B
horizon thickness were also reported by other authors (Semmel, 1969, p. 32; Mellor, 1985; Singleton and Lavkulich,
1987; Koutaniemi et al., 1988; Barrett and Schaetzl, 1992,
1993; Evans, 1999). Burges and Drover (1953) found that
after 2,000 y, the B horizon thickness only slightly increased,
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Combined thickness of
Bh and Bs horizons
4.1 Soil profile morphology
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4000
y = 0.008x - 8.74
R2 = 0.99
6000
8000
Soil age [ye ars ]
10000
Figure 2: Relationship between combined thickness of Bh and Bs
horizons and soil age.
while VandenBygaart and Protz (1995) observed a linear
increase in solum depth and B horizon thickness with soil age
up to 4,700 y.
The combined thickness of Bh and Bs horizons showed a
steady increase (Fig. 2), which is in agreement with Bowman
(1989). The increase proceeded from 27 cm in the 4,300
y–old soil to 69 cm in the 9,650 y–old soil and could be described equally by linear, power, and exponential functions
(R2 = 0.99 for all models). The linear model was considered
more realistic than the other models which suggested
increasing rates of thickness increase with soil age. No
increase in thickness of albic horizons as reported by several
authors (Singleton and Lavkulich, 1987; Koutaniemi et al.,
1988; Bowman, 1989; Mellor, 1985) was observed, which is
in agreement with Mokma et al. (2004), who found that Bs
horizon and solum thickness increased with soil age while E
horizon thickness showed no increase.
4.1 Organic-matter accumulation
Amounts of OC in the A horizons (including AE horizons)
seemed to reach a steady state at 4.4 to 4.8 kg m–2 within
<2,300 y (Fig. 3a, Tab. 3). Afterwards, they were influenced
rather by local environmental conditions than by soil age.
This finding is in agreement with those of several authors
who observed the achievement of a steady state of OC accumulation within relatively short time spans. Sondheim and
Standish (1983) found in moraines of the Robson Glacier
(British Columbia, Canada) that the soil organic-matter
(SOM) contents reached a steady state within 100 to 120 y.
Jacobson and Birks (1980) observed rapid SOM accumulation in the first 100 to 150 y and a more gradual increase between 150 and 250 y of soil development. VandenBygaart
and Protz (1995) observed in sand dunes along Lake Huron
(Ontario, Canada) that SOM contents showed a rapid
increase in the first 1,000 y, a much slower increase between
1,000 and 2,000 y, and some variability without a clear further
increase thereafter. Egli et al. (2001) found in moraines in the
Swiss Alps that the OC content increased rapidly in the first
3,300 y and then seemed to achieve a steady state.
www.plant-soil.com
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
Podzol development with the time in sandy beach deposits 489
Table 2: Soil-profile morphology and classification according to WRB (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006).
Pedon
age [y]a
classification according to WRB
Vegetation
Gleabukta
Vesterøya
recent beach,
no vegetation
Depth
[cm]b
–5
–5
Horizons Color
(FAO, 2006) (moist)
Structure
Bulk
(codes
density
according to [g cm–3]
FAO, 2006)
C
C
SG
SG
Gravel
content
[mass.%]c
Sand
[%]
Silt
[%]
Clay
[%]
0
0
98.4
99.3
0.5
0.4
1.1
0.3
0.93
1.23
1.25
1.30
1.64
1.64
0
0
20
40
60
25
71.9
71.1
78.8
85.7
80.0
60.7
14.1
15.4
11.4
10.6
16.6
22.3
14.0
13.5
9.8
3.7
3.4
17.0
1.32
1.50
1.28
1.28
1.28
1.33
1.60
1.68
1.59
5
20
0
60
50
20
<1
<1
<1
89.9
91.7
85.8
92.8
85.0
89.5
78.2
52.1
32.9
6.0
4.2
7.7
4.6
8.4
5.8
15.2
27.0
34.3
4.1
4.1
6.5
2.6
6.6
4.7
6.6
20.9
32.8
Pedon 1
2,300 ± 150
Endostagnic Umbrisol
(Colluvic, Brunic, Hyperdystric,
Endoskeletic, Arenic)
forest:
spruce, elm, oak, birch,
hazel,
mountain ash
organic layer: +5: Oi
Ah1
–8
Ah2
–25
Bw
–46
BC
–56
Cg1
–115
2Cg2
–135
forest:
spruce, beech,
aspen, birch,
mountain ash,
hazel
organic layer: +9: Oi / +8: Oe / +3: Oa
10YR3/2 SB
AE
–7
10YR4/3 SB
Bw1
–16
10YR3/2 PL
Bw2
–21
10YR3/3 n.d.
BC
–37
n.d.
2.5Y2/1
Ahb
–47
MA
2.5Y4/2
BC
–77
MA
2.5Y4/2
BCg
–124
MA-SB
2.5Y4/2
2Cg
–138
oxidized: AB
Cr
–180
7.5YR5/8, 7.5YR6/6,
reduced areas: N4/0
forest:
oak, beech, birch,
hazel, mountain ash
organic layer: +3.5: Oi / +0.5: Oe
–4
Ah
10YR2/2 GR+WC
0.81
–9
AE
10YR2/2 GR+WC
0.75
–22
Bh
10YR3/2 SB-MA
0.84
–36
Bs
10YR3/4 SG-GR
0.93
–50
Bw
10YR4/4 SG-SB
1.00
–90
BCg
oxidized: SS
1.56
>90
2R
5Y5/6, reduced: 10YR4/3
0
0
15
15
10
5
rock
55.9
57.5
59.0
59.4
66.0
63.6
30.1
28.8
28.8
28.6
22.5
29.6
14.0
13.7
12.2
12.0
11.5
6.8
succession after clear
cut (max. age of trees:
15 y): spruce, oak, birch,
mountain ash, rush,
raspberry, cranberry,
heather, bracken
Organic layer: +13: Oi / +9: Oe / +3.5: Oa
10YR2/1 SG
(AE)e
(–5)
10YR3/1 SG
EA
–13
7.5YR2/3 SCf
Bhs
–26
7.5YR3/3 SC
Bs
–54
10YR4/3 SB
BC
–74
10YR5/2 AB
Cg
–85
1.34
1.34
1.56
1.65c
1.66
1.80c
10g
17g
25g
60g
17g
0
82.8
88.3
95.0
96.2
80.9
70.8
12.7
8.1
2.7
2.4
13.1
17.8
4.5
3.6
2.3
1.4
6.0
11.4
1.01
1.00
1.27
1.27
1.55
1.71
1
5
25
30
30
10
82.9
85.7
91.4
87.5
76.2
42.5
11.8
8.6
3.1
7.6
16.6
37.1
5.3
5.7
5.5
4.9
7.2
20.4
1.01
1.01
1.04
1.64
1.58
0
1
0
75
22
84.9
87.1
84.6
84.2
42.4
9.4
8.5
5.5
8.1
36.9
5.7
4.4
9.9
7.7
20.7
10YR2/1
10YR3/1
2.5Y3/2
2.5Y4/2
2.5Y5/3
GR
GR-SB
SB
SB
n.d.d
SB
Pedon 2
3,800 ± 150
Brunic Arenosol (Colluvic,
Protospodic)
Pedon 3
4,300 ± 200
Endostagnic
Endoleptic Cambisol
(Protospodic)
Pedon 4
6,600 ± 170
Endostagnic Folic
Podzol
Pedon 5
7,650 ± 130
Endostagnic
Podzol
organic layer: +7.5: Oi / +6.5: Oe / +2: Oa
forest:
10YR2/2 SB
–10
AE
spruce, birch, elm, pine,
7.5YR3/4 SB
–24
Bsh
cotton wood, mountain
SB
5YR3/4
Bs1
ash, elder, blueberry, ferns, –40
10YR4/6 MA
–65
Bs2
wood sorrel, grasses,
MA
2.5Y5/3
BCg
–105
mosses
oxidized: SB
2Cg
–140
5YR4/6, reduced: 2.5Y6/3
Pedon 6
9,650 ± 100
Endostagnic Folic
Podzol
(Ruptic, Endoskeletic)
forest:
Spruce, oak, aspen, birch,
mountain ash, blueberry,
ferns, grasses, mosses
organic layer: +10: Oi / +8.5: Oe / +3.5: Oa
10YR2/1 SB+SG
AE
–5
10YR3/2 SB+SG
E
–7
SB+SG
5YR3/6
Bs
–30
n.d.
5YR3/4
2Bs
–76
MA
2.5Y4/2
23Cg
–105
a
ages derived from calibrated 14C datings, given in calendar years before sampling (2003–2006)
organic layer: depth of upper boundary, mineral soil horizons: depth of lower boundary
c estimated
d n.d. = not determined: In some cases the amounts of rock fragments were too high to determine soil structure.
e discontinuous horizon
f SC = slightly cemented
g measured
b
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.plant-soil.com
490
Sauer, Schülli-Maurer, Sperstad, Sørensen, Stahr
OC in A horizons
[kg m–2]
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
OC in B horizons
[kg m–2]
16
8
a
b
14
12
6
10
4
8
6
2
4
2
0
0
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
10000
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
10000
Figure 3: Accumulation of organic carbon (OC) with time, a) in the A horizons (including AE horizons), b) in the B horizons (including Bw, Bh,
Bs, BC horizons). The amounts of OC in the B horizons increase significantly with soil age (a = 0.05). The triangles indicate outliers, influenced
by other factors than soil age. The amounts of OC in the 4,300 y–old soil are increased in both A and B horizons. The amounts of OC in the A
horizon of the 6,600 y–old soil are decreased due to the open vegetation, being in a state of succession after forest clear cut approximately
15–18 y ago.
Accumulation of OC in the B horizons (including Bw, Bh, Bs,
BC horizons) reflected the progressive podzolization process
(Fig. 3b). The rates at which OC accumulated increased with
soil age could be best described by a power function (y =
0.003 x0.85, R2 = 0.99). The increase was statistically significant.
4.2 Soil pH
Soil pH(H2O) in the upper 90 cm dropped steadily from 6.6 at
the recent beach to 4.9 in the 4,300 y–old soil and stayed
very constantly around pH 4.5 thereafter (Fig. 4a, Tab. 3).
The decrease during the first 4,300 y could be described by
an exponential (y = 6.48 e–7E–05x, R2 = 0.94) or linear model
(y = –0.0004 x + 6.48, R2 = 0.92). pH(KCl), which was 5.9 at
the beach, dropped more rapidly and had after 2,300 y (pH
4.0) almost achieved its (temporary) steady state which lay at
pH 3.8 ± 0.1 (Fig. 4b). These different curves demonstrate
that during the first 4,500 to 5,000 y of soil development, the
pH(H2O) was buffered by H+ adsorption and release of
exchangeable base cations to the soil solution, while
pH(KCl), which includes the adsorbed H+, showed a more
buried soil
colluvium
pH (H2 O)
7
rapid decrease. VandenBygaart and Protz (1995) also
reported pH(CaCl2) decrease due to leaching of Ca+ and Mg+
ions, being replaced by H+. The decrease could be well described by a linear model for soils up to 2,900 y.
In general, pH should drop until one of the soil’s buffer systems is activated. In this case, pH(KCl) achieved a buffer system a short time before podzolization became perceptible in
the field (3,800 y). Therefore, we attribute the constant pH of
the older soils to sesquioxide buffering. pH values staying
constantly around pH 4 over several thousands of years were
also observed in other Podzol chronosequences. Bain et al.
(1993) found in soils in Scotland pH(H2O) values in the A horizons decreasing from 4.7 in the youngest (80 y–old) to 4.4 in
the second-youngest (1,100 y–old) soil and then staying between 4.1 and 4.4 in all older soils up to 13,000 y. Birkeland
(1984) observed in the S Alps of New Zealand that soil
pH(H2O) in the upper 45 cm dropped from pH 6.1 in 100 y–old
soils to pH 5.1 in a 500 y–old soil and then stayed constant
(±0.2, except for one outlier) in all older soils up to 9,000 y. In
soils on moraines in the mountains of SW Norway ranging
from 220 to >10,000 y BP, Evans (1999) measured pH values
pH (KCl)
buried soil
colluvium
7
a
b
6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
Soil age [ye ars ]
10000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
Soil age [ye ars ]
10000
Figure 4: Changes of a) pH(H2O) and b) pH(KCl) with soil age (weighted mean values of soil-horizon data of the upper 90 cm).
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.plant-soil.com
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
of 4.4 to 4.7 (averages of B horizons of several soils per moraine, pH measurement not specified, presumably pH[H2O]) in
the B horizons, showing no relationship to moraine age. Koutaniemi et al. (1988) found on river terraces in Finland
pH(H2O) values of 3.4 to 3.8 in the A horizons and 4.8 to 5.2
in the C horizons, also showing no trend with time. Egli et al.
(2001) observed that soil pH(CaCl2) in the Swiss Alps
decreased from pH 5.1 in the 150 y–old soil to pH 4.0 in the
260 y–old soil, stayed constant up to 700 y, and then slightly
decreased to pH 3.7 in the 10,000 y–old soil. Singleton and
Lavkulich (1987) found on Vancouver Island (Canada), that
pH(CaCl2) in the upper 20 cm dropped from pH 4.6 in a
127 y–old soil to approx. pH 4 in all 371 to 550 y–old soils.
4.3 Base saturation
The BS in the upper 90 cm exhibited an exponential decrease
from 100% in the unweathered beach sand to 33% in the
2,300 y–old soil and finally to 0.8% in the 9,650 y–old soil
(Fig. 5a, Tab. 3). This result agrees to the finding of Bain et al.
(1993) who found an exponential decrease of BS with time in
Scottish soils. At the same time, CEC increased significantly
from 14.9 molc m–2 at the recent beach to 247.2 molc m–2 in
the 7,650 y–old soil (Fig. 5b). The absolute amounts of
exchangeable base cations also decreased exponentially
(Fig. 5c). Also Zech and Wilke (1977) observed in moraines
in the Austrian Alps that the amounts of exchangeable Ca
decreased with soil age.
The CEC increase was due to progressive clay formation and
SOM accumulation. However, the increase in clay content
was not statistically significant (Fig. 5d), because it was
affected not only by clay formation but also by textural differences of the sediment layers. Accumulation of SOM in the A
horizons had already achieved a steady state in the
2,300 y–old soil, but SOM illuviation into the B horizons proceeded with time so that the overall SOM amounts in the
upper 90 cm increased with soil age. The CEC was strongly
related to both the amounts of OC (Fig. 5e, R2 = 0.94,
a = 0.001) and clay (Fig. 5f, R2 = 0.77, a = 0.01).
4.4 Dithionite-, oxalate-, and pyrophosphateextractable Fe and Al
The amounts of dithionite-extractable Fe (Fed) increased significantly from 0.7 kg m–2 in the unweathered beach sand to
5.2 kg m–2 in the 9,650 y–old soil (Fig. 6a, Tab. 3), which
could be described by both an exponential (R2 = 0.86) and a
linear model (R2 = 0.85). The amounts of dithionite-extractable Al (Ald) showed a clearly exponential increase (R2 = 0.90)
from 0.07 kg m–2 at the recent beach to 5.8 kg m–2 in the
9,650 y–old soil (Fig. 6b). These increases are in agreement
with Singleton and Lavkulich (1987), who reported increasing
amounts of Fed and Ald with time in the B horizons of soils in
beach sands on Vancouver Island (Canada), ranging from
127 to 550 y in age. Also Barrett and Schaetzl (1992, 1993)
found in soils on terraces of Lake Michigan (N America)
increasing Fed contents of the B horizons.
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Podzol development with the time in sandy beach deposits 491
The Fed/Fet ratios exhibited an increase from 0.05 in the
unweathered sand to 0.3 in the 9.650 y–old soil, which could
be best described by an exponential model (y = 0.057
e0.0001x, R2 = 0.81). This trend agrees with that observed by
Zech and Wilke (1977) in moraines in the Austrian Alps,
where the Fed/Fet ratios in the upper 50 cm increased with
time. In contrast, Egli et al. (2001) found Fed/Fet ratios
increasing rapidly in the first 700–3,300 y of soil formation,
but then staying on a constant level.
The amounts of pyrophosphate-extractable Fe (Fep) showed
a significant increase from absence of Fep at the recent
beach to 1.2 kg m–2 in the 9,650 y–old soil (Fig. 7a), which
could be described by a linear (R2 = 0.96) or power function
(R2 = 0.999). The amounts of pyrophosphate-extractable Al
(Alp) were very similar to those of Ald, mostly even exceeding
the latter (Alp = Ald × 1.11, R2 = 0.96). Hence, Alp exhibited a
similar exponential increase as Ald (Fig. 7b). Apparently, all
pedogenic Al was poorly crystalline or SOM-bound. Some of
the Al must have formed very stable complexes with SOM,
which were more efficiently dissolved by pyrophosphate solution than by bicarbonate-citrate-dithionite solution. Increasing
amounts of Fep and Alp with progressing Podzol development
were also reported from Vancouver Island by Singleton and
Lavkulich (1987) and from S Norway by Mellor (1985). Barrett
(2001) found that Fep and Alp increases with time in soils on
beach ridges of Lake Michigan could be best described by linear models.
The amounts of oxalate-extractable iron (Feo) increased significantly from 0.4 kg m–2 at the recent beach to 3.3 kg m–2 in
the 9,650 y–old soil, which could be best described by a linear model (Fig. 7c, Tab. 3). The amounts of oxalate-extractable aluminum (Alo) exhibited an exponential increase from
0.05 kg m–2 in the unweathered sand to 4.2 kg m–2 in the
9,650 y–old soil (Fig. 7d). Increasing amounts of Feo and Alo
with time were also reported by Singleton and Lavkulich
(1987) from soils on Vancouver Island and by Burt and Alexander (1996) from SE Alaska. Birkeland (1984) applied the
soil-anisotropy concept of Walker and Green (1976), saying
that at time zero of soil formation, soils are isotropic, that is,
their properties do not change in any direction, and with progressive soil development, soils become increasingly isotropic. He applied a modified index of soil anisotropy (mIPA) to
soils in the S Alps of New Zealand and found significant increases for mIPA-Feoxalate and mIPA-Aloxalate with soil age.
Barrett (2001) found that the increases in Feo and Alo
amounts with time could be best described by linear models.
Also the Feo/Fed ratios tended to increase with time, which
could be described by an exponential (y = 0.41 e6E–05x, R2 =
0.65) or linear model (y = 3E–05 + 0.39, R2 = 0.61). Zech and
Wilke (1977) attributed increasing Feo/Fed ratios in soils on
moraines in the Austrian Alps to higher OM contents of the
older soils, which were assumed to increase the Feo contents.
Interestingly, oxalate extracted more Fe but less Al than pyrophosphate. We therefore assume that there was a fraction of
poorly crystalline Fe oxides which was dissolved by oxalate
but not by pyrophosphate, the latter working more efficiently
www.plant-soil.com
492
Sauer, Schülli-Maurer, Sperstad, Sørensen, Stahr
Bas e s aturation in
the uppe r 90 cm [%]
100
buried soil
colluvium
90
y = 100e-0.0005x
R2 = 0.91
80
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
CEC in the upper 90 cm
[mol c m–2]
250
y = 0.016x + 24.73
R2 = 0.67
200
70
150
60
50
100
40
30
50
a
20
b
10
0
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
Soil age [ye ars ]
Exchangeable bases in the
–2
upper 90 cm [molc m ]
0
10000
outlier (sample V, see Fig. 1)
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
10000
CEC in the upper 90 cm
–2
[molc m ]
100
y = 88.42e -0.0005x
R2 = 0.88
80
y = 1.84x
R2 = 0.77
200
150
60
100
40
50
c
20
d
0
0
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
0
10000
20
40
60
80
Clay in the upper 90 cm [kg m–2]
100
Clay in the upper 90 cm
[kg m–2 ]
CEC in the upper 90 cm
[mol c m–2]
100
90
y = 7.77x + 17.78
R2 = 0.94
200
80
70
150
60
50
100
40
30
50
20
e
bf
10
0
0
0
5
10
15
20
OC in the upper 90 cm [kg m–2]
25
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
10000
Figure 5: Chronofunctions of a) base saturation (BS), b) cation-exchange capacity (CEC), c) exchangeable base cations, d) exchangeable
Ca2+, e) amounts of clay, f) relationship between CEC and clay (the triangle marking an outlier), all parameters calculated per m2 down to 90 cm
depth. All relationships are significant ( a ≤ 0.05), except for e). The data from the 3,800 y–old buried soil and colluvium usually fit well into the
chronofunctions but were not included in the statistics.
in extraction of OM-bound metal ions but less efficiently in
sesquioxide extraction than oxalate. This fraction of poorly
crystalline Fe oxides (difference Feo – Fep) exhibited an
exponential increase from 0.39 kg m–2 in the unweathered
sand to 2.11 kg m–2 in the 9,650 y–old soil (Fig. 7e). In contrast, the pedogenic Al fraction of the older soils included a
marked amount of Al bound to SOM, which was extracted by
pyrophosphate but not by oxalate. The values for (Alp – Alo)
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
were negative at the recent beach, about zero in the
2,300 y–old soil, and then increased to 1.94 kg m–2 in the
9,650 y–old soil (Fig. 7f). This significant increase could be
described by a power function (R2 = 0.996), exponential (R2
= 0.987), or linear model (R2 = 0.982). The negative (Alp –
Alo) values in the first 2,300 y of soil development suggest
that there is also a poorly crystalline Al fraction which is dissolved by oxalate but not by pyrophosphate. This fraction
www.plant-soil.com
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
Fed in the upper 90 cm
[kg m–2 ]
buried soil
colluvium
Podzol development with the time in sandy beach deposits 493
outlier
7
Al d in the upper 90 cm
[kg m–2 ]
7
0.91e 0.0002x
y=
R2 = 0.85
6
y = 0.120e 0.0004x
R2 = 0.90
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
a
1
0
b
1
0
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
10000
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
10000
Figure 6: Significant progessive increase of the amounts of a) pedogenic Fe (Fed) and b) pedogenic Al (Ald) as extracted by bicarbonatecitrate-dithionite solution (weighted mean values of horizon data down to 90 cm depth).
reduces the (Alp – Alo) values and hence causes an underestimation of the SOM-bound Al. If the amounts of this fraction
of poorly crystalline Al are similar to those of the (Feo – Fep)
fraction (Fig. 7e), this would lead to an underestimation of the
amounts of SOM-bound Al (as calculated from Alp – Alo) of
approx. 50%.
5 Conclusions
In beach sands under natural vegetation in Vestfold (SE Norway) it takes >2,300 y and <3,800 y until soils exhibit a
slightly bleached A horizon indicating initial podzolization.
Although the thin colluvium on top of the 2,300 y–old soil may
have masked the first signs of incipient podzolization, it can
be concluded that podzolization starts relatively late, compared to other areas. This is attributed mainly to the vegetation,
which is mixed forest, and to the mild climate allowing for a
comparatively high activity of the soil fauna. Under these conditions, the litter is decomposed more completely and the formation of water-soluble stable organic compounds is less
pronounced than in many areas with coniferous forest or
heathland (e.g., Koutaniemi et al., 1988; Bain et al., 1993;
Lichter, 1998) or cooler climate (e.g., Zech and Wilke, 1977;
Protz et al., 1984, 1988; Mellor, 1985). In this regard, it has
also to be mentioned that before immigration of spruce and
beech to the area approx. 1,200 to 1,400 y ago, the area was
covered with deciduous forest, so that the conditions for podzolization were even less conducive to podzolization. However, there must be also a considerable influence of parent
material, because also in some areas with mixed forest and
mild climate initial podzolization becomes perceptible within
much shorter time spans (e.g., Jauhiainen, 1973; Stützer,
1998; Barrett, 2001; Mokma et al., 2004). The same holds
true for the influence of precipitation, since in most areas with
a mean annual precipitation exceeding approx. 1,250 mm,
podzolization becomes visible within <300 y (e.g., Burges
and Drover, 1953; Singleton and Lavkulich, 1987; Alexander
and Burt, 1996; Evans, 1999).
More than 4,300 y and less than 6,600 y are required for Podzol formation in Vestfold. This finding agrees with many studies in other areas, like that of Mokma et al. (2004) in S Fin 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
land, VandenBygaart and Protz (1995) at Lake Huron (SW
Ontario, Canada), Barrett (2001) at Lake Michigan, and Bain
et al. (1993) in Scotland. The conditions in the Vestfold study
area seem to be comparable to those in Emmet County, at
the NE-shore of Lake Michigan (MAT 5.2°C), where Barrett
and Schaetzl (1992, 1993) found on a 3,000 y–old terrace
under mixed forest only Entisols, on a 4,000 y–old terrace
Entisols and Podzols, and on 10,000 and 11,000 y–old terraces predominance of Podzols. The importance of vegetation is demonstrated by comparing this study to that of Lichter
(1998), who reported under coniferous forest in Emmet
County (MAT 6.2°C) incipient podzolization already within
400 y. Interestingly, rather similar time spans of podzolization
were reported by Bowman (1989) from beach ridges along
the subtropical Pacific coast of New South Wales, Australia
(MAT 15.3°C, eucalyptus forest), where Podzol development
required 5,000–5,800 y.
In Vestfold, solum depth increased during the first 3,800 y at
an average rate of 2.3 cm per 100 y. Bh and Bs horizons
occurred first in the 4,300 y–old soil, then the combined thickness of Bh and Bs horizons steadily increased from 27 cm in
the 4,300 y–old soil to 69 cm in the 9,650 y–old soil. Organiccarbon contents in the A horizons reached a steady state
within <2,300 y. This observation is in agreement with most
authors, since the time spans reported for the achievement of
a steady state of OM contents range from 100–250 y (Jacobson and Birks, 1980; Sondheim and Standish, 1983) to
2,000–3,000 y (VandenBygard and Protz, 1995; Egli et al.,
2001). Accumulation of OC in the B horizons proceeded at
increasing rates, which could be best described by a power
function. This may be explained by enhanced production and
translocation of water-soluble organic acids as biological
activity decreases. pH in the upper 90 cm dropped from pH
6.6 (H2O)/5.9 (KCl) to pH 4.5 (H2O)/3.8 (KCl) and then stayed
constant, which was attributed to sesquioxide buffering.
pH(KCl) dropped more rapidly than pH(H2O) and had almost
achieved the buffer system after 2,300 y, while pH(H2O)
reached it approx. 2,000 y later, due to buffering of exchangeable base cations. The achievement of a (temporary) steady
state of pH was observed in several Podzol chronosequences, whereby the steady-state values of pH(CaCl2) lay
www.plant-soil.com
494
Sauer, Schülli-Maurer, Sperstad, Sørensen, Stahr
Fe p in the upper 90 cm
[kg m–2 ]
buried soil
colluvium
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
Al p in the upper 90 cm
[kg m–2 ]
outlier
7
2
y = 0.198e 0.0003x
R2 = 0.99
6
5
4
1
3
2
y = 0.0001x + 0.08
R2 = 0.96
0
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
1
a
b
0
10000
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
Feo in the upper 90 cm
[kg m–2 ]
Al o in the upper 90 cm
–2
[kg m ]
4
5
y = 0.0003x + 0.39
R2 = 0.998
10000
y = 0.098e 0.0004x
R2 = 0.90
4
3
8000
3
2
2
1
1
c
d
0
0
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
0
10000
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
(Fe o – Fep) in the upper 90 cm
[kg m–2 ]
(Al p – Alo) in the upper 90 cm
[kg m–2 ]
2
2
y = 0.446e 0.0002x
R2 = 0.96
8000
10000
1
1
0
e
f
-1
0
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
10000
0
2000
4000
6000
Soil age [years]
8000
10000
Figure 7: Temporal development of the amounts of a) pyrophosphate-extractable Fe (Fep), b) pyrophosphate-extractable Al (Alp), c) oxalateextractable Fe (Feo), d) oxalate-extractable Al (Alo), e) Feo – Fep, f) Alp – Alo in the upper 90 cm of the soils (weighted mean values of horizon
data). All relationships are statistically significant ( a ≤ 0.05).
around pH 4 (Singleton and Lavkulich, 1987; Egli et al., 2001)
and those of pH(H2O) a little higher (Birkeland, 1984; Bain et
al., 1993).
Base saturation showed an exponential decrease from 100%
at the recent beach to 0.8% in the 9.650 y–old soil, indicating
rapid leaching of exchangeable base cations, compared to
the rate of base-cation release from mineral weathering. The
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
amounts of pedogenic Fe and Al as extracted by bicarbonate-citrate-dithionite solution showed exponential increases,
indicating increasing weathering rates. This enhancement of
weathering intensity is attributed to the observed pH
decrease and to increasing surface area of the mineral grains
as the soil texture becomes finer during progressive weathering. The increasing amounts of Fep and Feo could be described by linear models, those of Fep by both power function
www.plant-soil.com
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
Podzol development with the time in sandy beach deposits 495
Table 3: Analytical data of the soils.
Pedon
Depth
age [y]a
[cm]
classification
(IUSS Working Group WRB,
2006)
Gleabukta
Vesterøya
OC
[%]
BS
pH (KCl) pH (H2O) CEC
[cmolc kg–1] [%]
Fet
Fed
Feo
Fep
Alt
Ald
Alo
Alp
[g kg–1] [g kg–1] [g kg–1] [g kg–1] [g kg–1] [g kg–1] [g kg–1] [g kg–1]
17.7
14.0
1.6
0.4
0.7
0.2
0.00
0.00
63.0
68.1
0.10
0.05
0.12
0.06
0.01
0.01
–5
–5
0.2
0.0
7.6
5.6
7.4
6.4
2.1
1.2
100
100
–8
–25
–46
–56
–115
–135
5.9
2.8
0.7
0.1
0.1
0.1
3.6
3.5
4.1
4.5
4.6
4.8
4.8
4.7
5.7
6.1
6.4
6.8
27.3
24.7
9.9
2.8
1.9
7.4
25.0
8.2
22.9
33.2
37.8
60.3
26.7
26.9
24.6
24.0
24.4
30.6
4.7
6.2
3.6
2.0
2.7
4.5
2.8
3.1
2.0
1.2
1.2
1.1
2.71
1.74
0.64
0.12
0.05
0.00
70.8
71.4
70.4
67.0
63.9
70.9
1.98
2.64
1.34
0.38
0.19
0.28
1.61
1.93
0.98
0.40
0.19
0.30
2.59
1.98
0.87
0.27
0.10
0.03
–7
–16
–21
–37
–47
–77
–124
–138
–180
1.9
0.5
1.9
0.2
1.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
3.5
3.8
3.8
4.1
4.0
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.3
4.5
4.4
4.8
4.7
5.2
5.5
6.3
6.5
12.6
6.3
12.3
2.7
7.2
5.5
5.1
9.6
13.1
3.4
2.9
3.0
2.3
3.0
4.9
12.2
57.6
58.8
19.3
18.6
17.0
27.9
21.6
25.8
24.4
31.9
37.4
1.7
1.5
0.9
2.0
1.9
1.9
2.9
4.2
3.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
1.2
1.0
1.1
1.6
1.3
1.9
0.35
0.15
0.19
0.12
0.41
0.50
0.48
0.09
0.14
69.5
71.1
73.3
68.7
69.5
62.4
63.9
70.7
74.5
0.99
0.53
1.28
0.29
1.04
1.11
1.20
0.22
0.29
0.95
0.61
1.47
0.29
0.93
1.00
1.08
0.41
1.02
0.72
0.34
1.01
0.22
1.65
1.44
1.42
0.12
0.10
–4
–9
–22
–36
–50
–90
11.7
9.8
4.6
3.1
2.0
0.1
3.4
3.7
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.1
5.0
4.6
4.6
4.9
4.9
5.0
37.0
38.6
24.1
20.5
17.4
6.5
19.3
7.3
2.9
1.3
1.0
2.8
41.3
40.1
40.3
41.1
36.8
31.9
8.6
9.0
10.0
9.5
5.8
4.6
4.4
4.7
5.3
5.4
2.9
1.9
4.43
4.21
2.93
3.18
1.83
0.71
71.1
72.6
72.0
78.0
76.0
70.6
3.90
4.20
3.67
7.19
6.14
0.97
2.66
3.05
2.66
4.78
4.59
0.98
5.33
5.82
4.35
7.72
7.27
0.93
(–5)b
–13
–26
–54
–74
–85
2.1
1.3
0.6
0.2
0.4
0.2
3.1
3.3
3.7
3.7
4.0
4.4
3.8
4.0
4.4
4.4
4.9
5.2
17.0
10.5
5.3
2.3
4.3
5.0
1.4
1.8
2.4
2.3
2.3
14.7
9.8
12.8
18.3
17.4
20.9
24.2
1.3
2.6
2.3
1.3
1.9
3.0
0.7
1.1
1.2
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.27
1.38
1.22
0.54
0.75
0.31
66.5
67.5
71.3
68.4
74.4
76.3
1.67
0.94
0.92
0.51
1.58
0.58
1.45
0.90
0.77
0.38
2.12
0.64
2.52
1.32
1.37
0.57
1.93
0.68
–10
–24
–40
–65
–105
–140
4.8
2.9
1.0
0.4
1.2
0.1
3.3
3.8
4.2
4.3
4.3
3.9
4.1
4.3
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.3
28.0
25.3
11.3
6.7
3.9
8.9
1.8
0.96
0.69
1.0
3.1
25.6
22.5
26.4
25.7
26.6
25.4
35.0
5.9
9.6
4.0
2.3
2.5
7.2
3.5
6.5
2.8
2.2
1.7
4.1
2.91
2.52
0.64
0.57
0.16
0.16
60.9
65.0
63.6
61.9
67.8
71.0
2.59
5.14
3.32
1.24
1.08
0.95
1.82
3.40
2.16
1.52
1.72
1.09
3.18
5.41
3.31
2.17
1.12
0.59
–5
–7
–30
–76
–105
7.6
3.6
3.6
0.9
1.0
3.0
3.2
3.8
4.0
4.2
4.1
4.2
4.5
4.6
5.0
38.8
21.6
32.7
9.0
17.8
1.7
1.4
0.78
0.61
1.2
14.4
15.0
22.6
29.8
40.5
2.4
2.7
8.7
7.8
6.8
1.3
1.3
6.1
5.6
3.3
1.34
1.09
2.23
0.55
0.81
57.0
56.8
64.1
69.8
82.4
2.80
1.73
7.56
2.88
7.36
1.95
1.24
4.74
1.80
7.18
3.29
2.39
8.90
3.20
6.27
Pedon 1
2,300 ± 150
Brunic
Endostagnic Umbrisol
(Colluvic, Hyperdystric,
Endoskeletic, Arenic)
Pedon 2
3,800 ± 150
Brunic Arenosol
(Colluvic, Protospodic)
Pedon 3
4,300 ± 200
Endoleptic Endostagnic
Cambisol
(Protospodic)
Pedon 4
6,600 ± 170
Endostagnic Podzol
Pedon 5
7,650 ± 130
Endostagnic Podzol
Pedon 6
9,650 ± 100
Endostagnic Podzol
(Ruptic, Endoskeletic)
a
b
ages derived from calibrated
discontinuous horizon
14C
datings, given in calendar years before sampling (2003–2006)
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.plant-soil.com
496
Sauer, Schülli-Maurer, Sperstad, Sørensen, Stahr
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
and linear models. Oxalate extracted more Fe than pyrophosphate, indicating the presence of a poorly crystalline Fe fraction (Feo – Fep), which exhibited an exponential increase.
Also the amounts of Alp and Alo increased exponentially. Pyrophosphate extracted more Al than oxalate, pointing to an Al
fraction strongly bound to SOM (Alp – Alo), which also
showed an exponential increase.
Barrett, L. R., Schaetzl, R. J. (1993): Soil development and spatial
variability on geomorphic surfaces of different age. Phys. Geogr.
14, 39–55.
It can be concluded that all Fe and Al fractions exhibited statistically significant increases. In some cases, the character
of the increase (linear or exponential) was not clear, due to
the limited number of data (two fresh beach-sand samples,
six soil profiles) and some variability. However, the relationships of most Fe and Al fractions could be best described by
exponential increases. We therefore assume that these parameters increase at relatively low rates as long as the pH is
still in a range which allows for efficient plant-litter decomposition and within which Al is immobile. As soon as the pH drops
to values lower than approx. pH 4.5, several processes are
initiated or enhanced, including element release from mineral
weathering, Al mobilization, and occurrence of chelate-forming organic compounds due to inhibited plant-litter decomposition. The concurrent activation or intensification of these
processes leads to exponential increases of the related
chemical parameters.
Burges, A., Drover, D. P. (1953): The rate of Podzol development in
sands of the Woy Woy district, N. S. W. Aust. J. Bot. 1, 83–94.
Acknowledgments
We thank all people, who contributed to this study by laboratory analyses or financial support. The pyrophosphate and
dithionite extractions were carried out by Lars Boll within the
work for his bachelor thesis, the pH(KCl) measurements
were done by Bettina Höll, the analyses of C and N by Kornelia Ruf, the ICP-OES analyses of Fe and Al in the extracts by
Andrea Ruf, and part of the CEC and exchangeable base
cations were analyzed by Beate Podtschaske. The German
Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and the Universitätsbund Hohenheim supported this work by travel allowances in
the years 2003 (DAAD) and 2004 (Universitätsbund Hohenheim). We are also grateful to the two reviewers and the
associate editor, Reinhold Jahn, for their valuable comments
on the manuscript.
References
Alexander, E. B., Burt, R. (1996): Soil development on moraines of
Mendenhall Glacier, southeast Alaska. 1. The moraines and soil
morphology. Geoderma 72, 1–17.
Bäumler, R., Madhikermi, D. P., Zech, W. (1997): Fine silt and clay
mineralogical changes of a soil chronosequence in the Langtang
valley (Central Nepal). Z. Pflanzenernähr. Bodenkd. 160, 413–421.
Bain, D. C., Mellor, A., Robertson-Rintoul, M. S. E., Buckland, S. T.
(1993): Variations in weathering processes and rates with time in a
chronosequence of soils from Glen Feshie, Scotland. Geoderma
57, 275–293.
Birkeland, P. W. (1984): Holocene soil chronofunctions, Southern
Alps, New Zealand. Geoderma 34, 115–134.
Bowman, G. M. (1989): Podzol development in a Holocene chronosequence. I. Moruya Heads, New South Wales. Aust. J. Soil Res.
27, 607–628.
Burt, R., Alexander, E. B. (1996): Soil development on moraines of
Mendenhall Glacier, southeast Alaska. 2. Chemical transformations and soil micromorphology. Geoderma 72, 19–36.
Chapman, H. D. (1965): Cation-exchange capacity. In: C. A. Black
(ed.): Methods of soil analysis – Chemical and microbiological
properties. Agronomy 9, 891–901.
Egli, M., Fitze, P., Mirabella, A. (2001): Weathering and evolution of
soils formed on granitic, glacial deposits: results from chronosequences of Swiss alpine environments. Catena 45, 19–47.
Evans, D. J. A. (1999): A soil chronosequence from neoglacial
moraines in western Norway. Geografiska Annaler 81A, 47–62.
FAO (1990): Guideline for soil description. 3rd edn., FAO, Rome,
Italy.
FAO (2006): Guideline for soil description. 4th edn., FAO, Rome,
Italy.
Henningsmoen, K. E. (1979): En karbon-datert strandforskyvningskurve fra søndre Vestfold, in Nydal, R., Westin, S., Hafsten, U.,
Gulliksen, S. (eds.): Fortiden i søkelyset. Univ. forlaget,
Trondheim, pp. 239–247.
Jacobson, G. L., Birks, H. J. B. (1980): Soil development on recent
end moraines of the Klutlan glacier, Yukon Territory, Canada. Quat.
Res. 14, 87–100.
IUSS Working Group WRB (2006): World reference base for soil
resources 2006. World Soil Resources Reports No. 103. FAO,
Rome.
Jauhiainen, E. (1973): Age and degree of podzolization of sand soils
on the coastal plain of northwest Finland. Commentationes Biologicae 68, 1–32.
Keilhack, K. (1912): Die Verlandung der Swinepforte. Jahrbuch der
Preussischen Geologischen Landesanstalt zu Berlin, Band II, pp.
209–244.
Koutaniemi, L., Koponen, R., Rajanen, K. (1988): Podzolization as
studied from terraces of various ages in two river valleys, Northern
Finland. Silva Fennica 22, 113–133.
Lichter, J. (1998): Rates of weathering and chemical depletion in
soils across a chronosequence of Lake Michigan sand dunes.
Geoderma 85, 255–282.
Little, J. P. (1986): Numerical analysis of soil development in a chronosequence on Fraser Island, South-eastern Queensland. Aust. J.
Soil Res. 24, 321–330.
Lutro, O., Nordgulen, Ø. (2004): Oslofeltet, berggrunnskart M
1:250,000. Norges Geologiske Undersøkelse, Trondheim.
McKeague, J. A., Brydon, J. E., Miles, N. M. (1971): Differentiation of
forms of extractable iron and aluminum in soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
Proc. 35, 33–38.
Barrett, L. R. (2001): A strand plain soil development sequence in
Northern Michigan, USA. Catena 44, 163–186.
Mehra, O. P., Jackson, L. M. (1960): Iron oxide removal from soils
and clays by a dithionite-citrate systems buffered with sodium
bicarbonate. Clays Clay Min. 7, 317–327.
Barrett, L. R., Schaetzl, R. J. (1992): An examination of podzolization
near Lake Michigan using chronofunctions. Can. J. Soil Sci. 72,
527–541.
Mellor, A. (1985): Soil chronosequences on Neoglacial moraine
ridges, Jostedalsbreen and Jotunheimen, southern Norway: a
quantitative pedogenic approach, in Arnett, R. R., Ellis, S.,
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
www.plant-soil.com
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2008, 171, 483–497
Podzol development with the time in sandy beach deposits 497
Richards, K. S. (eds.): Geomorphology and Soils. George, Allen
and Unwin, London, pp. 289–308.
Sørensen, R. (1988): In-situ rock weathering in Vestfold, southeastern Norway. Geogr. Ann. 70A, 299–308.
Mokma, D. L., Yli-Halla, M., Lindqvist, K. (2004): Podzol formation in
sandy soils of Finland. Geoderma 120, 259–272.
Sørensen, R., Henningsmoen, K. E., Høeg, H. I., Stabell, B.,
Bukholm, K. M. (2007): Geology, soils, vegetation and sea levels in
the Kaupang area in Skre, D. (ed.): Kaupang in Skiringssal.
Kaupang Excavation Project Publication Series, Vol. 1, Aarhus
University Press, Aarhus, Denmark, pp. 247–267.
Protz, R., Ross, G. J., Martini, I. P., Terasmae, J. (1984): Rate of
Podzolic soil formation near Hudson Bay, Ontario. Can. J. Soil Sci.
64, 31–49.
Protz, R., Ross, G. J., Shipitalo, M. J., Terasmae, J. (1988): Podzolic
soil development in the southern James Bay lowlands, Ontario.
Can. J. Soil Sci. 68, 287–305.
Righi, D., Huber, K., Keller, C. (1999): Clay formation and podzol development from postglacial moraines in Switzerland. Clay Minerals
34, 319–332.
Schülli-Maurer, I., Sauer, D., Stahr, K., Sperstad, R., Sørensen, R.
(2007): Soil formation in marine sediments of S-Norway: Investigation of soil chronosequences in the Oslofjord region. Revista
Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas 24, 237–240.
Schwertmann, U. (1964): Differenzierung der Eisenoxide des Bodens
durch Extraktion mit Ammoniumoxalat-Lösung. Z. Pflanzenernähr.
Bodenkd. 105, 194–202.
Semmel, A. (1969): Verwitterungs- und Abtragungserscheinungen in
rezenten Periglazialgebieten (Lappland und Spitzbergen). Würzburger Geogr. Arb. 26, 1–82.
Singleton, G. A., Lavkulich, L. M. (1987): A soil chronosequence on
beach sands, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Can. J. Soil Sci.
67, 795–810.
Sondheim, M. W., Standish, J. T. (1983): Numerical analysis of a
chronosequence including an assessment of variability. Can. J.
Soil Sci. 63, 501–517.
Sondheim, M. W., Singleton, G. A., Lavkulich, L. M. (1981):
Numerical analysis of a chronosequence, including the development of a chronofunction. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 45, 558–563.
 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Starr, M., Lindroos, A.-J. (2006): Changes in the rate of release of Ca
and Mg and normative mineralogy due to weathering along a
5300-year chronosequence of boreal forest soils. Geoderma 133,
269–280.
Stützer, A. (1998): Early stages of podzolisation in young aeolian
sediments, western Jutland. Catena 32, 115–129.
Tamm, O. (1915): Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Verwitterung in Podsolböden aus dem mittleren Norrland. Bull. Geol. Inst. University of
Uppsala, XIII, pp. 183–204.
Tamm, O. (1920): Markstudier i det Nordsvenska barrskogsområdet.
Medd. Statens Skogsförsöksanstalt 17, 49–300.
Tamm, O. (1932): Über die Oxalatmethode in der chemischen Bodenanalyse. Medd. Statens Skogsförsöksanstalt Exkursionsledare
27, 1–20.
Tonkin, P. J., Basher, L. R. (2001): Soil chronosequences in
subalpine superhumid Cropp Basin, western Southern Alps, New
Zealand. N. Zeal. J. Geol. Geophys. 44, 37–45.
VandenBygaart, A. J., Protz, R. (1995): Soil genesis on a chronosequence, Pinery Provincial Park, Ontario. Can. J. Soil Sci. 75,
63–72.
Walker, P. H., Green, P. (1976): Soil trends in two valley fill
sequences. Aust. J. Soil Res. 14, 291–303.
Zech, W., Wilke, B.-M. (1977): Vorläufige Ergebnisse einer Bodenchronosequenzstudie im Zillertal. Mitteilgn. Dtsch. Bodenkundl.
Gesellsch. 25, 571–586.
www.plant-soil.com