TEACHERS NOTES
SCENE 1. INTRO
SCENE 2. METHANE BUBBLES
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
P energy changes and transfers P motion and forces
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
P energy transfer
C chemical reactions- combustion
C energetics- exothermic reactions
In this scene we take a look at Methane and
how it was discovered by Alessandro Volta in
the marshes of Lake Maggiore in November
1776. Methane bubbles are created and
ignited creating a large flame on stage.
This is then linked back to the different types
of energy and explained accordingly.
Our presenters burst onto stage introducing themselves
as members of the Ministry of Science. Their mission
today is to look at the different types of energy and how
it’s used in the modern world. They’ll also be looking at
some of the different scientists, inventors and engineers
who have helped shape the modern world we live in.
The presenters run through the different types of energy
using on screen content as a guide and encourage
audience participation as they also give each type a
simple definition of explanation.
They’ll also look at how Issac Newton figured out how
Gravity works within this scene.
A simple experiment is then done using a basketball and
tennis ball to show how energy can be passed from one
item to another.
NAME
OLTA
OV
ALESSANDR
TON
NEW
R ISSAC
NAME
SI
THE
SCIENCE
By placing a tennis ball on top of a basketball we’ll
MER
TRONO
AND AS
ATION
TICIAN
A
M
OCCUP
E
H
T
IST, MA
SCIENT
BORN
43 IN
RY 4, 16
JANUA
LAND
PE, ENG
THOR
WOOLS
LAND
N, ENG
DO
DIED
IN LON
31, 1727
MARCH
OR
F MOT
NOW F
AWS O
BEST K
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T
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H
T
N
G
DEFININ L GRAVITATIO
SA
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E
IV
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U
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transfer the kinetic energy inside the basketball
into the tennis ball and it will bounce up much
higher than expected. All you need to do is simply
put the small ball on top of the bigger ball and
drop them. Watch how the basketball dies and
transfers all of it’s kinetic energy into the smaller
ball explaining both Potential energy and Kinetic
energy.
MER
N
D ASTRONO
OCCUPATIO
ATICIAN, AN
EM
TH
A
M
,
SCIENTIST
THE
SCIENCE
Alessandro Volta was inspired to search for
Methane after reading a paper written by
Benjamin Franklin about flammable air. Volta
captured the gas rising from the marsh. By 1778
he demonstrated the means to ignite the gas with
an electric spark.
Within this scene Methane bubbles are created
and ignited on stage. As Methane is lighter than
air when it is mixed with the soapy water the
bubbles start to rise. The fireball that is created
on stage is made when all three things from the
fire triangle (Which is explained later in the show)
are in place.
By igniting the bubbles we demonstrate both heat
and light energy.
BORN
OMO, ITAL
18 1745 IN C
FEBRUARY
DIED
, ITALY
27 IN COMO
MARCH 5 18
FOR
Y AND AS
BEST KNOW
ICAL BATTER
TR
EC
EL
E
TH
INVENTING
HANE
ERER OF MET
THE DISCOV
KEY QUESTION.
Is Methane flammable?
SCENE 3. HUMAN CANNON
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
P motion and forces
ONG
MSTR
R
A
L
I
E
N
NAME
Looking at man’s first mission to the moon and the developments
in space travel from the initial engineering of the rocket to Virgin
Galactic.
SCENE 4. ELECTRICITY
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
P particle model
separation of positive or negative charges when objects are
rubbed together: transfer of electrons, forces between charged objects
the idea of electric field, forces acting across the space between
objects not in contact
It’s time to bring up some volunteers for a hair raising “dance off”
followed by a look at the difference between Current and Static
Electricity using a Plasma ball and a high voltage Van De Graaff
machine.
A conversation between the presenter on stage and “command”
(the voiceover from above) takes the audience through what you
need to achieve to get into space, from the speed you need to take
off to the different types of fuels that a space shuttle would use.
A brief look at Virgin Galactic is shown on screen before a light
hearted scene is then created whereby a human cannon is built on
stage. A presenter is loaded into the cannon whilst onstage and
using “theatrical magic” is then fired across the stage.
NAME
TION
OCCUPA
AUT
N
ASTRO
NIKOLA T
ESLA
HIO
NETA, O
AKO
BORN
IN WAP
5, 1930
T
S
U
G
AU
HIO
NATI, O
IN
DIED
IN CINC
25, 2012
T
S
U
G
U
A
R
MOON
OWN FO
ON THE
BEST KN
W
O ALK
T
N
A
M
FIRST
THE
SCIENCE
Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo will carry six passengers up past 328,000 feet altitude (100 kilometers), the
point where astronaut wings are awarded. The new craft is launched from an airplane, fires a rocket to gain
altitude, then re-enters the atmosphere and glides to a landing.
SpaceShipTwo has a crew of two and carries six passengers. The vehicle is air-launched from its
WhiteKnightTwo carrier plane at 50,000 feet altitude (15.5 kilometers). After separating, SpaceShipTwo fires
its rocket engine for 70 seconds to accelerate to 2,500 mph.
The booster rocket shuts down and the craft coasts higher. Passing 328,000 feet, the passengers cross the
Karman Line where fliers are considered astronauts. The craft reaches its highest altitude, 361,000 feet.
Passengers experience five minutes of weightlessness.
SpaceShipTwo’s rudders are configured in “feathered” mode for re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere to
increase drag and reduce heating from friction.
At 70,000 feet the rudders are de-feathered into gliding configuration. Landing gear and skid are deployed
for landing on a conventional runway.
The second SpaceShipTwo is currently in construction at the moment.
KEY QUESTION.
How fast do you need to go to get into space?
THE
SCIENCE
Electricity is the flow of electrons. Electrons are a
fundamental building block of everything around
us. Everything is made from atoms which are
made up of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons are positively charged. Neutrons have no
charge and electrons are negatively charged.
KEY QUESTION.
OCCUPA
TION
INVENTO
R, ENGIN
EER
BORN
JULY 10,
DIED
JANUARY
1856 IN S
AND PHY
MILJAN,
SICIST
CROATIA
7, 1943 IN
NEW YO
RK, UNIT
ED STAT
ES
BEST KN
OWN FO
R
CONTRIB
MODER UTIONS TO TH
SUPPLYNS ALTERNATINGE DESIGN OF TH
E
CURRENT
YSTEM
ELECTRIC
ITY
What is the difference between Current and Static Electricity?
SCENE 5. MONDEGREEN
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
KS3, Sound waves, KS2, Sound
A mondegreen is a mishearing or misinterpretation of a phrase
as a result of near-homophony, in a way that gives it a new
meaning. Mondegreens are most often created by a person
listening to a poem or a song; the listener, being unable to clearly
hear a lyric, substitutes words that sound similar, and make
some kind of sense. Let’s have a look at some of the newest
misinterpretations as a group.
SCENE 6. LIQUID NITROGEN
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
c- states of matter- solids liquids and gases, p- physical changes
A series of demonstrations are done, linking back to energy and
explaining how and why they work. These include freezing flowers
and smashing them over a presenters head, A balloon filled with
“air” being cooled down to – 196 degrees turning from a liquid into
a gas, a 2 litre exploding bottle and a very large cloud produced
right onstage.
THE
SCIENCE
Mondegreens are a sort of aural malapropism. Instead of
saying the wrong word, you hear the wrong word. The
word mondegreen is generally used for misheard song lyrics,
although technically it can apply to any speech.
The term mondegreen was originally coined by author Sylvia
Wright, and has come to be quite widely used. As a child,
Wright heard the lyrics of The Bonny Earl of Murray (a Scottish
ballad) as:
Ye highlands and ye lowlands
Oh where hae you been?
Thou hae slay the Earl of Murray
And Lady Mondegreen
It eventually transpired that Lady Mondegreen existed only
in the mind of Sylvia Wright, for the actual lyrics said that
they “slay the Earl of Murray and laid him on the green.” And
to this day Lady Mondegreen’s name has been used to describe
all mishearings of this type!
KEY QUESTION.
What is a Mondegreen and why does it happen?
THE
SCIENCE
Liquid nitrogen is nitrogen in a liquid state at an extremely
low temperature. It’s used in the cryogenic preservation of
humans and pets amongst over things and in the future we
may even see our cars run with it. Liquid nitrogen actually
boils at minus 196 degrees.
KEY QUESTION.
Can things that are really cold, boil?
SCENE 7. CANNON WARFARE
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
c- the periodic table (H as a symbol, where it is etc)
SCENE 8. INVENTION
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
P matter
c- chemical reactions
NDISH
E
V
A
C
Y
R
N
HE
NAME
The voiceover from above leads us through the pirates and their
weapons of science construction. First up, it’s the co2 cannon
which fires foam balls into the audience. Number 2 – a hydrogen
bottle rocket cannon which fires multiple 2 litre plastic bottles
into the audience and finally number 3 – a pirates cannon which
is built to contain a smoke machine and fires smoke rings across
the audience. All cannons are explained and linked back to the
inventors/discoverers and the different types of energy.
NAME
L
CHRISTOPER COCKEREL
It’s time to look at some of the inventors who have shaped the modern
world we live in. Here we look at Leonardo Da Vinci, Louis Pasteur,
Marie Curie, James Watts, Sally Ride, Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, Lise
Meitner, Hildegard of Bingden, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Graham
Bell, Sir Tim Berners-Lee and finally Christopher Cockerell. The history
of the hovercraft is looked at highlighting how Christopher Cockerell
first tested the hovercraft in 1955 using an empty cat food tin inside
a coffee tin, an industrial air blower and a pair of kitchen scales. We’ll
then look at how he engineered the first hovercraft and then build one
on stage. Only thing is – we need a pilot?
ON
T
OCCUPATI
ST, CHEMIS
ER, SCIENTI
PH
SO
O
IL
PH
CIST.
AND PHYSI
CE
BORN
NICE, FRAN
10, 1731 IN
OCTOBER
DIED
LONDON
24, 1810 IN
FEBRUARY
N FOR
BEST KNOW
EN
G HYDROG
IN
ER
DISCOV
THE
SCIENCE
One of the cannons used fires Hydrogen bottle rockets which
are half filled with water and half filled with hydrogen gas.
When the bottle is tipped up and the cap opened the water
flows out of the bottle and the air rushes into the bottle. This
gives a mixture of hydrogen and air inside the bottle.
The hydrogen doesn’t come out of the bottle because it is
lighter than air and so rises to the top of the bottle.
When we mix oxygen with hydrogen and you ignite it then
you have a very fast release of heat energy. In this case the
oxygen is provided by the air that has rushed into the bottle.
When the hydrogen is ignited the fast release of heat energy
causes the surrounding air to expand or spread out suddenly.
The expanding air has nowhere to go except out of the bottle.
KEY QUESTION.
What is the chemical symbol of Hydrogen?
OCCUPATION
ER.
INVENTOR AND ENGINE
BORN
GE, ENGLAND
JUNE 4, 1910 IN CAMBRID
DIED
ENGLAND
JUNE 1, 1999 IN HYTHE,
BEST KNOWN FOR
CRAFT
INVENTING THE HOVER
KEY QUESTION.
THE
SCIENCE
The theory behind one of the most successful
inventions of the twentieth century, the
Hovercraft, was originally tested in 1955 using an
empty cat food tin inside a coffee tin, a hair dryer
and a pair of kitchen scales.
Christopher Cockerell was initially testing out the
concept that it was possible to produce a cushion
of air between the bottom of the tins and the
surface of the scales. Once he had established
that this was possible he decided to experiment
with more sophisticated models.
Why is the hovercraft one of the most important inventions
of the 20th Century?
SCENE 9. PERIODIC TABLE &
THE ELEMENTS
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
C atoms, elements, compounds
What’s the difference between an atom and an element and why
is it called the periodic table? And is there a way in which you
can remember every element on the periodic table in under two
minutes?
SCENE 10. PEDAL POWER &
RENEWABLE ENERGY
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
p- Calculation of fuel uses and costs in the domestic context
In a world where everyone is obsessed with a smoothie can you
turn it into a science experiment? Let’s see. Looking at the different
types of renewable energy and pedal power combined, it’s time to
see if the audience can exercise their way to a delicious smoothie.
NAME
DMITRI
MENDE
LEEV
THE
SCIENCE
The Periodic Table is a way of listing the elements. Elements
NAME
MICHAEL FARADAY
are listed in the table by the structure of their atoms. This
includes how many protons they have as well as how many
electrons they have in their outer shell. From left to right and
top to bottom, the elements are listed in the order of their
atomic number, which is the number of protons in each atom.
In 1869 Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev started the
development of the periodic table, arranging chemical
elements by atomic mass. He predicted the discovery of other
elements, and left spaces open in his periodic table for them.
OCCUP
ATION
CHEMIS
T & INV
ENTO
R
BORN
FEBRUA
R
Y 8, 183
DIED
FEBRUA
R
4, TOBO
THE
SCIENCE
All the energy we use comes from the earth. The electricity we
Y 2, 190
LSK, RU
7, SAIN
SSIA
BEST K
NOWN
FOR
DEVELO
PMENT
OF THE
P
T PETER
ERIODIC
SBURG,
RUSSIA
TABLE
KEY QUESTION.
What is the difference between a period and a group on the
periodic table?
use every day doesn’t come directly from the earth, but we make
electricity using the earth’s resources, like coal or natural gas.
Both coal and natural gas are called “fossil fuels” because they were
formed deep under the earth during dinosaur times.
The problem is that fossil fuels can’t be replaced - once we use them
up, they’re gone forever. Another problem is that fossil fuels can
cause pollution.
Renewable energy is made from resources that Mother Nature will
replace, like wind, water and sunshine. Renewable energy is also
called “clean energy” or “green power” because it doesn’t pollute the
air or the water.
KEY QUESTION.
OCCUPATION
SCIENTIST
BORN
SEPTEMBER 22, 1791, NEWINGTON BUTTS
DIED
AUGUST 25, 1867, HAMPTON COURT PALACE, LONDON
BEST KNOWN FOR
VARIETY OF THINGS HOWEVER FARADAY’S
PRINCIPLES LEAD TO THE THE FIRST DYNAMO
BEING BUILT
How much energy is required to
power the electrical items we use every day?
SCENE 11. EXPLOSIVE BALLOONS
& THE FIRE TRIANGLE
NATIONAL
CURRICULUM
C chemical reactions
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT
TYPES OF ENERGY WE LOOK AT?
CHEMICAL
ENERGY
To consider the ability of your body to do work.
The glucose (blood sugar) in your body is said
to have “chemical energy” because the glucose
releases energy when chemically reacted
(combusted) with oxygen. Your muscles use
this energy to generate mechanical force and
also heat.
Explaining the fire triangle the balloons are ignited containing
different mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen for a really loud bang.
NAME
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY
Chemical energy is really a form of microscopic
potential energy, which exists because of the
electric and magnetic forces of attraction exerted
between the different parts of each molecule –
the same attractive forces involved in thermal
vibrations. These parts get rearranged in
chemical reactions, releasing or adding to
this potential energy.
THERMAL, OR
HEAT ENERGY
THE
SCIENCE
When hydrogen is mixed with oxygen in the right amounts and is
ignited you get an explosion.
When a hydrogen-filled balloon is ignited on its own the explosion
isn’t so big. This is because it takes a little time for the hydrogen
in the balloon to mix with the oxygen in the air, so the reaction is
slightly slower. However, if you have the right amount of oxygen
mixed with hydrogen before the balloon is ignited, you have a
very fast release of heat energy. This causes the surrounding
air to expand suddenly, resulting in a loud explosion and a burst
balloon.
The Fire Triangle is a simple way of understanding the factors
of fire. Each side of the triangle represents one of the three
ingredients needed to have a fire – oxygen, heat, and fuel –
demonstrating the interdependence of these ingredients in
creating and sustaining fire. When there is not enough heat
generated to sustain the process, when the fuel is exhausted,
removed, or isolated, or when oxygen supply is limited, then a
side of the triangle is broken and the fire will die.
KEY QUESTION.
OCCUPATION
ENGLISH THEOLOGIA
N, NATURAL PHILO
CHEMIST, EDUCAT
SOPHER,
OR
BORN
MARCH 24, 1733, BIR
ST
ALL
DIED
FEBRUARY 6, 1804,
PENNSYLVANIA, UN
ITED STATES
BEST KNOWN FOR
CREDITED WITH TH
E
DISCOVERY OF OX
What are the three elements of the fire triangle?
YGEN
Consider a hot cup of coffee. The coffee is said to
possess “thermal energy”, or “heat energy” which
is really the collective, microscopic, kinetic and
potential energy of the molecules in the coffee
(the molecules have kinetic energy because
they are moving and vibrating, and they have
potential energy due their mutual attraction for
one another – much the same way that the book
and the Earth have potential energy because they
attract each other.
Temperature is really a measure of how much
thermal energy something has. The higher the
temperature, the faster the molecules are moving
around and/or vibrating, i.e. the more kinetic and
potential energy the molecules have.
ELECTROCHEMICAL
ENERGY
Consider the energy stored in a battery. Like
the example above involving blood sugar, the
battery also stores energy in a chemical way.
But electricity is also involved, so we say that
the battery stores energy “electro-chemically”.
Another electron chemical device is a “fuel-cell”.
ELECTROMAGNETIC
ENERGY (LIGHT)
Consider the energy transmitted to the Earth from
the Sun by light (or by any source of light). Light,
which is also called “electro-magnetic radiation”.
Why the fancy term? Because light really can be
thought of as oscillating, coupled electric and
magnetic fields that travel freely through space
(without there having to be charged particles of
some kind around). It turns out that light may
also be thought of as little packets of energy called
photons (that is, as particles, instead of waves). The
word “photon” derives from the word “photo”, which
means “light”. Photons are created when electrons
jump to lower energy levels in atoms, and absorbed
when electrons jump to higher levels. Photons are
also created when a charged particle, such as an
electron or proton, is accelerated, as for example
happens in a radio transmitter antenna. But because
light can also be described as waves, in addition to
being a packet of energy, each photon also has a
specific frequency and wavelength associated with it,
which depends on how much energy the photon has
(because of this weird duality – waves and particles
at the same time – people sometimes call particles
like photons “wavicles”). The lower the energy, the
longer the wavelength and lower the frequency, and
vice versa. The reason that sunlight can hurt your
skin or your eyes is because it contains “ultraviolet
light”, which consists of high energy photons. These
photons have short wavelength and high frequency,
and pack enough energy in each photon to cause
physical damage to your skin if they get past the
outer layer of skin or the lens in your eye. Radio
waves, and the radiant heat you feel at a distance
from a campfire, for example, are also forms of
electro-magnetic radiation, or light, except that they
consist of low energy photons (long wavelength and
high frequencies – in the infrared band and lower)
that your eyes can’t perceive. This was a great
discovery of the nineteenth century – that radio
waves, x-rays, and gamma-rays, are just forms of
light, and that light is electro-magnetic waves.
POTENTIAL
ENERGY
Consider a book sitting on a table. The book is said
to have “potential energy” because if it is nudged
off, gravity will accelerate the book, giving the
book kinetic energy. Because the Earth’s gravity is
necessary to create this kinetic energy, and because
this gravity depends on the Earth being present,
we say that the “Earth-book system” is what really
possesses this potential energy, and that this energy
is converted into kinetic energy as the book falls.
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY
All matter is made up of atoms, and atoms are
made up of smaller particles, called protons (which
have positive charge), neutrons (which have neutral
charge), and electrons (which are negatively
charged). Electrons orbit around the centre, or
nucleus, of atoms, just like the moon orbits the earth.
The nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons.
Some material, particularly metals, have certain
electrons that are only loosely attached to their
atoms. They can easily be made to move from one
atom to another if an electric field is applied to them.
When those electrons move among the atoms of
matter, a current of electricity is created.
This is what happens in a piece of wire when an
electric field, or voltage, is applied. The electrons
pass from atom to atom, pushed by the electric field
and by each other (they repel each other because
like charges repel), thus creating the electrical
current. The measure of how well something conducts
electricity is called its conductivity, and the reciprocal
of conductivity is called the resistance.
Copper is used for many wires because it has a
lower resistance than many other metals and is
easy to use and obtain. Most of the wires in your
house are made of copper. Some older homes still
use aluminium wiring.
The energy is really transferred by the chain of
repulsive interactions between the electrons down
the wire – not by the transfer of electrons per se.
This is just like the way that water molecules can
push on each other and transmit pressure (or force)
through a pipe carrying water.
SUN
ENERGY
The Sun, nuclear reactors, and the interior of the
Earth, all have “nuclear reactions” as the source
of their energy, that is, reactions that involve
changes in the structure of the nuclei of atoms. In
the Sun, hydrogen nuclei fuse (combine) together
to make helium nuclei, in a process called fusion,
which releases energy.
In a nuclear reactor, or in the interior of the Earth,
Uranium nuclei (and certain other heavy elements
in the Earth’s interior) split apart, in a process
called fission. If this didn’t happen, the Earth’s
interior would have long gone cold! The energy
released by fission and fusion is not just a product
of the potential energy released by rearranging
the nuclei. In fact, in both cases, fusion or
fission, some of the matter making up the nuclei
is actually converted into energy. How can this
be? The answer is that matter itself is a form of
energy! This concept involves one of the most
famous formula’s in physics, the formula,
E=mc2.
This formula was discovered by Einstein as part
of his “Theory of Special Relativity”. In simple
words, this formula means:
The energy intrinsically stored in a piece of
matter at rest equals its mass times the speed
of light squared.
When we plug numbers in this equation, we find
that there is actually an incredibly huge amount
of energy stored in even little pieces of matter
(the speed of light squared is a very very large
number!).
At points where a strong resistance is encountered,
its harder for the electrons to flow – this creates a
“back pressure” in a sense back to the source. This
back pressure is what really transmits the energy
from whatever is pushing the electrons through
the wire. Of course, this applied “pressure” is the
“voltage”.
For example, it would cost more than a million
dollars to buy the energy stored intrinsically
stored in a single penny at our current (relatively
cheap!) electricity rates. To get some feeling for
how much energy is really there, consider that
nuclear weapons only release a small fraction of
the “intrinsic” energy of their components.
As the electrons move through a “resistor” in the
circuit, they interact with the atoms in the resistor
very strongly, causing the resistor to heat up –
hence delivering energy in the form of heat. Or, if
the electrons are moving instead through the wound
coils of a motor, they instead create a magnetic field,
which interacts with other magnets in the motor, and
hence turns the motor.
SOUND
ENERGY
Sound waves are compression waves associated
In this case the “back pressure” on the electrons,
which is necessary for there to be a transfer of
energy from the applied voltage to the motor’s
shaft, is created by the magnetic fields of the other
magnets (back) acting on the electrons – a perfect
push-pull arrangement!
with the potential and kinetic energy of air
molecules. When an object moves quickly, for
example the head of drum, it compresses the air
nearby, giving that air potential energy. That air
then expands, transforming the potential energy
into kinetic energy (moving air).
The moving air then pushes on and compresses
other air, and so on down the chain.
A nice way to think of sound waves is as
“shimmering air”.
GASES & CHEMICAL INFORMATION
Methane
Methane is a colourless, odourless gas that occurs
abundantly in nature as the chief constituent of
natural gas and as a component of firedamp in coal
mines. It is also a product of the anaerobic bacterial
decomposition of vegetable matter under water,
hence its alternative name, marsh gas. Methane also
is produced industrially by the destructive distillation
of bituminous coal in the manufacture of coal gas
and coke-oven gas. The activated-sludge process of
sewage disposal also produces a gas rich in methane.
Methane’s chemical formula is CH4. In general
methane is very stable, but mixtures containing 5 to
14 percent in air are explosive. Explosions of such
mixtures have been frequent in coal mines and the
cause of many mine disasters.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table. It
is the simplest possible atom composed of one proton
in the nucleus which is orbited by a single electron.
Hydrogen is the lightest of the elements and is the
most abundant element in the universe.
At standard temperature and pressure hydrogen is a
colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas. Hydrogen is
very flammable and burns with an invisible flame. It
burns when it comes into contact with oxygen. The
byproduct of a hydrogen and oxygen explosion is
water or H2O. Hydrogen gas is made up of diatomic
molecules designated as H2.
The most common place to find hydrogen on earth
is in water. Each water molecule (H2 O) contains two
hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen is also found in a wide
range of compounds throughout the earth including
hydrocarbons, acids, and hydroxides.
There is very little free hydrogen in the Earth’s
atmosphere because it is so light that it eventually
escapes into space. The only free hydrogen on earth
is deep underground.
It is found mostly in stars and gas giant planets. The
Sun is made up of mostly hydrogen. Deep inside
stars, the pressure is so high that hydrogen atoms are
converted to helium atoms. This conversion is called
fusion and it releases heat and energy that we see as
sunlight.
Hydrogen is a very useful element. It is used to make
ammonia for fertilizers, refining metals, and methanol
for making artificial material like plastics.
Hydrogen is also used as a rocket fuel where liquid
hydrogen is combined with liquid oxygen to produce
a powerful explosion. Scientists hope that someday
hydrogen can be used as a clean fuel alternative to
power our vehicles.
Oxygen
Oxygen is an important element that is needed
by most life forms on Earth to survive. It is the
third most abundant element in the universe
and the most abundant element in the human
body. Oxygen has 8 electrons and 8 protons. It
is located at the top of column 16 in the periodic
table.
SHAPING THE WORLD WE LIVE IN
LEONARDO
DA VINCI
Leonardo da Vinci was
an artist, scientist,
and inventor during
the Italian Renaissance.
He is considered by
many to be one of
the most talented
and intelligent people
of all time. The term
Renaissance Man (someone who does many things
very well) was coined from Leonardo’s many talents
and is today used to describe people who resemble
da Vinci.
Leonardo was born in the town of Vinci, Italy on
April 15, 1452. Not much is known about his childhood
other than his father was wealthy and had a number
of wives. About the age of 14 he became an apprentice
to a famous artist named Verrocchio. This is where he
learned about art, drawing, painting and more.
Leonardo da Vinci is regarded as one of the greatest
artists in history. Leonardo excelled in many areas
including drawing, painting, and sculpture. Although
we don’t have a lot of his paintings today, he is
probably most famous for his paintings and also
gained great fame during his own time due to his
paintings.
Two of his most famous paintings, and perhaps
two of the most famous in the world, include the
Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.
Leonardo’s drawings are also quite extraordinary.
He would keep journals full of drawings and
sketches, often of different subjects that he was
studying. Some of his drawings were previews
to later paintings, some were studies of anatomy,
some were closer to scientific sketches.
One famous drawing is the Vitruvian Man drawing. It
is a picture of man who has perfect proportions based
off the notes from the Roman architect Vitruvius.
Other famous drawings include a design for a flying
machine and a self portrait.
Many of da Vinci’s drawings and journals were made
in his pursuit of scientific knowledge and inventions.
His journals were filled with over 13,000 pages of
his observations of the world. He drew pictures and
designs of hang gliders, helicopters, war machines,
musical instruments, various pumps, and more.
He was interested in civil engineering projects and
designed a single span bridge, a way to divert the
Arno River, and moveable barricades which would
help protect a city in the case of attack.
BENJAMIN
FRANKLIN
Benjamin Franklin
was a modern day
Renaissance Man. Like
Leonardo da Vinci, Ben
Franklin excelled in
many areas including
science, inventing,
politics, writing, music,
and diplomacy. He is
one of the founding fathers of the United States of
America and is often called the “First American”. Ben
was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 17,
1706. His father was a candle maker. Ben stopped
going to school when he was 10 and starting working
as an apprentice for his brother as printer when he
was 12. He gained most of this education by reading
a lot of books.
Ben ran away when he was 17, breaking his
apprenticeship with his brother. He went to
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania where he worked as a
printer. Ben first became known to the public as the
publisher of the newspaper the Pennsylvania Gazette.
He gained some notoriety as an American spokesman
when his testimony to the House of Commons in
England helped to get the hated Stamp Act repealed.
During the Revolutionary War, Ben Franklin
became Pennsylvania’s representative to the
Second Continental Congress. He was one of
the five members that drafted the Declaration of
Independence While Thomas Jefferson was the main
author, Ben did make some changes and had an
influence on the final draft. One of his key roles in
the Revolutionary War was as Ambassador to France.
He helped to secure the Treaty of Paris, which got
the French army on the side of the Americans and
helped to turn the tide of the war. Franklin also took
part in the Constitutional Convention and is the only
Founding Father to sign all four major documents in
the founding of the United States. These include the
Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, the
Treaty of Paris, and the Treaty of Alliance with France.
As if being a prolific writer and a major player in the
founding of the United States wasn’t enough, Ben
Franklin still found time to be a prominent inventor and
scientist. Perhaps Ben Franklin is most famous for his
experiments with electricity. He did many experiments
to prove that lightning is in fact electricity. This led
to his invention of the lighting rod, which helps to
keep buildings safe from lighting. Other inventions
by Ben Franklin include bifocals (a type of glasses),
the Franklin stove, an odometer for a carriage, and
the glass harmonica. In science he studied and
made discoveries in the area of electricity, cooling,
meteorology, printing, and the wave theory of light.
LOUIS
PASTEUR
Louis Pasteur was born in
Dole, France on December
27, 1822. His family
was poor and during his
early education he was
an average student who
enjoyed art and singing.
However, when Louis was
exposed to science as a
teenager, he knew he had found his calling. In 1838,
Louis went to college to become a science teacher. He
earned degrees in mathematics, physics, and chemistry.
He then became a chemistry professor at the University
of Strasbourg. While at the University he fell in love with
the daughter of the university’s rector, Marie Laurent.
He and Marie married in 1849. They had five children,
however, three died young from typhoid fever. It was
the deaths of his children that drove Louis to investigate
infectious diseases in order to find a cure. During
Pasteur’s time, people believed that microbes such as
bacteria appeared due to “spontaneous generation.” They
thought that the bacteria just appeared out of nowhere.
Pasteur ran experiments to see if this was true. Through
his experiments he proved that germs (i.e. bacteria)
were living things that came from other living things.
They didn’t just spontaneously appear. This was a major
discovery in the study of biology and earned Pasteur the
nickname the “Father of Germ Theory.”
Pasteur used his knowledge of germs to investigate
how beverages such as wine and milk were spoiled by
microbes such as bacteria and molds. He found that
heating up the liquids would kill most of the microbes
and allow the beverages to last longer and be safer to
drink. This process became known as pasteurization and
is still done on many foods such as milk, vinegar, wines,
cheese, and juices. As Pasteur learned more and more
about bacteria, he began to think they may be the cause
of disease in humans. When the French silk market was
threatened by a disease to silkworms, Pasteur decided to
investigate. He discovered that this disease was caused
by microbes. By eliminating the microbes from the
silkworm farms, he was able to end the disease and save
the French silk business.
Pasteur continued to investigate with diseases. He found
that he could make a weak form of a disease that would
cause people to become immune to the stronger form
of the disease. He called this weak form a “vaccine.” He
first discovered this by working with cattle on the disease
anthrax. The first vaccine he gave to a human was the
rabies vaccine. He administered it to a nine year old boy
name Joseph Meister in 1885. Today Louis Pasteur is
known as one of the most important scientists in history.
His discoveries led to an understanding of microbes and
diseases that has helped to save millions and millions
of lives. Pasteur is most remembered by the Pasteur
Institute which he established in 1887. Today the Pasteur
Institute is one of the world leaders in battling infectious
diseases. Louis Pasteur died in 1895 from a stroke. He was
buried in the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, France.
ALEXANDER
GRAHAM BELL
Alexander Graham Bell is most famous
for his invention of the telephone. He
first became interested in the science
of sound because both his mother and
wife were deaf. His experiments in sound
eventually let him to want to send voice
signals down a telegraph wire. He was able
to get some funding and hire his famous
assistant Thomas Watson and together
they were able to come up with the
telephone. The first words spoken over the
telephone were by Alex on March 10, 1876.
They were “Mr. Watson, come here, I want
to see you”.
It turns out that other scientists had
similar ideas. Bell had to race to the patent
office in order to get his patent in first.
He was first and, as a result, Bell and his
investors had a valuable patent that would
change the world. They formed the Bell
Telephone Company in 1877. There have
been many mergers and name changes
over the years, but this company is known
today as AT&T.
Bell was born on March 3, 1847 in
Edinburgh, Scotland. He grew up in
Scotland and was initially homeschooled
by his father who was a professor. He later
would attend high school as well as the
University of Edinburgh. Bell actually had
many inventions and did experimentation
in many areas of science. Some of these
include:
• The Metal Detector - Bell invented
the first metal detector which was
used to try and find a bullet inside
of President James Garfield.
• Audiometer - A device used to
detect hearing problems.
• He did experimental work on
aeronautics and hydrofoils.
• He invented techniques which
helped in teaching speech to
deaf persons.
• He made a device to help find icebergs.
SALLY RIDE
Sally went to Stanford
University, where she
studied physics (laws of
nature and universe).
One day, Sally saw an ad
in a school newspaper
from N.A.S.A. (the
National Aeronautics
Space Administration),
looking for future
astronauts. Sally applied
and was accepted. After a long time practicing, in 1983,
Sally became the first woman astronaut to orbit Earth
in space. She experienced weightlessness and even
grew an inch because her spine was not compressed by
gravity as it is on Earth. While in space, she performed
many experiments, which help people to learn how to
adapt to life in space
THOMAS
EDISON
Thomas Edison may be
the greatest inventor in
history. He has over 1000
patents in his name.
Many of his inventions
still have a major affect
on our lives today. He
was also a business
entrepreneur. Many of
his inventions were group efforts in his large invention
laboratory where he had many people working for him
to help develop, build, and test his inventions.
He also started many companies including General
Electric, which is one of the biggest corporations in the
world today.
Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio on February 11,
1847. His family soon moved to Port Huron, Michigan
where he spent most of his childhood. Surprisingly,
he did not do well in school and ended up being home
schooled by his mother.
Thomas was an enterprising young man, selling
vegetables, candy and newspapers on trains. One day
he saved a child from a runaway train. The child’s father
repaid Edison by training him as a telegraph operator.
As a telegraph operator, Thomas became interested in
communications, which would be the focus of many of
his inventions.
LISE
MEITNER
Lise grew up in Austria, and wanted to
be a scientist. In Austria, though, few
women were allowed into universities.
Despite this, Lise became the first woman
to graduate with a doctoral degree in
physics from the University of Vienna.
She moved to Berlin, Germany so she
could be near more scientists, and studied
atoms (tiny particles that make up every
element) with Dr. Otto Hahn. They studied
together for 30 years, and discovered
a new element, protactinium. Because
Lise was Jewish, she was forced to
move to Sweden in order to escape Nazi
Germany. She then worked in the Nobel
Physics Institute. Dr. Hahn contacted
her about a strange reaction he noticed
during experiments with uranium atoms,
and Lise discovered that tremendous
energy could be released when atoms
were split. Dr. Lise Meitner told others
of her discovery of “nuclear fission”. This
discovery was used in weapons, but also
in more useful purposes, such as power
and medicine.
HILDEGARD
OF BINGDEN
Hildegard was born into
a wealthy German family,
and received an education
in a convent. Convents or
abbeys were some of the
only places women could
receive formal education
during the Dark Ages.
Hildegard studied Latin,
religion, and music. She became the abbess (leader) of
her abbey. Hildegard wrote natural history books as well
as medical books, and was the first person to write about
the need to boil drinking water for sanitation. Hildegard
also taught religion and medicine, and she emphasized
the importance of exercise and diet. She is the first
woman whose scientific writings still exist today.
NEIL
ARMSTRONG
Neil Armstrong was an
American astronaut who
became the first human to
walk on the moon. At age
20, Armstrong served in the
Korean War, where he flew
78 combat missions. He
received an Air Medal and
two Gold Stars. In 1955,
he graduated from Purdue University with a degree in
aeronautical engineering.
After getting a master’s degree in aeronautical
engineering, Armstrong became a civilian test pilot for
NACA (later NASA) at the High-Speed Flight Station at
Edwards Air Force Base in California. Armstrong tested
high-speed airplanes and reached an altitude of 207,500
feet and a speed of 3,989 miles per hour (mach 5.74).
In 1962, NASA selected Armstrong to be an astronaut.
He served as the backup command pilot for the Gemini
5 mission in 1965. He was the backup command pilot
for the Gemini 11 mission in 1966. He also served as
commander of the backup crew for the Apollo 8 lunar
orbital mission in 1968. In 1969, Armstrong commanded
the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission. After landing his lunar
module on the surface of the moon, Armstrong exited and
became the first person in world history to set foot on the
moon. Upon setting foot on the moon, Armstrong uttered
the timeless quote “That’s one small step for a man; one
giant leap for mankind.”
Armstrong’s landing was the source of great pride for the
United States in their never ending space race with the
Soviet Union. Neil Armstrong died on August 25, 2012, in
Cincinnati, Ohio.
HENRY
FORD
Henry Ford is most famous for starting
up the Ford Motor Company. Ford is still
one of the world’s largest makers of cars
including brands such as Ford, Lincoln,
Mercury, Volvo, Mazda, and Land Rover.
Ford was a pioneer in manufacturing
using the assembly line. This enabled
his company to manufacture cars on a
large scale at a cheap price. For the first
time, cars were affordable for the average
American family.
Henry grew up in Greenfield Township,
Michigan. His father was a farmer and
wanted Henry to take over the family
farm, but Henry had no interest in
farming. He was much more interested
in machines and building things. He left
home at the age of 16 and went to Detroit
to become an apprentice machinist. Ford
had two brothers and two sisters.
The Assembly Line - It is often stated
that Henry Ford invented the assembly
line. This is where a large number of
products are made one step at a time as
they pass down a line. Using an assembly
line allows for the mass production of
products at a cheaper price than trying to
build an entire product one at a time.
What Henry Ford did was apply this
concept to the automobile and perfect
it for the mass production of cars at a
much lower price than current production
methods. Ford’s work in using and
streamlining the assembly line was
an example of just how powerful an
assembly line could be in mass producing
products.
MARIE CURIE
Marie Curie grew up in
Warsaw, Poland where she
was born on November
7, 1867. Her birth name
was Maria Sklodowska.
Her parents were both
teachers. Growing up
the child of two teachers,
Marie was taught to read
and write early.
After graduating from
high school, Marie wanted to attend a university, but
this wasn’t something that young women did in Poland
in the 1800s. The university was for men. However,
there was a famous university in Paris, France called the
Sorbonne that women could attend. Marie did not have
the money to go there, but agreed to work to help pay
for her sister Bronislawa to go to school in France, if she
would help Marie after she graduated.
In 1894 Marie met Pierre Curie. Like Marie, he was a
scientist and the two of them fell in love. They married
a year later and soon had their first child, a daughter
named Irene.
Marie became fascinated by rays that were recently
discovered by scientists Wilhelm Roentgen and Henri
Becquerel. Roentgen discovered X-rays and Becquerel
had found rays given off by an element called uranium.
Marie began to do experiments.
One day Marie was examining a material called
pitchblende. She expected there to be a few rays from
the uranium in pitchblende, but instead Marie found a
lot of rays. She soon realized that there must be a new,
undiscovered element in pitchblende.
Marie and her husband spent many hours in the science
lab investigating pitchblende and the new element.
They eventually figured out that there were two new
elements in pitchblende. They had discovered two new
elements for the periodic table!
Marie named one of the elements polonium after
her homeland Poland. She named the other radium,
because it gave off such strong rays. The Curies came
up with the term “radioactivity” to describe elements
that emitted strong rays.
In 1903, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to
Marie and Pierre Curie as well as Henri Becquerel for
their work in radiation. Marie became the first woman to
be awarded the prize.
In 1911 Marie won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for
discovering the two elements, polonium and radium.
She was the first person to be awarded two Nobel
Prizes. Marie became very famous. Scientists came
from around the world to study radioactivity with Marie.
Soon doctors found that radiology could help with curing
cancer.
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY
(1733–1804). A clergyman who at one
time was driven from his home because
of his liberal politics, Joseph Priestley
is remembered principally for his
contributions to science.
For his best-known accomplishment—
the discovery of oxygen—he must share
the credit with the Swedish chemist
Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who is believed
to have made the same discovery
somewhat earlier.
Priestley announced his find, however,
to the French chemist Antoine-Laurent
Lavoisier. Lavoisier, realising that
Priestley had isolated an important new
element, named it and demonstrated its
role in combustion.
Priestley was born on March 13, 1733,
near Leeds, Yorkshire, England. He
studied for the ministry at Daventry
Academy in Northamptonshire, but
his unorthodox religious ideas made it
easier for him to make his living as a
teacher than as a clergyman. He taught
at Warrington Academy in Lancashire,
where his emphasis on practical
education contributed greatly to the
school’s success.
In addition to his discovery of oxygen
and other gases, Priestley studied
electricity and optics. His belief in
personal liberty led him to support the
French Revolution. He and his family
had settled in Birmingham in 1779, but
opposition to his unpopular views forced
them to leave there in 1791.
Three years later he and his wife left
England to join their sons in the United
States. They settled in Northumberland,
Pa., where Priestley died on Feb. 6,
1804.
ALESSANDRO VOLTA
Born in Como,
Italy, into a noble
family, Count Volta
was a physicist
and pioneer in the
study of electricity.
“Volt,” named after
Count Volta, is a
measurement of
electricity. Count
Volta also made
discoveries in
electrostatics,
meteorology and pneumatics. His most famous
invention, however, is the first battery.
HENRY
CAVENDISH
Henry Cavendish
(October 10, 1731 –
February 24, 1810)
was a British
scientist.
The grandson of
the 2nd Duke of
Devonshire, he
attended Cambridge
from 1749 to 1753 but left without taking a degree.
He inherited a large fortune which enabled him
to pursue his scientific studies, most of which
remained unpublished during his lifetime.
The idea came from Luigi Galvani, an anatomist.
Galvani was dissecting a frog when the frog’s leg
began to twitch. Galvani thought this was because of
some type of electrical action in the vicinity, such as
lightening. Volta tried to duplicate the experiment,
and he did on a clear day when there was no
lightening. Through experimentation, Volta realized
that the two different metal objects holding the frog
leg might be the source of the action. Over a period
of several years he worked out that the wet muscle
tissue conducted a current between the two different
type of metals. Volta modified this effect to produce
the first continuous flow of electric current. Around
1800, he invented a wet battery called a Voltaic Pile.
He is generally credited with having discovered
hydrogen, since he had described the density
of ‘inflammable air’, which formed water on
combustion, in a paper “On Factitious Airs”
that appeared in 1766. Antoine Lavoisier later
reproduced his experiment and gave the element
its name.
The Voltaic Pile consisted of discs of copper and zinc
separated by discs of paper or cardboard (soaked
in salt water). Attached to the top and bottom of
this “Pile” was a copper wire. When Volta closed
the circuit, electricity flowed through the pile.
Volta’s battery was later refined by other scientists,
and the French emperor, Napoleon, made Volta a
“Count” for his discovery.
He was silent and solitary, viewed as somewhat
eccentric, and formed no close personal
relationships outside his family.
SIR
CHRISTOPHER
COCKERELL
Sir Christopher
Cockerell was one
of the most amazing
inventors of the
20th Century.
He invented lots of
different things, but he will be best remembered for
inventing the hovercraft.
Born in 1910 near Cambridge, Sir Christopher’s
interest in science was encouraged at Gresham’s
School at Holt in Norfolk.
He studied engineering at Cambridge University, and
joined Marconi as a wireless engineer in 1935.
Cavendish is also credited with one of the earliest
accurate calculations of the mass of the earth. He
used a torsion balance to measure the gravitational
attraction between lead spheres in 1798, from
which he calculated Newton’s gravitational constant,
‘G’, which he used to calculate the earth’s mass.
He left a large estate on his death which was used
to endow the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge
University in 1871.
He made 36 inventions for the company, for which
he was paid £10 each. In 1950 he left Marconi and
bought a boat building/hire business on the Norfolk
Broads. He used a baked beans’ can and a firework
in an early attempt to
prove that a vehicle could float on air.
He finally proved that it was possible on Oulton
Broad near Lowestoft in the early 1950s. The first
commercial vessel crossed the channel in 1959.
Hovercrafts are now used all over the world and
the Royal National Lifeboat Institution in north
Norfolk has one of only two hovercrafts in the UK,
for sea rescue.
Cockerell had to fight for years to get any financial
recognition and he believed inventors often got a
raw deal.
Sir Christopher Cockerell passed away on the 40th
anniversary of the launch of the hovercraft, June
1st 1999.
SIR TIM BERNERS-LEE
Sir Tim Berners-Lee
is a British computer
scientist who
invented the World
Wide Web.
Timothy John
Berners Lee was born
on 8 June 1955 and
grew up in London.
He studied physics
at Oxford University
and became a
software engineer.
In 1980, while working at CERN, the European
Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, he first
described the concept of a global system, based
on the concept of ‘hypertext’, that would allow
researchers anywhere to share information. He also
built a prototype called ‘Enquire’.
In 1984, Berners Lee’s returned to CERN, which
was also home to a major European Internet node.
In 1989, Berners Lee published a paper called
‘Information Management: A Proposal’ in which he
married up hypertext with the Internet, to create a
system for sharing and distributing information not
just within a company, but globally. He named it the
World Wide Web.
He also created the first web browser and editor.
The world’s first website, http://info.cern.ch, was
launched on 6 August 1991. It explained the World
Wide Web concept and gave users an introduction
to getting started with their own websites.
In 1994, Berners Lee founded the World Wide Web
Consortium at the Laboratory of Computer Science
(LCS) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
in Boston. He has served as director of the
consortium since then. He also works as a senior
research scientist at LCS which has now become
the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence
Laboratory.
ADA LOVELACE
Augusta Ada King,
Countess of Lovelace
(née Byron; 10
December 1815 – 27
November 1852)
was an English
mathematician and
writer, chiefly known
for her work on
Charles Babbage’s
early mechanical
general-purpose
computer, the
Analytical Engine. Her notes on the engine include
what is recognised as the first algorithm intended to
be carried out by a machine. Because of this, she is
often regarded as the first computer programmer.
JAMES
WATTS
James Watt was a
Scottish engineer and
inventor and one of
the most important
contributors to the
Industrial Revolution.
He is best known
for making major
improvements to the
steam engine.
Watt was born in Greenock, Scotland in 1736. He
was good at engineering and mathematics and on
leaving school he made and repaired scientific and
astronomical instruments. In the late 1750s he
began to experiment with steam, even though he
had never seen a working steam engine.
In 1769 he took out a patent for a new condensing
chamber. Watt built a steam engine which used 75
percent less fuel than previous models. It was first
used to pump water from mines and then replaced
all other steam engines.
In the late 1760s, Watt worked with the inventor
John Roebuck and then an engineer, Matthew
Boulton. They made steam engines for canals, coal
mines and paper, cotton and flour mills.
Watt became very rich and continued to invent
things, including a working machine for copying
medallions and sculptures.
MICHAEL
FARADAY
Well regarded as
one of the most
influential scientists
of all time, Michael
Faraday was a British
physicist and chemist
whose combined
expertise led to
the development
of many of today’s common technologies. Michael
Faraday was born in England in 1791. His work
on electrochemistry and electromagnetism laid the
foundation for many areas of science. He formed
the basis of the electromagnetic field concept in
physics, discovered the laws of electrolysis, invented
electromagnetic rotary devices that were vital in the
creation of electric motors and played a key role in
the development of electricity for use in technology.
Not limited to physics and electromagnetism,
Faraday also invented a simple Bunsen burner,
coined terms such as electrode, cathode, anode and
ion, discovered benzene and investigated the nature
of chlorine.
SIR ISAAC NEWTON
Sir Isaac Newton
is one of the most
influential scientists
of all time. He came
up with numerous
theories and
contributed ideas to
many different fields
including physics,
mathematics and
philosophy.
Born in England,
Isaac Newton
was a highly influential physicist, astronomer,
mathematician, philosopher, alchemist and
theologian. In 1687, Newton published Philosophae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica, what is widely
regarded to be one of the important books in the
history of science. In it he describes universal
gravitation and the three laws of motion, concepts
that remained at the forefront of science for
centuries after.
Newton’s law of universal gravitation describes the
gravitational attraction between bodies with mass,
the earth and moon for example.
Newton’s three laws of motion relate the forces
acting on a body to its motion. The first is the law
of inertia, it states that ‘every object in motion will
stay in motion until acted upon by an outside force’.
The second is commonly stated as ‘force equals
mass times acceleration’, or F = ma. The third and
final law is commonly known as ‘to every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction’.
Other significant work by Newton includes the
principles of conservation related to momentum
and angular momentum, the refraction of light, an
empirical law of cooling, the building of the first
practical telescope and much more.
Newton was known to have said that his work on
formulating a theory of gravitation was inspired
by watching an apple fall from a tree. A story well
publicised to this very day.
THE PERIODIC TABLE
The Periodic Table is a way of listing the elements.
Elements are listed in the table by the structure of
their atoms. This includes how many protons they
have as well as how many electrons they have in
their outer shell. From left to right and top to bottom,
the elements are listed in the order of their atomic
number, which is the number of protons in each atom.
It is called “periodic” because elements are lined up
in cycles or periods. From left to right elements are
lined up in rows based on their atomic number (the
number of protons in their nucleus). Some columns
are skipped in order for elements with the same
number of valence electrons to line up on the same
columns. When they are lined up this way, elements
in the columns have similar properties.
Each horizontal row in the table is a period. There are
seven (or eight) total periods. The first one is short
and only has two elements, hydrogen and helium. The
sixth period has 32 elements. In each period the left
most element has 1 electron in its outer shell and the
right most element has a full shell.
Groups are the columns of the periodic table. There
are 18 columns or groups and different groups have
different properties.
One example of a group is the noble or inert gases.
These elements all line up in the eighteenth or last
column of the periodic table. They all have a full outer
shell of electrons, making them very stable (they tend
not to react with other elements). Another example
is the alkali metals which all align on the left-most
column. They are all very similar in that they have
only 1 electron in their outer shell and are very
reactive. You can see all the groups in the table below.
This lining-up and grouping of similar elements helps
chemists when working with elements. They can
understand and predict how an element might react
or behave in a certain situation.
Each element has its own name and abbreviation
in the periodic table. Some of the abbreviations are
easy to remember, like H for hydrogen. Some are a
bit harder like Fe for iron or Au for gold. For gold the
“Au” comes from the Latin word for gold “aurum”The
Periodic Table is a way of listing the elements.
Elements are listed in the table by the structure of
their atoms. This includes how many protons they
have as well as how many electrons they have in
their outer shell. From left to right and top to bottom,
the elements are listed in the order of their atomic
number, which is the number of protons in each atom.
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