Original Research
European Journal of Forensic Sciences
www.ejfs.co.uk
DOI: 10.5455/ejfs.228851
Study on the fingerprint pattern and
gender distribution in and around
Nanded district of Maharashtra state
Sandeep V. Binorkar1, Anand B. Kulkarni2
Department of
Agadatantra & Vyavahar
Ayurveda, Government
Ayurveda College,
Nanded, Maharashtra,
India,2Department of
Agadatantra & Vyavahar
Ayurveda, BSDT’s
Ayurveda College, Pune,
Maharashtra, India
1
Address for correspondence:
Sandeep V. Binorkar,
Department of Agadatantra
& Vyavahar Ayurveda,
Government Ayurveda
College, Nanded,
Maharashtra, India.
E-mail: dr.sandeepb@gmail.
com
Received: May 13, 2016
Accepted: July 01, 2016
Published: March 12, 2017
ABSTRACT
Background: Dactylography or otherwise also known as the study of fingerprints is considered as the
best tool for identification in living and even decomposed dead bodies. Since the dawn of 21st century, this
branch has gained enormous importance in the diagnostic tools as well especially in congenital anomalies.
Purpose: This study was conducted with an intention to establish the relation between the fingerprints and
gender of an individual. Materials and Methods: A total of 3504 individuals (1752 male and 1752 female
each) aged between 18 and 60 years were included. Fingerprints were obtained using rolled method. Each
type of fingerprint pattern and their subtypes were identified and analyzed for gender differences. Results: The
principal pattern among both male and female was loop. The study also shows that the frequency of fork was
more in male as compared to female. Conclusion: The ridge density in male was less than in female, where
the difference was statistically significant.
KEY WORDS: Forensic science, forensic fingerprint, dactylography, ridge density, gender
INTRODUCTION
Identification of a person can be broadly classified into two
categories, viz., complete and partial identification [1].
Although the complete identification of an individual is
a responsibility of police officers and is the ultimate goal,
most of the time it gets difficult especially in mutilated
and intensely decomposed bodies. In such cases, the partial
identification done by a forensic expert or medical officers
becomes equally important to arrive at a certain conclusion
and may also lead to the complete determination of
individuality of a person [2].
There are various traits available for either partial or complete
identification. Some of which are not reliable enough such as
handwriting, voice, gait, and habits, but there are few which
can be confirmatory and conclusive. The most successful
method is the implementation of a combination of more
than one method [2]. One of such features is dactylography,
i.e., fingerprints or epidermal ridge patterns present on the bulbs
of fingers, palms and sole [3].
Eur J Forensic Sci ● Jan-Mar 2017 ● Vol 4 ● Issue 1
The study of ridge patterns present on the sole is especially
called as podogram, whereas the study of those ridges which
are present exclusively on the fingertips and palms is called as
dactylography [4]. The present work is concentrating on the
details about the dactylography only.
Objectives
1. To examine the most prevalent fingerprint pattern in the
population in and around Nanded district of Maharashtra
state of India.
2. To observe the gender variations in the minutiae structures
of ridge impressions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Inclusion Criteria
The study was conducted on 3504 healthy subjects (1752 males
and 1752 females) from the age group of 18-60 years were
included in the study.
7
Binorkar and Kulkarni: Finger print patterns & Gender Distribution in Nanded District
Exclusion Criteria
Subjects below 18 years and above 60 years of age and with
a major deformity (congenital/accidental) on the upper
extremity (syndactyl, polydactyl) were excluded from the study.
Furthermore, the subjects with gender identity disorder and
with leprosy affecting fingers were also considered inappropriate
for the study.
Methodology
Prior written informed consent for the voluntary participation
in the research work was obtained from the subjects. The
fingerprints of the study subjects were procured by rolling
over method which provides an inflated area for the display
of the more important ridge impression in each finger
pattern [5,6].
Other materials utilized in the study was as follows:
1. Ten fingerprint cards (TFC)
2. Forensic fingerprint pads with black ink
3. Cotton swab
4. Fingerprint card holders
5. Fingerprint magnifier (Waltex Model ×8)
6. Fingerprint ridge counter
7. Measuring ruler.
Ethical Consideration
Clinical Trials Registry - India (CTRI), National Institute of
Medical Statistics (CTRI/2013/10/004054). All procedures in
the study were carried out by maintaining strict confidentiality.
Volunteers’ medical condition and data were not disclosed to
or discussed with any third party.
Procedure
1. The files of TFC of males and females, 1752 each, aged
between 18 and 60 years, were prepared.
2. The subjects were asked to clean their hand with tap water
and soap and dry to remove all dirt.
3. For collection of fingerprint, the participant was asked to
keep his arm relax and not to voluntarily roll the fingers to
avoid smearing.
4. The finger bulbs were rolled on the forensic fingerprint pads
in such a way that the ink will be applied to the tips evenly
by rolling the thumbs toward the subject’s body and other
fingers were rolled away from the body, i.e. thumb in fingers
out method.
5. By the similar fashion of thumb in fingers out method the
rolled impressions of each finger were obtained on the TFC
in the allotted space for the finger.
6. If smudging of the impression occurred, the procedure was
repeated on new TFC. Later on, the subjects were asked to
clean their hand and fingertips. In this way, each and every
individual’s fingerprints were obtained on TFC.
The study was conducted after the approval of the Institutional
Ethical Committee of Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth, Pune,
formed according the ICMR guidelines by the Department of
Health and Family Welfare. This study was also registered under
Table 1: Pattern of fingerprints combined (male and female)
Number of subjects n (%)
Pattern
Loop
Whorls
Arches
Composite
Total
2292 (65.41)
853 (24.34)
251 (7.16)
108 (3.08)
3504 (100)
Figure 1: Pattern of fingerprints combined (male and female)
Table 2: Mean fingerprint ridge density
Gender
Mean FP ridge density/25 mm2
Male
Female
12.71
13.79
Table 3: Comparison of fingerprint ridge density (right fingers)
in male and female
Finger
Right thumb
Right index
Right middle
Right ring
Right little
Mean density±SEM
Male
Female
12.66±0.03
12.68±0.03
12.78±0.03
12.76±0.02
12.95±0.04
14.01±0.02
13.78±0.02
13.66±0.02
13.62±0.02
13.83±0.03
SEM: Standard error of the mean
8
t value
P value
40.92
34.22
24.94
29.12
19.16
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Figure 2: Mean fingerprint ridge density in male and female
Eur J Forensic Sci ● Jan-Mar 2017 ● Vol 4 ● Issue 1
Binorkar and Kulkarni: Finger print patterns & Gender Distribution in Nanded District
Methodology of Fingerprint Observations
Table 4: Comparison of fingerprint ridge density (left fingers)
in male and female
The fingerprint ridges and ridge characteristics of ten fingers on
TFCs were observed under a Fingerprint magnifier of ×8 magnifying
power (Waltex model). The square of 5 mm × 5 mm (25 mm2)
[7] was drawn on a transparent sheet. Study parameters like ridge
count and other minutiae structures were observed within this
square only, whereas the pattern of the fingerprints was observed
on the basis of total impression (Figure 1 and Table 1).
Finger
Left thumb
Left index
Left middle
Left ring
Left little
Mean density±SEM
Male
Female
12.42±0.03
12.62±0.03
12.71±0.03
12.68±0.02
12.84±0.03
13.77±0.02
13.93±0.02
13.64±0.02
13.69±0.02
14.06±0.02
t value
P value
42.01
36.74
29.04
36.89
35.01
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
SEM: Standard error of the mean
Observations, Analysis and Results
Table 5: Occurrence of minutiae structures in gender
Mean fingerprint ridge density/25 mm2 in male (n = 1752)
was 12.71 whereas in female (n = 1752) it was 13.79/25 mm2
(Figure 2 and Table 2).
Gender End Short Fork Hook Eye Dot/ Crossover Bridge Enclosure
ridge ridge
Island
Comparison of fingerprint ridge density for all fingers of right
hand showed a significant difference in gender (P < 0.0001).
t value calculated for Rt. Thumb, index, middle, ring, and little
finger was 40.92, 34.22, 24.94, 29.12, and 19.16, respectively
(Figure 3 and Table 3).
Table 6: Comparison of mean fingerprint ridge density in male
and female
In this Table 4, it can be observed that on comparison of
fingerprint ridge density for all fingers of left hand, a significant
difference was seen in males and females (P < 0.0001). t value
calculated for Lt. thumb, index, middle, ring, and little finger
was 42.01, 36.74, 29.04, 36.89, and 35.01, respectively (Figure 4).
End ridge (n = 174), followed by crossover (n = 103) followed
by short ridge (n = 78), fork (n = 37) was more common in
male where as short ridge was the most commonly observed
minutiae (n = 98) followed by crossover (n = 57), end ridge
(n = 54) in females (Figure 5 Table 5).
Male
174
Female 54
78
98
37
6
6
9
1
7
Fingerprint
Mean±SEM
Sample variance
Inter quartile range
Median
Co‑relation coefficient
t value
P value
16
5
Female
13.79±0.007
0.0799
0.4
13.8
SEM: Standard error of the mean
Table 7: Probability of ridge density and likelihood ratio
Ridge density/25 mm2
Probability
ridge density
Male
Female
0.289
0.185
0.522
0.002
0
0
0.624
0.376
While calculating the likelihood ratio, the fraction value of
mean ridge density/25 mm2 was not considered for calculation.
Instead of that a discrete value was used, e.g., 11.1, 11.2, etc.,
were considered as 11 and likewise. Table 7 shows that No
females showed mean ridge density in 11 and 12 count and
hence likelihood ratio could not be calculated, whereas at the
level of 13 and 14 mean ridge count, there was a strong positive
likelihood ratio at M/F and F/M, respectively.
M: Male, F: Female, NA: Not available
Eur J Forensic Sci ● Jan-Mar 2017 ● Vol 4 ● Issue 1
1
2
Male
11
12
13
14
Dactylography or otherwise also known as dermatoglyphics is
the study of skin ridge organizations on the digits of palms and
soles of humans. They begin to develop in about the 13th week
of prenatal life, on the digit tips, inter-digital, thenar and
hypothenar areas of the hand and the corresponding areas of the
foot starts to move back. The pattern arrangement is complete
by the 19th week. Dermal palm and plantar ridges are extremely
helpful in biological studies. The variable characteristics of
ridges are not reproduced in other people, even in monozygotic
0
0
12.71±0.02
0.7297
1.9
13
0.745614
50.5128
<0.0001
Table 6 shows that mean fingerprint ridge density in the two
groups (male and female) was statistically highly significant
(P < 0.0001) when compared with t value 50.5128.
DISCUSSION
103
57
Likelihood
ratio
M/F
F/M
Likelihood
odds
Male
Female
NA
0
1.00
NA
0
1.00
0.838 1.193 0.48
0.006 164.75 0.001
0.00
0.00
0.52
0.999
twins or in the same person on different digits, from site to
site. Because dermal ridges are found on several animals, it will
be fascinating to scrutinize whether these skin ridge patterns
are simulated in cloning and if they vary, what will be the
difference? The particulars of these ridges are undeviating.
Yet while the individual characteristics are variable, that
multiplicity falls inside pattern limits that permit systematic
categorization. Extensive investigations into chromosomal
disorders such as Down’s syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, etc.,
and their dermatoglyphic manifestations have been conducted
to conclude its positive relation.
Earlier studies conducted by Igbigbi and Msamati on indigenous
black Zimbabweans, found that ulnar loops were the most
prevalent digital pattern type in most sexes, followed by
whorls in males and arches in females [8]. One more study
by Gangadhar and Reddy on 360 unrelated Adi karnataka
population of Mysore city of Karnataka State showed that the
9
Binorkar and Kulkarni: Finger print patterns & Gender Distribution in Nanded District
tented arches, twinned loops and accidental types of the
fingerprints. This trend was observed in both males and females.
Figure 3: Comparison of fingerprint ridge density (right fingers) in
male and female
The observed mean fingerprint ridge density/25 mm2 in male
(n = 1752) was 12.71, whereas in female (n = 1752) it was
13.79/25 mm2. From this observation, it can be deduced that
in females the distance between the two ridges is less and or
the ridges are thin as compared to male thereby responsible for
higher ridge density in comparison to males. On computing
the values by applying unpaired t-test, it was found that the
difference of fingerprint ridge density in the two groups (male
and female) was statistically highly significant (P < 0.0001) with
t = 50.5128. This study shows that female has more number
of ridges than male.
Contrary findings were also reported by few scholars. One among
them is the study conducted by Floris, who studied sex and
side differences and the correlations between four quantitative
characteristics of palm dermatoglyphics in 809 individuals
(418 males and 391 females) from Sardinian population;
wherein he found that Males have greater number of ridges
than females [14].
Figure 4: Comparison of fingerprint ridge density (left fingers) in male
and female
Figure 5: Occurrence of minutiae in gender
frequency of loop patterns (57.11%) was a common followed by
whorls (27.89%) and arches (15.00%) [9]. A comparative study
conducted by Purkait, on the frequency of fingerprint patterns
and variation in the 10 digit classification on males of Mundas
and Lodhas tribals from Midnapur district in West Bengal
stated that Mundas exhibit higher incidence of whorl and loop
patterns whereas loops are more frequent among Lodhas [10].
The present findings are analogs in consistent with the findings
of earlier studies representing loops followed by whorls as the
common pattern of fingerprints [11-13].
In this study, the majority of the pattern observed was loops
followed by whorls and arches in the total subject population in
all the 10 digits. Apart from the composite, the least frequently
observed pattern in the total population were simple arches,
10
A study conducted by Gungadin suggest that in male, mean
ridge count of 13 is more frequent, whereas 14 ridges are
likely to be of females [15]. Another study by Nayak et al.
reported significant gender differences are present in the
Chinese subjects with finger ridge count of 12 ridges more
likely to be of males and more than 13 ridges are more likely
to be of Female origin [16]. Whereas in Malaysian male 11 or
less ridges are commonly observed and 13 ridges are observed
in female [16]. Jantz noticed that the Parsis of Indian males
showed significant higher average correlations than Females in
fingerprint ridge count [17]. One more study suggested that in
Spanish Caucasian male the ridge density <16 and in females
it comes ≥17 ridges/25 mm2, respectively [18].
The present findings also support the earlier studies conducted
over comparatively small sample size of 400 subjects of African
American and Caucasian American of both male and female
sex in 1998 by Acree of Federal Bureau of Investigation. He
found that there was a significant difference in the fingerprint
ridge density of male and female. He had also suggested further
studies in other races.
This study also shows that the frequency of fork (bifurcation)
was more in male as compared to female which was contrary
to the previous study conducted by Okajima wherein he has
found more number of forks in female as compared to male
subjects [19].
CONCLUSION
Review of the literature shows that there is gargantuan
information available regarding the epidermal ridge patterns, its
distribution, density, minutiae and even its role in the diagnosis
of certain systemic ailments. The predominant pattern among
both genders, i.e. male and female was loop followed by whorls
Eur J Forensic Sci ● Jan-Mar 2017 ● Vol 4 ● Issue 1
Binorkar and Kulkarni: Finger print patterns & Gender Distribution in Nanded District
and arches. Composite and accidental patterns were least
observed. In this study, the epidermal ridge density was found
to be one of the best characteristics to differentiate the gender
with a high statistical significance (t - 50.51, P < 0.0001).
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Vij K. Text Book of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology. 5th ed. New Delhi:
Elsevier Publications, A Division of Reed Elsevier India Pvt. Ltd.; 2011.
p. 63-4.
Modi JP. Modi’s Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology. 22nd ed.,
Vol. 37. Noida: Lexis Nexis Butterworths; 2002. p. 39-40, 72.
Nandy A. Principles of Forensic Medicine. 1st ed. Kolkatta: New
Central Book Agency; 1995. p. 92-3.
Hemy N, Flavel A, Ishak NI, Franklin D. Sex estimation using
anthropometry of feet and footprints in a Western Australian
population. Forensic Sci Int 2013;231:402. e1-6.
Hoover JE. The Science of Fingerprints - Classification & Uses.
United State: United States Department of Justice Federal Bureau
of Investigation; 2006. p. 71-2.
Nadar DS. Forensic Science in Crime Investigation 3rd ed. Hyderabad:
Asia Law House; 2002. p. 48-9.
Acree MA. Is there a gender difference in the fingerprint ridge
density? J Forensic Sci Int 1999;102:35-44.
Igbigbi PS, Msamati BC. Palmar and digital dermatoglyphics of
indigenous black Zimbabweans. Med Sci Monit 2002;8:CR757-61.
Gangadhar MR, Reddy R. Finger dermatoglyphics of Adikarnatakas:
A scheduled caste population of Mysore city, Karnataka. Man India
Eur J Forensic Sci ● Jan-Mar 2017 ● Vol 4 ● Issue 1
1983;83:183-93.
10. Purkait R. Fingerprint classification: A comparative study among
Mindas and Lodhas. JMFT 2003;14:31-2.
11. Nithin MD, Balaraj BM, Manjunatha B, Mestri SC. Study of fingerprint
classification and their gender distribution among South Indian
population. J Forensic Leg Med 2009;16:460-3.
12. Basu A. Digital dermatoglyphics of three caste groups of Mysore.
Am J Phys Anthropol 1976;45:437-41.
13. Khadri SY, Goudar ES, Khadri SY. A study of fingerprint pattern and
gender distribution of fingerprint in and around Bijapur. Al Ameen J
Med Sci 2013;6:328-31.
14. Floris G. Sex and side differences and correlations between
quantitative palmar characteristics in a sample Sardinian population.
Am J Phys Anthropol 1975;42:277-80.
15. Gungadin S. Sex determination from fingerprint ridge density. Int J
Med Update 2007;2:4-7.
16. Nayak VC, Rastogi P, Kanchan T, Yoganarasimha K, Kumar GP,
Menezes RG. Sex differences from fingerprint ridge density in
Chinese and Malaysian population. Forensic Sci Int 2010;197:67-9.
17. Jantz RL. Sex and race differences in finger ridge count correlations.
Am J Phys Anthropol 1975;42:297-80.
18. Gutiérrez-Redomero E, Alonso C, Romero E, Galera V. Variability of
fingerprint ridge density in a sample of Spanish Caucasians and its
application to sex determination. Forensic Sci Int 2008;180:17-22.
19. Okajima M. Frequency of forks in epidermal-ridge minutiae in the
fingerprint. Am J Phys Anthropol 2005;32:41-4.
Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared.
11