The Western History Association
Enforcing Neutrality: The Tenth U.S. Cavalry on the Mexican Border, 1913-1919
Author(s): David K. Work
Source: The Western Historical Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 2 (Summer, 2009), pp. 179-200
Published by: Western Historical Quarterly, Utah State University on behalf of The Western
History Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40505472 .
Accessed: 23/12/2013 10:58
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
.
Western Historical Quarterly, Utah State University and The Western History Association are collaborating
with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Western Historical Quarterly.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
EnforcingNeutrality:
The Tenth U- S- Cavalry on the
Mexican Border, 1913-1919
David K- Work
The MexicanRevolution
causedchaosalongtheU. S.-Mexicanborder,
forcing
theUnitedStatestosend thearmyto theregionin ordertoenforceneutrality
laws. The experiences
thedifficulties
oftheTenthU. S. Cavalrydemonstrate
thearmyfacedin carrying
out thistask.
T
JL HE OUTBREAKOF THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION
in 1910createdinstability
along the UnitedStates-Mexicanborder.In response,
Presidents
WilliamHowardTaftand WoodrowWilsonsentthousandsofsoldiersto
laws.Enforcing
those
lineandenforce
UnitedStatesneutrality
guardtheinternational
that
task.The army's
lawswasa difficult
precisepowerswereneverclear,an ambiguity
More
felloutsideitsauthority.
activitiesthattechnically
led the armyto undertake
and restrictive
ordersand
thearmywashamperedbylimitedmanpower
importantly,
forsoldiers
tocarryouttheirduties.As a result,
thatmadeitdifficult
rulesofengagement
to
wereoftenfruitless,
topolicetheborder
efforts
leavingtheUnitedStatesvulnerable
of
the
Villa
in
1916.
the
end
"Pancho"
Francisco
raidssuchas thatconducted
Only
by
andthecreationofa Mexicangovernment
revolution
capableofpolicingitssideofthe
oftheTenthUnited
line.The experiences
orderto theinternational
borderbrought
from1913untilthefighting
whichservedon theArizonaborder
StatesCavalry,
largely
and enlisted
encountered
thedifficulties
endedin 1920,demonstrate
byarmyofficers
menstruggling
to enforce
neutrality.
on theUnitedStates-Mexican
activities
aboutthearmy's
Muchhas beenwritten
Villa'sraid
has focusedon the eventssurrounding
border.Most of this literature
againstColumbus,New Mexico,and the subsequentPunitiveExpeditionsentinto
Mexicoto breakupVilla'sbandandcapturethatMexicanleader.Verylittlehas been
activities
itsmissionor itsday-to-day
writtenabouthow well the armyunderstood
thearmy's
efforts
toenforce
the
havemostly
overlooked
duringthisperiod.Historians
David Workreceivedhis PhD fromTexasA&M University.
© 2009,Western
Western
Historical
40 (Summer2009): 179-200.Copyright
Quarterly
HistoryAssociation.
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
180
summer2009
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
Figure 1. Troop E, Tenth Cavalry, 1918. Courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society/
Tucson#91786.
calmapprehensive
armssmuggling,
civilians,
laws,prevent
suppress
banditry,
neutrality
sheds
Americanborder
towns.This isan important
that
andprotect
lighton how
topic
thefederalgovernment
triedto use thearmyto protecttheborder.1
in 1910,whenFrancisco
Maderoleda revolt
The MexicanRevolution
commenced
dictator
Porfirio
Díaz.Although
theDiazgovernment
quickly
againstMexico'slong-time
in February
1913
elusive.Maderowasdeposedand thenmurdered
fell,peaceremained
by,somebelieve,GeneralVictorianoHuerta.Huerta'sseizureofpowerpropelledthe
intoa periodofviciousfighting,
as therevolutionary
factions
revolted
revolution
against
him.AfterHuerta'sresignation
in 1914,thebloodshedcontinued.The revolutionärVilla (Villistas)and VenustianoCarranza(Constitutionalists),
ies,specifically
began
one
another
forcontrolofthegovernment.
Thus,Madero'sdeathinitiateda
fighting
civilwarthatlasteduntil1920.2
1Historiesof
all ofwhichfocuson
border,
armyoperationson theUnitedStates-Mexican
borderraiding,
includeFrankTompkins,
Villa,and thePunitiveExpedition,
ChasingVilla:The
LastCampaignoftheU.S. Cavalry(1934;reprint,
SilverCity,NM, 1996);ClarenceC. Clendenen,
Bloodon theBorder:The UnitedStatesArmyand theMexicanIrregulars
(London,1969);JohnD.
Intervention!:
The UnitedStatesand theMexicanRevolution,
1913-1917(New York,
Eisenhower,
Fora socialhistory
1993).The TenthCavalrywasone ofthefourblackregulararmyregiments.
oftheregiment
in Arizona,see David Work,"TheirLife'sBlood:The TenthCavalryin Arizona,
42 (Winter2005): 349-74.
1914-1921,"
Journal
ofArizonaHistory
2Fora
2 vols.
see Alan Knight,TheMexicanRevolution,
oftheMexicanRevolution,
history
1910-1940
NY, 1986)and MichaelJ.Gonzales,TheMexicanRevolution,
(Cambridge,
2002).
(Albuquerque,
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
DavidK. Work
FortheUnitedStates,therenewed
instability
fighting
brought
alongthesouthern
forcontrolofbordertowns,fromwhichthey
border.Mexicanrevolutionaries
fought
In 1912,theUnited
couldcollectcustomsdutiesand importarmsand ammunition.
a problem.
whichmadearmssmuggling
The embargo,
Statesimposedan armsembargo,
of
and
ammunition
one witnesslaterwrote,gave"riseto considerable
smuggling guns
withno
tosuchactivities."
westofEl Paso,wheretherewerefewbarriers
Furthermore,
in
to
law
and
and
Mexico
maintain
central
order,
banditry lawlessauthority
powerful
bandits
and
revolutionists
nessproliferated
line,where
sought
alongtheinternational
to thenorth.3
and otherillicitgainsfromtherichneighbor
livestock,
profit,
thearmytopatrolthe
WilliamHowardTaftordered
President
To meetthethreat,
UnitedStatesneutrality
lineandenforce
international
laws,a policythatwascontinued
also realizedthatthearmycould
byhis successorWoodrowWilson.Bothpresidents
ifnecessary,
livesand property
in Mexicoto protectforeign
intervene
althoughthey
of
the
of
force.
direct
use
to
avoid
the
intentions,
bythe
Regardless
politician's
hoped
of
its
total
and men,orone quarter
endof1915thearmyhad 20,600officers
strength,
the regulararmywith
Wilsonreinforced
on theborder.AfterVilla'sraid,President
1917.The borderforcewas
100,000NationalGuardtroopsfrom
July1916to February
in
World
WarI. Duringmostof
States
United
while
the
increased
participated
again
above
did
not
number
therevolution,
20,600.These soldiers
however,
troopstrength
The
terrain.
of
often
miles
two
thousand
armydidnothave to
inhospitable
guarded
thinand could
it
was
stretched
but
international
inch
of
the
line,
guardeverysquare
notadequately
protecttheentireregion.4
the
thecavalrypatrolled
Whiletheinfantry
guardedbordertownsand crossings,
The men,
ofdesertfromBrownsville,
Texas,to San Diego,California.
longstretches
cactus
in
the
in
tents
were
and
the
to
Journal,
sagebrush,
"living
Navy
Army
according
life."Lifewas especiallydifand dirt,and heat . . . [andwere]leadingthestrenuous
and
forthetroopsservingfromTexasto Arizona,a regionrifewithlawlessness
ficult
the
Southern
who
commanded
H.
Tasker
General
violence.Brigadier
Bliss,
Department
serviceof[the]
thatthisregiondemanded"themosttrying
from1913to 1915,reported
5
troops."
The TenthCavalryarrivedin Arizonain December1913and beganpatrolling
the regionbetweenNogalesand Yuma.This was a dangeroussectionof the border
3 CliffordA. Perkins,BorderPatrol: WiththeU.S. Immigration
Serviceon theMexican
Boundary, 1910-1954 (El Paso, 1978), 40.
4 Walter V. Scholes and Marie V. Scholes, The ForeignPolicyof theTaftAdministration
(Columbia, MO, 1970), 84-8; P. Edward Haley, Revolutionand Intervention:The Diplomacy ofTaft
ofWar
andWilsonwithMexico,1910-1917(Cambridge,
MA, 1970),26-9 and 40-2; Secretary
Report,11November1915and ChiefofStaffReport,15 October1915,in "WarDepartment
AnnualReports,1915,"3 vols.,House Doc. 1409,63rdCong.,3rdsess.,vol. 1,7,and 140;
ChasingVilla,228.
Tompkins,
5
ANJ),11April1914and Blissquotedin ANJ,6
(hereafter
ArmyandNavyJournal
December1913,bothfoundat TexasA&M University
CollegeStation,Texas.
Library,
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
181
182
summer2009
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
Figure2. TroopE, TenthCavalryon patrolnearRuby,Arizona,1918.Courtesyof the Arizona
HistoricalSociety/Tucson
#26593.
becauseit includedtheimportant
bordertownsofNaco and Nogales,wheremostof
theregiment
wasstationed.
hereuntil1920.The borderwas
Regularpatrolscontinued
markedbymonuments
about
220
line,but
placed
every yardsalongtheinternational
thissystem
was notpreciseand themonuments,
setup in the 1890s,were
originally
oftendifficult
to see. The environment
featured
hot desertand ruggedmountains
wherewaterwasscarceand theheat,especially
was intense.The
duringthesummer,
temperature,
accordingto CaptainConradS. Babcock,usuallyhovered"somewhere
betweenone hundredand one hundredtendegreesin theshade- whilethe [direct]
sun'sheatis beyondourcrudemeasurement."6
The armyrequired
theTenthCavalry'sapproximately
officers
and 870
thirty-one
enlistedmento guardoverone hundredmilesofdesert.The regiment's
headquarters
wereat FortHuachuca,abouttwenty
milesnorthofthe international
line;theregimentusuallykeptfourtosixtroopsthere,
fortraining
andrefitting,
therewere
although
timeswhentheentireregiment
wason theborder.
At leasttwotroopswerestationed
at bothNaco and Nogales.Whileon theborder,
thetroopswerebrokenintosmaller
detachments
and placedat substations
fromwheretheycarriedoutdailypatrolsofsix
totwenty
a
miles.Forinstance,in thesummer
of1914,TroopA atNogalesmaintained
detachment
ofone non-commissioned
officer
and
seven
men
at
Clark's
Ranch,
(NCO)
twoNCOs andsevenmenatMontanaMine,oneofficer,
twoNCOs, andfifteen
menat
6WilliamC. Brownto
HughL. Scott,17November1915,box 20,HughL. ScottPapers,
ofCongress,Washington,
DC, (hereafter
LC) and ConradBabcockto TaskerH. Bliss,20
Library
June1914,vol. 147,TaskerH. BlissPapers,LC.
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
DavidK. Work
183
wereabandoned
Arivaca,andtwoNCOs andtwelvemenatLochiel.Thesesubstations
as theoccasiondemanded.7
and thenreoccupied
in Arizona,severaloftheAfricanAmericanenlistedmen
Shortlyafterarriving
treatedthem.One
complainedabouttheirlivingconditionsand how theirofficers
lettersaid themen"drill[ed]
4 timesa dayand theyhave it veryhard"and charged
officer
was too "hard"on themen.A secondletterinsistedthat
thatan unidentified
at
treatedthemen"unjustly."
theofficers
worse,thelettercontinued,
Makingmatters
FortHuachuca"thereis no placeto go and nothingto see butstonesand hills."The
to "someplacewheretherewillbe somepleasure"and
soldiers
askedto be transferred
to retreat."
"wewonthave to workfrom. . . beforedaylight
Finally,anotherAfrican
workwhile
all ofthestrenuous
believedthatblacksoldiers
Americantrooper
performed
didnothing.8
whitesoldiers
them
andthearmytreated
believedthattheirofficers
TheseTenthCavalrysoldiers
American
viewed
the
African
of
the
officers
race.
due
to
their
Althoughmany
unfairly
thiswasnotthereasonwhytheyworkedthemenso hard.
soldiers
as raciallyinferior,
From1909to 1913,theTenth
The reasonlaywiththeregiment's
assignment.
previous
in thegreen,
at FortEthanAllen,outsideofthesmallcityofBurlington
wasstationed
dutiesherewerelight,
The regiment's
ofVermont.
hillcountry
consisting
mostly
rolling
inthe
towns
men
into
small
that
took
the
marches
and
ofdrill,target
practice
practice,
with
them
often
the
white
citizens
their
color,
flagsand
greeted
regionwhere,despite
when
recreation
the
soldiers
with
opportunities
ample
Burlington
provided
cheering.
as
"a
Vermont
remembered
H.
Marchbanks
later
Vance
delightful
Sergeant
off-duty.
placeto live."9
a
Now theTenthCavalryfounditselfin theharshdesertofArizona,patrolling
hard'
describedlifethereas one of"turmoil,
border.
SergeantMarchbanks
dangerous
The soldierssimplywerenot preparedforthisduty,something
ships,and anxiety."
withtheregiment's
setoutto change.Working
realizedand immediately
theirofficers
as possible.
as
into
combat
the
men
officers
drilled
the
NCOs,
shape quickly
experienced
and
terrain
the
with
combined
and
the
task
not
an
Thiswas
grueling
toughwork,
easy
7
"PatrolReportfromNogalesand Outposts,"19June1914and GeorgeL.
GeorgePritchard,
Byramto Bliss,12June1914,bothfoundin RG 393,U.S. ArmyContinentalCommands,1821Weekly
1920,pt. 1,GeographicalDistrictsand Departments,
Entry4440,SouthernDepartment,
RG393-E4440),
ReportsRelatingto Conditionson theMexicanBorder,1913-1916(hereafter
unlessstatedotherDC (hereafter
NationalArchivesand RecordsAdministration,
Washington,
DC).
wise,NARA is locatedin Washington,
8Observerto AdjutantGeneral,30 January
1914and Membersofthe 10thCavalryto
1914,bothfoundin AGO 2124560,RG 94,RecordsoftheAdjutant
AdjutantGeneral,January
NARA and Unknowntrooperquotedin
General'sOffice,Entry25,DocumentsFile,1890-1917,
DC, 1918),34.
MaryCurtis,TheBlackSoldier(Washington,
9 David Work,"The BuffaloSoldiersin Vermont,
Vermont
73 (Winter/
1909-1913,"
History
p. 53,thisis an unpubFortyYearsin theArmy,
Spring2005): 63-75 and Vance H. Marchbanks,
lishedworkavailableat theFortHuachucaMuseum,FortHuachuca,Arizona.
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
184
SUMMER
2009
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
shockedtheAfricanAmericantroopers,
especiallytherecent
dangerous
assignment,
One resultofthis
was theeasylifein Vermont.
recruits
whoseonlyarmyexperience
suddenchangewasthelargenumberofcomplaints.10
wasthepoorlivingconditions,
Anotherfactor
thesecomplaints
espeunderlying
the
of
the
Mexican
in
border
stations.
outbreak
the
Before
the
Revolution,
army
daily
butit was not preparedto accommodate
maintainedseveralfortsalongthe border,
the international
line.This requiredthe
ofsoldiersnowguarding
thelargenumbers
and offered
little
mento livein makeshift
tentcampsthatprovidedfewpleasantries
fromthegrueling
climate.
protection
livableaccommodations.
The armytriedas quicklyas possibleto construct
By
with
thatincludedbarracks
cantonment"
1916,Naco had become"a verycomfortable
ironroofs,
a hospitaland postexchange,twoadobemesshalls,twoamusement
halls,
and men.Smallerbordersubstaandshowers
withhotand coldwaterforbothofficers
anddid
tionsdidnotreceivesuchluxuries
becausethearmyviewedthemas temporary
notwantto spendmoneyon a postthatmightbe abandoneda yearlater.Individual
All
troopsonlyspenta fewmonthsa yearat one ofthesemoreisolatedsubstations.
rotatedbackto FortHuachuca,whichprovidedelectriclightsand
troopseventually
and weeklymovies.These
pool,a library,
phoneservice,a bowlingalley,a swimming
in
led to "a growing
A.
Louis
Carter
1915,
spiritof
Chaplain
reported
improvements,
contentment."11
The armydidnotassigntheTenthCavalryto Arizonabecauseofitsracenordid
Americantroopon theborder
as someAfrican
whitesoldiers
receivespecialtreatment,
the
turn
to
be assignedto a
ersthought.
Afterfouryearsin Vermont,
itwas
regiment's
moredifficult
decision.Furthermore,
Race wasnota factorin thearmy's
assignment.
harsh
whitesoldiersalongtheborderin New Mexicoand Texaslivedundersimilarly
and dangerous
conditions
as didtheAfricanAmericansoldiers.
inArizonaafter1919.
Race wasthemajorfactor
in theTenthCavalry'sremaining
six
after
of
border
morale
the
1919,
service,
By
years
amongst troopswasdecliningas
themenbecame"discouraged
The armyrejected
anddissatisfied."
totransfer
proposals
theregiment
outofthedepartment.
SouthernDepartment
officials
declinedto move
theTenthtoNewMexicobecauseofa lackoffacilities
andrefused
toconsider
transferto TexasorOklahoma.To do so,reported
ringtheregiment
MajorGeneralDeRosey
Due to the Houstonrace riotin 1917,during
Cabell,was to "inviterace troubles."
whichmembers
of the AfricanAmericanTwenty-Fourth
Infantry
Regimentrioted
in Houston,thearmywantedto avoidantagonizing
whiteresidents
ofthesestatesby
10Marchbanks,
FortyYearsin theArmy,7411Brownto
6 January
RG
1916,file#17515,
CommandingGeneral,SouthernDepartment,
RecordCards,Entry4436,NARA and MonthlyChaplain
393,pt. 1,SouthernDepartment,
1915,AGO 1549808,RG 94,Entry25 (hereafter
RG94-E25),NARA.
Report,January
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
DavidK. Work
Figure3. Camp of TroopA, TenthCavalry,at Naco, Arizona,1914.Courtesyof the National
Archivesand RecordsAdministration
#83535.
stationingAfrican American soldiersthere,fearingthat violence mighterupt.As a
result,the Tenth remainedat FortHuachuca.12
The majormissionproblemfacingthe regimentwas the ambiguityofitsassignment.
While in Arizona, the Tenth Cavalry'smonthlyregimentalreturnoftenstatedsimply
that the regimentspent the month"enforcingneutralitylaws."With this phrase,the
the actual neutralitylaw,prohibited
armylumpedtogethertwo separatelaws.The first,
to arm vesselsor organizemilitaryexpeditionsagainst a
usingUnited States territory
nation at peace withthe United States,what was called filibustering.
This law did not
preventAmerican companies fromselling arms and ammunitionto peoples engaged
in war.13
The second law the armyincludedunderthe phrase"enforcing
neutralitylaws"was
in
1912.
This
1898
statute
and
which
an
was
enacted in direct
law,
passed
expanded
12"Moraleof
RG 393,pt. 1,
1919,file#330.1,
Troopsat FortHuachuca,Arizona,"1 February
SouthernDepartment
GeneralCorrespondence,
1913-1916,Entry4437,NARA. Fora discussion
oftheHoustonraceriot,see Gama L. Christian,BlackSoldiers
inJimCrowTexas,1899-1917
(CollegeStation,TX, 1995).
13Tenth
Records,January
1914,microfilm
M744,Returns
CavalryRegimental
publication
NARA
fromRegularArmyCavalryRegiments,
1833-1916,roll102,TenthCavalry,1910-1916,
and Revised
StatuesoftheUnitedStates,XVIII (Washington,
Revised
DC, 1875),(hereafter
sections5281-5286,1024-25.
Statutes),
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
185
186
summer2009
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
thepowerto imposean arms
responseto theMexicanRevolution,
gavethepresident
ina stateof"domestic
The president
violence."
alsocould
embargo
againstanycountry
andtowhomitapplied.Immediately
afterthepassage
definethenatureoftheembargo
violence"and ordereda
ofthelaw,TaftdeclaredMexicoto be in a stateof"domestic
to
the
Mexican
haltto all armsshipments,
government.14
except
legitimate
Itwasthesetwodifferent
lawsthatthearmyalongtheMexicanborderwastrying
toenforce
theneutrality
law.UnderarmyregU'
toenforce,
butitonlyhadtheauthority
in
the
to
act
a
law
enforcement
could
authorize
lations,onlyCongress
army
capacity.
to use thearmed
theauthority
statuteexplicitly
The neutrality
grantedthepresident
thearmsembargo.
existedforenforcing
toenforce
them.No suchauthority
forces
Thus,
theexportofarms.15
itwasillegalto use thearmyto prevent
customs
wassupposedto be enforced
The embargo
bytheTreasury
Department's
into
was
the
of
whose
to
These
job
prevent smuggling anything orout
agents,
agents.
oftheUnitedStates,operatedin bordertownsthatservedas portsofentryand also
on thetrailfora weektotendays.Therewere,
rodebetweenthesetowns,oftenstaying
however,
agentswere
onlya limitednumberofthesemen.In Arizona,aboutthirty
theportsofDouglas,Naco,andNogalesandpatrolthe375miles
availabletosupervise
tostoptheflowofarms.
Thesemenwereunablebythemselves
border.
ofinternational
thearmyaidedthecustomsagents.16
Therefore,
This
thearmyalso triedto prevent
thesituation,
Further
banditry.
complicating
armed
in Mexico,andthuscouldbe deemedforeign
waslegalifthebanditsoriginated
America.Stopping
theUnitedStates.Itwasillegalifthebanditswerefrom
forces
raiding
authorthearmy's
and
outside
Americanbanditswasa lawenforcement
responsibility
to
wereethnically
Mexican,makingitalmostimpossible
ity.Manyofthesecriminals
betweenthosebornin Mexicoand thosebornin theUnitedStates.
distinguish
lawdid
thattheneutrality
and enlistedmenseemedto understand
Fewofficers
officers
read
Tenth
not includethe armsembargoand banditry.
Cavalry
Although
to readthe
theArticlesofWarto theirenlistedmenonce a year,theymadeno effort
them.The
and menunderstood
law,let alone to ensurethatthe officers
neutrality
R.
later
related
anecdote
was bestdescribedbyan
situation
byGeorge Rodney,who
servedon theArizonaborderin 1913and againfrom1916to 1918.Accordingto the
receivedordersto enforce
theSouthernDepartment
thegeneralcommanding
story,
oftheselawsbyall ofhisregimental
laws.He orderedtheenforcement
theneutrality
14Proclamation
ofState,Foreign
14March1912in U.S. Department
bythePresident,
Relations
DC, 1919),745-6.
oftheunitedStates,1912(Washington,
15RevisedStatutes,
section5287,1025and MichaelD. Carman,UnitedStatesCustomsand
theMaderoRevolution
(El Paso, 1976),49.
16Perkins,
BorderPatrol,
9; G.B. Masonto DeputyCollector,Douglas,Arizona,24 January
1914,folder6, box 1,UnitedStatesCustomsService,DistrictofNogales,Papers,1892-1977,
ArizonaHistoricalSociety,Tucson,Arizona(hereafter
AHS); Carman,UnitedStatesCustoms
12.
and theMaderoRevolution,
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
DavidK. Work
187
whothenpassedtheorderon totheirtroopcaptains,eachofwhomgave
commanders,
The lieutenant
thencalledin hissergeant
and told
thesameorderto his lieutenant.
him:"Youtaketenmentoday,Sergeant,
and ridetheborder. . . and aboveall you'll
stared
Lawsarestrictly
observed."
The confusedsergeant
see to itthattheNeutrality
Lawsthat
fora momentand thenasked,"WhataretheseNeutrality
at thelieutenant
we'reto enforce?"
To whichtheLieutenant
replied,"How in thehelldo I knowwhat
" 17
'em/
All
I
'You
enforce
are?
can
sayis,
they
described
thesituation.
Fewofficers
theanecdoteaccurately
Although
exaggerated,
seemedto appreciate
theneutrality
oftheTenthCavalryunderstood
law,evenfewer
and banditry,
and still
betweentheneutrality
thedifference
law,thearmsembargo,
the
thearmypossessed.Rodneyfailedto understand
whatauthority
fewer
recognized
all he knewwasthat"the
lawandthearmsembargo;
betweentheneutrality
difference
ofarmsor ammuni^
the importation
had issueda Proclamation
President
forbidding
thatthearmyhad no authority
tionintoMexico."To his credit,Rodneyunderstood
As he laterwrote,"fewcaredto enforcelawsthatwere
to enforcean armsembargo.
18
no lawsand werethemselves
illegal."
evenextendedto
lawand thearmy's
overtheneutrality
The confusion
authority
instructions
GeneralBlisswrotethathe receivedno specific
Brigadier
generalofficers.
neutralthe
to
"enforce
order
the
his
command's
vague
only
assignment,
describing
in 1914,
Fort
General
laws."
Texas,
Bliss,
commanding
JohnJ.Pershing,
Brigadier
ity
across
ofarmsand ammunition
"thesmuggling
wrotethathis orderswereto prevent
were
of
laws."
of
the
in
violation
theborder,
supposedto
Questions legality
neutrality
Enoch
General
in
was
who
1914
be answered
Major
bytheJudgeAdvocateGeneral,
As Crowderconfessed,
butevenhe wasoftenunableto provideanswers.
H. Crowder,
"I havelongsincereachedthepointwhereI am unableto answerquestionsas to the
ofwhatis goingon on ourMexicanfrontier."19
orillegality
legality
to understand
the armystruggled
Fromlowlyprivatesto high-ranking
generals,
sincethearmyreceived
law.Someofthisignoranceis understandable,
theneutrality
theneutrality
to enforce
ordersfromitsciviliansuperiors
laws,ordersthat
ambiguous
customs
With
was
deliberate.
oftheselaws.Thisambiguity
no definition
offered
agents
the
unableto stoptheflowofarms,civilianleaderswantedto use thearmyto enforce
a lawenforcement
armsembargo,
activity
theyknewwasillegalforthearmytoperform.
law.Thus,civilianleadersordered
It was legalforthearmyto enforcetheneutrality
failedtoexplainthatthearms
theneutrality
thearmytoenforce
laws,butdeliberately
17W.H. McCornackto AdjutantGeneral,1 January
1915,AGO 1195363,RG94-E25,
Remembers
NARA and GeorgeR. Rodney,As A Cavalryman
(Caldwell,ID, 1944),238-40.
18
241-2.
Remembers,
Rodney,As a Cavalryman
19Bliss
united
StatesandHuerta(Lincoln,1969),61;JohnJ.
The
Kenneth
in
Grieb,
J.
quoted
to C.E. Kelly,9 May 1914,box 110,JohnJ.Pershing
Papers,LC; EnochCrowderto
Pershing
of
Brown,6 November1914,folder7,box 8, WilliamCareyBrownPapers,Archives,University
Coloradoat BoulderLibrary
UCBL).
(hereafter
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
188
SUMMER
2009
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
embargowas not includedundertheselaws.Theywerealso willingto let the army
sincelocal lawauthorities
chasebandits,regardless
ofwherethesebanditsoriginated,
civilianleadersdecidedto use
seemedunableto deal withthisproblem.
Essentially,
thearmyin a lawenforcement
capacitybecausetheyconcludedthatitwas theonly
the
to
border.
way police
to interpret
The politicians
didnotexplainthisto thearmy,
forcing
armyofficers
arrivedat a broadintheirambiguous
ordersand definetheirmission.Armyofficers
oftheirorders,
moretasksthantheirlimited
terpretation
leadingthemto undertake
triedto prevent
Officers
allowedthemto carryouteffectively.
filibustering
manpower
and raidsfromMexicoand protectAmericanbordertownsduringbattlesbetween
to preventarms
MexicanRevolutionary
forces.They also tookit upon themselves
found
officers
and
horse
and
cattle
many
thievery,
general
banditry.
Finally,
smuggling,
white
as
calm
themselves
relations
tried
to
as
officials,
apprehensive
acting public
they
to carryoutall ofthesetasksmadeit
civiliansand explainarmypolicy.The attempt
line.
moredifficult
forthearmyto policetheinternational
law.Filibustering
The TenthCavalryneverhad to enforcetheactualneutrality
was nota problem,
bythearmy's
highcomespeciallyin Arizona;a factrecognized
withinthemeaningof
mand.As Brigadier
GeneralBlisswrote,"military
expeditions
theneutrality
lawarenotformed"
in theUnitedStates.Instead,he wrote,individuals
and
at an agreeduponpointin Mexico
crossed
the
border
then
"assemblefd]
legally
The State
wheretheyreceivefd]
arms. . . and wheretheiroperations
beg[a]n."
finally
failed
to
this
situation
Mexican
and, pressured
officials,
by
Department
appreciate
In response,the army
to stopfilibustering.
continually
urgedthe War Department
sentouttherequisite
orders.The TenthCavalryneverencountered
dutifully
anyfilibutstillhad to devotetime,effort,
and resources
to deal witha
bustering
expeditions,
non-existent
problem.20
The regiment
did spenda considerableamountof timetryingto enforcethe
armsembargo,
butencountered
severalproblemsin itsefforts
to do so. The first
of
theseproblems
was President
Wilson'sdesireto influence
thecourseoftheMexican
whichresulted
ina continually
andconfusing
Mexicanpolicy.In
Revolution,
changing
as
Madero'sassassination,
Wilsonre-imposed
the
August1913, fighting
ragedfollowing
In February
withHuerta,Wilsonliftedthearmsembargo,
1914,dissatisfied
embargo.
tooverthrow
Huerta.This
hopingthattheflowofarmswouldenabletherevolutionists
theUnitedStates's
policyremainedin place untilthe end ofAprilwhen,following
a decisionthat
occupationofVeraCruz,Wilsonagain imposedthe armsembargo,
remainedin forceuntilSeptember
whentheembargo
waslifted.
Thus,in a littleover
one year,Wilsonchangedhispolicyfourtimes.He changeditagainin October1915,
theCarranzafaction's
defeatofVilla,Wilsonrecognized
Carranzaas
when,following
20Blissto WilliamW.W.
12 September1914,vol. 165,BlissPapers,LC.
Wotherspoon,
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
DavidK. Work
189
thede factorulerofMexicoand imposedan armsembargoon all otherfactions.
This
remained
U. S. policyfortherestoftherevolution.21
Further
enforcement
oftheembargowas sympathy
fortherévolucomplicating
tionand a desireforprofit.
ManyAmericansin the borderregion,bothwhiteand
therebelsandsoughttohelpthem.Otherssawan opportunity
to
Mexican,supported
American
businessmen
violated
the
law
received
makemoney.
and
Many
eagerly
help
In Arizona,customsagentswerenotoriously
lax.
fromlaw enforcement
officers.
B.
nill
Collector
G.
Mason
that
did
complained
agents "practically
Special Deputy
between... 8 AM and 2 PM,"allowingsmuggling
operationsto "be carriedon by
ordetection."
Enforcement
fearofmolestation
autosand wagonswithout
bylocal law
authorities
wasevenworse.On one occasion,a townmarshalofNogaleswasarrested
adarmsintoMexico.Underthesecircumstances,
byan armypatrolwhilecarrying
been
have
the
impossible.22
equatelyenforcing embargomay
of the armsembargowas the
A finalproblemthathinderedthe enforcement
had theauthority
to search
restrictive
ordersunderwhichthearmyoperated.Officers
trains,wagons,and automobiles
onlyiftheyhad "reasonablegroundsforbeliefthat
containedarmsandammunition.
carsdetained"bysoldiers
theparticular
Furthermore,
fromeffectively
officers
"toopenboxes."Theseorders
prevented
theyhadno authority
commander
In thesummer
of1914,ColonelR. M. Blatchford,
theembargo.
enforcing
stationed
at
and
all
ofboththeTwelfth
Nogales,complained
troops
Regiment
Infantry
because
offreight"
of all shipments
thathe couldnot"makea generalexamination
believed
Blatchford
in
car."
a
the
contents
of
therewasno "specific
particular
suspicion
thatarmsand ammunition
Nogaleson a dailybasis,but,becausehe
passedthrough
In
evidenceofthis,he coulddo nothingto preventsuchshipments.
had no specific
thecolonelconcludedthatpatrolsat Nogaleswerepointlessbecausethey
frustration,
couldnotstopthearmstrade.23
withcustoms
theTenthCavalryandotherarmy
In theborder
units,working
towns,
"intended
lifted
trunks
the
soldiers
In
orders.
these
to
circumvent
tried
Nogales,
agents,
to Mexico."Anydeemedto be a normalweightwerenotopened,but
forexportation
thosethatwere"unusually
heavy"wereopenedand inspected.The soldiersalso inthatthesecarswerealreadyopen.These
spectedall coal railroadcars,on thegrounds
as smugglers
methodsyieldedno results,
easilyavoidedtheseinspections.24
21ArthurS. Link,Wilson:TheNewFreedom
(Princeton,
NJ,1956),360-1,391,402; Grieb,
182.
andIntervention,
The UnitedStatesandHuerta,100,121,157;Haley,Revolution
22Masonto CollectorofCustoms,Nogales,16March1914,folder8, box 1,UnitedStates
CustomsService,DistrictofNogales,Papers,1892-1977,AHS and Grieb,The UnitedStatesand
Huerta,60-2.
23R.M. Blatchford
to Bliss,27 July1914,vol. 148,BlissPapers,LC. The emphasisis in the
original.
24Masonto DeputyCollector,Douglas,Arizona,24 January
1914,folder6, box 1 and
Masonto DeputyCollectorofCustoms,Douglas,Arizona,30 April1914,folder8, box 1,both
foundin UnitedStatesCustomsService,DistrictofNogales,Papers,1892-1977,AHS.
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
190
SUMMER
2009
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
The TenthCavalry'sefforts
to enforcetheembargoat Nogales,Naco, and Yuma
in theseizureofan insignificant
Forthe
resulted
amountofweaponsandammunition.
weekending1 May 1914,theregimental
detachment
at Naco reported
seizingtwenty
Winchester
whilethedetachment
at Yumaseizedonlytenrifles,
whichthey
carbines,
foundhiddenin thebushesneartheborderline.And thiswasa busyweek,sinceofno armsorammunition.
The needtohave
ficers
thattheyconfiscated
usuallyreported
before
for
hindered
theregiment's
evidence
specific
searching
shipments weaponsclearly
to
enforce
the
ability
embargo.25
Evenwhenofficers
had specificinformation,
it oftenturnedout to be falseor
In September
theshipment.
1914,theSecondCavalryBrigade
theyfailedto intercept
orderedCaptainR. J.Flemingat Naco to watch"fora car ofammuniHeadquarters
tionbilledas clothing."
A shipment
of5,000lbs.ofclothingarrivedon 1 September
and was dulysearched,"butwas foundto containnothingbutKhakiuniforms."
On
anotheroccasion,theWarDepartment
that
mil.
Colt
"two
7
rapid-fire
guns
reported
and 100,000cartridges"
wouldbe shippedthrough
eitherNaco orNogales.Although
theborderguardswerealerted,theyfailedto stoptheshipment.26
The regiment's
weeklypatrolsin thedeserthad similarsuccessin theirsearchfor
atNogales
detachment
smugglers.
Duringtheweekending19June1914,theregimental
sentsixpatrolsintothesurrounding
a Mexican
One patrolencountered
countryside.
withtwopack
packtrainwitha loadofwood,a secondspiedfourMexicanprospectors
ColonelCharlesGrierson's
horses,and theotherfoursawnothing.Lieutenant
report
on 16May1914,succinctly
thetypicalresultofvirtually
all TenthCavalry
summarized
ofsmugglers
seennorheardof."27
anti-smuggling
patrols:"No indications
The TenthCavalryalso devotedresources
topatrolforYaquiIndians,
specifically
whosmuggled
armsandammunition
acrosstheborder.
toTucson,
Yaquisoftentraveled
wheretheyworkedat local citrusand cottonranches,usingtheirwagesto purchase
firearms
and ammunition.
to Mexico via Bear Valley,located
They thenreturned
abouttwenty-five
mileswestofNogales.Beginning
inJanuary
sent
1914,theregiment
into
Bear
for
but
found
"an
occasional
shoe
regular
patrols
Valleylooking Yaquis, only
orbarefoot
In January
track."
encountered
a group
1918,a TenthCavalrypatrolfinally
ofYaquiIndiansmovingsouththrough
BearValleythreemilesnorthoftheborder.
A
ensuedthatlastedforaboutthirty
minutes
beforemostoftheYaquibrokeoff
firefight
theskirmish
andfledintoMexico.The regiment
suffered
no casualties,
woundedonly
25 Greshamto
2ndCavalryBrigade,1 May 1914,RG393J.C.
CommandingOfficer,
E4440,NARA.
26
NARA and WilliamP. Malburn
RJ.Flemingto Bliss,5 September1914,RG393-E4440,
to CollectorofCustoms,Nogales,folder10,box 2, UnitedStatesCustomsService,Districtof
Nogales,Papers,1892-1977,AHS.
27Pritchard,
"PatrolReportfromNogalesand Outposts,"19June1914and Griersonto Bliss,
16May 1914,bothfoundin RG393-E4440,
NARA.
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
DavidK. Work
oftheArizona
Figure4. YaquiIndiansmugglers
capturedbyTroopE, TenthCavalry,1918.Courtesy
HistoricalSociety/Tucson
#26599.
one Indian, and confiscatedno weapons or ammunition.This incidentwas the only
timethat a Tenth Cavalry patrolencounteredarmssmugglers.28
Throughoutthe periodwhentheTenthCavalryattemptedto enforcethe armsembargo,no regimentaldetachmenteverfounda significantshipmentofweapons,despite
the factthatlargenumbersofarmsand ammunitionpassed overthe bordereach week.
The presenceof the armyundoubtedlymade it moredifficult
forsmugglersto operate
and probablycaused fewerillegal armsto be exported,but the armywas unable to stop
the arms trade.Due to the ordersunderwhich officersand soldiersoperated,and the
and limitedmanpowerassignedto the regiment,the Tenth Cavalry was
largeterritory
unable to interceptthis traffic.
The TenthCavalry also spenta greatdeal oftimetryingto stopbanditryalong the
internationalline. The regiment'scommander,Colonel William C. Brown,believed
that the regiment'sprimarydutywas to prevent"banditsfromcrossingthe borderand
raidingneighboringranches."This was a virtuallyimpossibletask because the army's
policywas entirelyreactive.The regiment'spatrolswerenot allowed to fireunlessfired
upon and theycould not cross the internationalline into Mexico underany circumstances. These rules led both officersand enlisted men to complain. Brown believed
that the ordersagainst crossingthe internationalline "handicapped" his troops,and
he asked forpermissionto firefirst,a requestendorsedby all officersand men. These
28H.B. Wharfield,
"A FightwiththeYaquisat BearValley,1918,"Arizoniana
4, no. 3
29 January
1914,vol. 147,
(1963):2; R.J.Fleming,
"WeeklyReportofBorderConditions,"
BlissPapers,LC; AlbertG. Scooler,"Cavalry'sLastIndianFight,"
Armor79 (SeptemberOctober1970):23.
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
191
192
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
summer2009
wereexpressed
frustrations
byone soldierwhowrotethathe hopedthat"Old Uncle
Sam" wouldinvadeMexicoand turn"theTenthCavalrylose on thebushwhackers
alongthissectionoftheborder."29
itsciviliansuperiors,
andespecially
BeforeMarch1916,thearmy,
rejectedall peti'
An armedforcefromtheUnitedStatescrosstionstochangetherulesofengagement.
reason,mighthaveled to war
uponMexicans,forwhatever
ingintoMexicoorfiring
wanted
theWilsonadministration
betweentheUnitedStatesandMexico,something
rules
in
March
these
New
to avoid.AfterVilla'sraidagainstColumbus,
1916,
Mexico,
theTenthCavalryoperated
werelifted;
but,duringthetwoyearspriortothisincident,
whenorwherebandits
Withno wayofknowing
rulesofengagement.
underrestrictive
to
coulddo littlebutsendoutconstantpatrolsin an effort
theregiment
mightstrike,
raiders.
dissuade
and
potential
try
and theregiment
Thesepatrolshad littleeffect
spentmuchofitstimeinvestigatIn
November
rumors.
and
of
raids
1914,CaptainFrankTompkins
chasing
ingreports
atBullSprings;
theborder
had
crossed
armed
Mexicans
of
a
band
that
receiveda report
to
marchedfromNogaleswithforty-three
thecaptainrapidly
men,only discoverthat
or facts."Afterhorseswere
falseand withoutfoundation
the "reportwas absolutely
stolenfroma ranchnearPalominasinJuly1915,nearNaco,MajorElwoodEvanstook
thelinetostealstock" No thieveswere
TroopC tothearea"towatchformencrossing
to Naco, butseveraldayslaterEvansreceiveda report
seen and the troopreturned
thata raidwasexpectedand senttwoNCOs and tenmento theranch.Once again,
no raidoccurred.30
on local cattlemen.
blamedmanyofthesebanditproblems
TenthCavalryofficers
"muchill feeling"betweenthe whiteranchers
Therewas,Colonel Brownreported,
the
betweenthem.Whenthisoccurred,
ofgunfire
andMexicans,leadingtoexchanges
their
cattle
allowed
ranchers
of
these
for
asked
cattlemen
Many
army
protection.
usually
to crossovertheborderto grazeon Mexicangrass,wherebanditsstoleorslaughtered
lineand ranoff
claimedthatMexicanscrossedtheinternational
cows.The ranchers
Such claimsby
livestock.
their
the
that
demanded
and
theiranimals
armyprotect
"Mr.
Harrisonis
to
McCornack
observe,
rancher
J.A. Harrisonled CaptainWillard
"
Not
all
ranchers
notaverseto usingUnitedStatesSoldiersto do his lineriderwork
banditraids.Forexample,
fromlegitimate
andmanyofthemsuffered
causedproblems
claimsbya rancherat
in January
1915,SecondLieutenant
HenryAbbyinvestigated
29Brownto Frederick
Funston,26 November1915,folder5, box 23,BrownPapers,
UCBL; Brownto Funstonand HerbertSlocumto Funston,12November1915,bothfound
4 September1915,p. 10,
in RG393-E4440,
NARA; Soldierquotedin theChicagoDefender,
microfilm.
30FrankTompkinsto Bliss,21 November1914and Evansto Funston,31 July1915,both
NARA.
foundin RG393-E4440,
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
DavidK. Work
193
Parker's
Canyon,nearNaco,thatsomeofhiscattlehadbeenbutchered.
Abbyconfirmed
thatbanditshad indeedkilledtheanimals,althoughhe coulddo nothingaboutit.31
On rareoccasions,TenthCavalrypatrolsintercepted
banditsand engagedthem
In mid-August
in firefights.
1915,at Lochiel,nearNogales,a patroloffourmenfrom
a partyofMexicanbanditsattempting
to herdstolenlivestock
TroopK encountered
fromtheborder,
ofgivintoMexico.Onlya half-mile
theMexicanshad no intention
In
few
and
a
skirmish
broke
out
with
the
a
Tenth
their
minutes,
prize
troopers.
ingup
soldiers
both
reinforcements
and
a
detachment
of
Mexican
Constitutionalist
Cavalry
and the Mexican
officer
arrivedon the scene.Fortunately,
TroopK's commanding
beforeit escalatedintoa serious
commander
managedto putan end to theskirmish
future
banditraids.
alsoagreedtopatroltheareatoprevent
battle.The Mexicanofficer
ColonelBrownbelievedthat"thedangerofMexicanRenegadescrossing
As a result,
theline[atLochiel]to runoffcattleis muchlessoned."32
Despitetheapparentsuccessat Lochiel,theTenthCavalrywasnotverysuccessto
lackedthe manpower
banditraids.Forone thing,theregiment
at
ful preventing
of
a
central
The
lack
milesofrugged
terrain.
strong
effectively
patroloveronehundred
as withthedifficulties
to theproblem.
also contributed
Mexicangovernment
Finally,
washindered
theregiment
intrying
tostoparmssmuggling,
encountered
bytheorders
This
bandits.
tosuppress
theTenth's
whichhandicapped
underwhichitoperated,
ability
whenVillaeasilycrossedtheborderandattackedColumbus,
reactivepolicyborefruit
unleashedby
but,untilthen,theTenthCavalrycoulddo littleto stoptheoutlawry
Revolution.
theMexican
a majoraspectoftheTenthCavalry's
Withso muchraiding,
job was,as oneofficer
andviolencecreatedtenofpeople."The lawlessness
"toquiettheapprehension
wrote,
sionand fearamongthewhiteAmericanpopulationlivingcloseto theinternational
received
aboutattackbybanditsfromMexico.Armycommanders
line,whoworried
townsin theborderregion.Racial
fortroopstoprotect
streamofrequests
an unending
tohidetheirfearof
as citizensmadeno attempt
fearsunderlay
manyoftheserequests,
fall
of
in
the
For
Indians.
and
bothMexicans
1915,Bisbee,Arizona,
instance,
Yaqui
that
two
locatedfivemilesfromtheborder,
cavalrytroopsbe stationedat
petitioned
Indians
thetownforprotection
irresponsible
desperate
against"onethousandhungry
ofBisbee.33
and renegadeMexicans"at Naco, Sonora,eightmilessouthwest
31Brownto CommandingOfficer,
SecondCavalryBrigade,25 August1915and
NARA
McCornack,"ReportofBorderCondition,"21 August1915,bothfoundin RG393-E4440,
and HenryAbbytoTompkins,11January
1915,vol. 148,BlissPapers,LC.
32AlbertDockeryto CommandingOfficer,
Nogales,23 August1915and Brownto
SecondCavalryBrigade,25 August1915,bothfoundin RG393CommandingOfficer,
NARA.
E4440,
33R.A. BrowntoJohnGresham,28 April1914,vol. 147,BlissPapers,LC and Warren
ofWar,15 September1915,AGO 2212358,RG94DistrictCommercialClub to Secretary
E25,NARA.
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
194
summer2009
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
Armyofficershated dealing withthese requestsand oftenheld the border
GeneralBlisswrote,"[A] one-eyed,one-legged,
populationin contempt.Brigadier
Mexicanwitha woodengun,wouldmakethemthrowup
rheumatic,
octogenarian
theirhands. . . The situation... is one thatcalls forhorsewhips,cold douchesor
ratherthanforarmedtroops."
whatever
remediesare resorted
to in lunaticasylums,
G. C. Brantwrote,"I
Tenth
First
Lieutenant
Aftervisiting
Gleason,Arizona,
Cavalry
a
western
wasashamedofan Americancommunity,
one,thatshouldfeelso
especially
for
He
concluded
thatthepeople
on
a
mere
of
dependent
squad soldiers, protection."
herehave"a generallackofbackbone."34
oftheirpersonalopinions,
hadtorespond
totheseappeals,
Regardless
armyofficers
thesituationand explain
or detachment
to investigate
usuallybysendingan officer
Lieutenant
Brantto Gleasonin April1914-The
armypolicy.This waswhatbrought
Americanresidents
fearedthatMexicanminersmightburndownthe town.Brant
explainedto themthattroopscouldnotbe sparedto garrisonthetownand recomreceiveda requestfor
mendedthattheybuyweapons.In August1915,theregiment
were
claimed,"renegades
troopsfrombothOra BlancaandArivacabecause,residents
on the otherside of the line."In response,Second LieutenantJohn
congregating
Kennardconcludedthattherewas
Kennardtooka patrolofsix mento investigate.
no needforanytroopsbecausetheMexicanshad notcrossedthebordernorhad they
thearmydecidedto stationtwoNCOs and eight
harassedanyAmericans.However,
at
Arivaca
"to
privates
anyway allaythefearsoftheinhabitants."35
Sometimesofficers
theirauthority
whentheytriedto help border
overstepped
towns.In April1914,ColonelJohnGresham,thentheTenth'scommanding
officer,
andammunition
from
the
ofBisbeewith1,465Kragrifles
agreedtoprovidethecitizens
FortHuachucaarsenalso theycouldforma homeguardforselfdefense.The colonel
believedthat,"underthecircumstances,"
he could"notrefuseto take"thisstep.The
SouthernDepartment
headquarters
quashedthisidea.The lastthingthearmywanted
wasa largeforceofwell-armed
Americancivilianson theborder.
Blissconcludedthat
theaffair
"indicates
totallackofjudgment"
fromGreshamand ithastenedGresham's
as commander
oftheTenthCavalry.36
departure
Forthemostpart,thearmyresisted
movingitslimitednumberoftroopsto meet
thefearsofwhiteAmericans.The "troopsalongtheborder,"
Blisswrote,"haveto be
34Blissto Scott,27
April1914,vol. 162and G.C. Brantto Bliss,vol. 147,bothfoundin Bliss
Papers,LC.
35G.C. Brantto Bliss,vol. 147,Bliss
Papers,LC; ANJ,9 May 1914;all threeofthefollowing
foundin RG393-E4440,
22 August1915,
NARA, McCornack,"ReportofBorderConditions,"
27 August1915,McCornack,"ReportofBorderConditions,"
28 August
JohnKennard,"Report,"
1915.
36Greshamto Bliss,23
April1914,vol. 147,BlissPapers,LC; Greshamto Bliss,26 April
RG 393,pt. 1,Entry4439,Correspondence
1914,file#5039,
Relatingto theMexicanRevolution,
SouthernDepartment,
1913-1916,
NARA; R.A. Brownto Gresham,24 April1914,vol. 147and
Blissto Scott,25 April1914,vol. 156,bothfoundin BlissPapers,LC.
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
DavidK. Work
195
demandtheirpresence";
stationed
at thepointswheretheborderconditions
theycan
at their
onlybe moved"ifconditionsbecomesuchthattheyareno longerrequired"
senta detachment
to
presentlocation.On occasion,theTenthCavalrytemporarily
in orderto calmcivilians,butthearmytriednotto letciviliansdictate
a community
fromtheir
especiallyifwhatwhitecivilianswantedwasprotection
troopplacement,
Ifsucha threatreallyexisted,thenitwasa lawenforcement
ownMexicanpopulation.
concern.37
and notthearmy's
problem
in
the
Arizonabordertownsoftenfaceda real dangerwhen
Civiliansliving
forcesbattledforcontrolofMexicanbordertowns.The Americanand
revolutionary
Mexicansidesof thesetownswereseparatedbya dirtstreetand onlya wirefence
markedthe international
border,
althoughat sometowns,suchas Naco, theborder
wasnotmarkedat all. Duringthebattles,shotand shellfellon theAmericansideof
The armywasassignedthetaskofsomehow
livesandproperty.
theborder,
threatening
In
thearmyoperatedunderrulesofentowns.
American
the
1914-1915,
protecting
fired
unless
fire
thatbannedreturning
crossing
directly
uponandprecluded
gagement
theborderforanyreason.
The TenthCavalrywas involvedin severalof theseoperations,
beginningin
forcontrolofNaco,
forcesbeganfighting
October1914,whenMexicanrevolutionary
had tentroopsatNaco,joinedbymostoftheNinth
Sonora.The regiment
eventually
thearmywasforcedtostripDouglas,
to
the
Ninth
In
Naco,however,
Cavalry. sending
ofmostofitsgarrison,
area
of
Ninth's
in
the
which
leaving
Arizona,
responsibility,
lay
when
a
This
became
town.
problemin mid-October
onlytwotroopsat thatborder
two
the
sent
troops
oppositeDouglasatAguaPrieta.In response, army
erupted
fighting
oftheThirteenth
Douglas.The
CavalryfromColumbus,New Mexico,to reinforce
limitedborderforces.38
at Naco strainedthearmy's
concentration
on thewestsideoftown,menoftheTenthand NinthCavalrydug
Positioned
in or tookshelterbehindU-shapedbales ofhayoverwhichtheyplacedironroofs.
Colonel Brownstrunga rowofflagsalongtheborderand toldtheMexicansto fire
parallelto theline.This didnothappen.With,as Browndescribedit,theMexicans
Hotchkissrevolving
"smallarms,three-inch
cannon,rockets,
shell,shrapnel,
hurling
oftenlanded
at one another,
landmines,bombs,buglecalls and epithets"
projectiles
of
on theAmericanside.The armywas thereto protecttheAmericaninhabitants
of
bullets.
the
rain
from
constant
of
in
need
itself
found
but
often
Naco,
protection
who
all theAmericansoldiersinvolved,
frustrated
rulesofengagement
The restrictive
when
todo theirjob.ColonelBrownsummedup thewishesofeveryone
feltpowerless
to a finishI wishtheywoulddo it."39
he wrote,"Iftheyaregoingto fight
37Blissto Scott,9 February
1915,box 17,ScottPapers,LC.
38Blissto
AdjutantGeneral,13October1914,AGO 2212358,RG94-E25,NARA.
39Abstractof
GeneralWilliamC Brown,Biographic
RecordofBrigadier
Fapers0*
Military
Carlisle
Genealogy,1854-1939,box 1,WilliamCareyBrownPapers,MilitaryHistoryInstitute,
MHI) and Note on Unidentifiable
(hereafter
NewspaperClipping,11
Barracks,
Pennsylvania
betweenBrownand Sisters,box 2, BrownPapers,MHI.
November1914,Correspondence
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
196
summer2009
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
In December,the armyfinallymovedto bringthe battleto an end. Brigadier
nowaugmented
GeneralBlissassumedcommandoftheU. S. forces,
byan infantry
brigadeand artillery
battery,
givingBliss5,000soldiersor abouta quarterofall the
troopsassignedto the Mexicanborder.MajorGeneralHughLenox Scott also ax*
rivedto negotiatean end to thesiege.The talksdraggedon fora month,whichonly
The ArmyandNavyJournal
increasedeveryone's
frustration.
complainedthatitwas
since"no one seemsto haveauthority
senselessto sendsoldiersintothesesituations
to do anything."
Scottmanagedto convincetheMexicansto signa truce,and on 15
1915,theBattleofNaco ended.Duringthebattle,theUnitedStatessuffered
January
threecivilianskilled,and eighteensoldiers(including
eightfromtheTenthCavalry)
and thirty-two
civilianswounded.40
Threatsof Mexicansfighting
oppositethe Arizonabordertownsin the fallof
andfruitless
1915sentunitsoftheover-stretched
TenthCavalryon severalfrustrating
for
Naco
was
aboutto
that
a
second
battle
marches.In lateOctober,as rumors
spread
The
to
the
American
side.
six
of
in
the
the
arrived
occur, troops
city protect
regiment
in
for
Prieta.
Mexicanschosenotto fight
at Naco, butinsteadengaged a battle Agua
on orders
GeneralFrederick
fourtroopsfrom
fromBrigadier
On 2 November,
Funston,
The
late in theafternoon.
Naco marchedthetwenty-five
milesto Douglas,arriving
marchto Douglas,as Funstonadmitted,
was "a wildgoosechase,"becausethebattle
thatVillawas
endedbeforethetroopsarrived.
Twodayslater,actingon information
in
After
a grueling
towards
the
four
set-off
Naco,
heading
saddle-weary
troops
pursuit.
in
of
the
soldiers
entered
Naco
late
the
November.41
4
march,
evening
In lateNovember,
Constitutionalists
and VillistasbattledforcontrolofNogales
andtheTenthCavalryfought
withMexicanforcesalongtheSanta
severalskirmishes
Cruz Rivernear the town.On threeoccasions,Constitutionalist
soldiersattacked
smalldetachments
ofTroopF guarding
theborder.
The twosidesexchangedshotsand,
theTenth'stroopers
killedtwoMexicanswhilesuffering
duringthefirst
engagement,
no casualties.These attacksoccurredbecausetheMexicansdidnotknowwherethe
international
linewasandmistooktheAmericansoldiers
forVillistas.The skirmishes
endedwhensix additionaltroopsoftheTenthCavalryarrivedon 27 Novemberto
reinforce
theAmericangarrison.
The siegeofNogalesconcludedthatdayandin early
Decembertheregiment
wasrelieved
ofdutyat thecityandall buttwotroopsreturned
to FortHuachuca.42
40AN), 2
1915;HughL. Scott,SomeMemories
January
ofa Soldier(New York,1928),509ofState,Foreign
Relations
12;BorderCasualties,18 December1914in U.S. Department
ofthe
UnitedStates,1915(Washington,
DC, 1924),786.
41Tenth
Returns,
October,November1915,M744,reel102,NARA;
CavalryRegimental
AbstractofMilitaryRecordofGeneralBrown,BiographicPapers& Genealogy,1854-1939,box
1,BrownPapers,MHI; Brownto Scott,5 November1915,folder6, box 16,BrownPapers,UCBL;
Funstonquotedin 11November1915,diary38, box 3, BrownPapers,UCBL.
42E.L.N. Glass,
Ft.Collins,CO, 1972),65; ANJ,
History
oftheTenthCavalry(1921;reprint,
27 November1915;Brownto Funston,26 November1915,folder23,box 5, BrownPapers,UCBL;
WilliamS. Valentineto Brown,27 November1915,BrownPapers,UCBL; "HistoricalSketchof
TenthCavalry,1915,"AGO 1195363,RG94-E25,NARA.
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
DavidK. Work
rulesof engagementwerelifted,allowing
AfterMarch 1916,the restrictive
acrosstheborder.The effects
ofthenewruleswere
U. S. forcesto pursueattackers
at theBattleofNogalesin August1918.At thetime,threetroopsofthe
highlighted
TenthCavalry,commanded
Herman,wereencampedtwomiles
byCaptainFrederick
fromthetown,whilethreecompaniesoftheThirty-Fifth
Nogales.
Infantry
garrisoned
as "contraband,"
to
whatwasdescribed
On 27 August,a Mexican,carrying
attempted
escortedbya private
lineand a UnitedStatescustomsofficial,
crosstheinternational
theMexicanto stop.A Mexicanborderguard
ordered
fromtheThirty-Fifth
Infantry,
the fire.The
thenshotand woundedthe private,and Americansoldiersreturned
battlewas raging
and withina matterof minutesa full-blown
Mexicansretaliated,
ofNogales.The threetroopsfromtheTenthCavalrysoon arrivedand
in thestreets
Herman
tookcommand.43
Captain
Hermandecidedthattheonlyway
thenewrulesofengagement,
under
Acting
lineand occupyNogales,Mexico.He
to end thebattlewasto crosstheinternational
to capturetwo
orderedunitsfromboththeTenthCavalryand Thirty-Fifth
Infantry
acrosstheline.The troopsquickly
hillsandclearoutthebuildings
accomplished
directly
theMexicansaskedfora truce.Laterthatnight,
thismissionand,shortly
thereafter,
in thewoundingofone Americansoldier.
moreshootingbriefly
occurred,
resulting
to "attack[the]townwith[his]
threatened
in
now
General
command,
Cabell,
Major
calmeddownoverthe
The situation
wholeforce"iftheMexicansdidnotceasefiring.
battlethatcost7
the
for
side
and
each
several
next
unnecessary
regret
expressed
days,
lives.44
their
Americansand 129Mexicans
earnedtheTenthCavalrythepraiseoflocalcitizens,
Suchengagements
indicating
had no objectionto thepresenceofAfricanAmericansoldiers,
thatwhiteresidents
at leastas longas a threatfromMexicoexisted.Forthemostpart,thesoldiersofthe
andwhitesoftenpraisedthe
TenthCavalryandwhitesin theareacoexistedamicably
AfricanAmericansoldiers.For instance,in 1914the citizensofNaco commended
conductat all times."Of
forits"goodorder"and "exemplary
theregiment's
garrison
of theborderand acsouth
threat
existed
a
that
just
course,thesecitizensbelieved
thesoldiers'
offered
byanyarmyunit.In thesecircumstances,
ceptedtheprotection
racewasirrelevant.45
southoftheborder.
Troublearosewhenwhitecitizensno longersawa dangerfrom
as a threat.Thisoccurred
viewedtheAfricanAmericansoldiers
Thentheysometimes
ofone companyfrom
in Yumain 1914,a timewhenthearmymaintaineda garrison
43WillardA. Holbrookto AdjutantGeneral,27 August1918,DecimalCorrespondence
File
RG 407,NARA, CollegePark,MD; ANJ,31 August1918;H.B.
319.1,MexicanBorder,
10thCavalryandBorderFights
(El Cajón, CA, 1965),18-9.
Wharfield,
44Testimony
ofCapt. Frederick
ofMexicanAffairs,
J.Herman,U.S. Congress,Investigation
SenateDocumentsvol.9, 66thCong.,2ndsess.,1919-1920,1815-1816and WillardA. Holbrook
RG
File319.1,MexicanBorder,
to AdjutantGeneral,29 August1918,DecimalCorrespondence
407,NARA, CollegePark,MD.
45AN], 7 Marchand 4 April1914.
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
197
198
summer2009
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
the TwelfthInfantry
and TroopC fromthe TenthCavalry.At
(a whiteregiment)
the end ofAugust,Yuma'smayoraskedthe armyto removetheAfricanAmerican
He also stated:"wehavehad no
soldiers
becausetheyhad "beennothingbuttrouble."
but
so theproblemwas notthepresenceofsoldiers,
troublewiththewhitesoldiers,"
from
no
threat
the
African
American
soldiers.
With
Mexico,
emanating
specifically
of theTenthCavalry
the mayorand otherYumacitizenswantedto ridthemselves
denied
the
thearmydecided
C's
officer
charges,
troop.AlthoughTroop commanding
to withdraw
thesoldiers.
In doingso,thearmyavoideda politicalbattleovertheissue
ofrace,butBrigadier
GeneralBlissviolatedhisownpolicyofnotallowingciviliansto
dictatetroopmovement.46
The onlymajorracialincident
whiteciviliansandtheAfricanAmerican
involving
soldiersoftheTenthCavalryoccurredin July1919at Bisbee.Bythistime,thevio
lencesouthoftheborderhad subsided,
leavingwhitecitizensin lessneedofan army
white
On
this
the
occasion,
presence.
policeforceattackedsoldiersin townon leave
The
in theFourthofJulyfestivities.
thenightbeforetheregiment
was to participate
incidentoccurredaftera scuffle
betweenseveralAfricanAmericansoldiersand a
whiteprovostguard.The townsheriff
thendecidedto disarmeveryTenthCavalry
thepoliceand
trooperin town.When soldiersrefusedto hand overtheirrevolvers,
whiteciviliansattackedthem.The riotlastedforabouttwohours,duringwhichpolice
fourteen
AfricanAmericansoldiers,
arrested
andassaultedthirteen
five,also
shooting
a
officer
and
a
Mexican
accidentally
shooting deputypolice
girl.47
in theFourthof
No one died,and thenextdaytheTenthCavalryparticipated
did
not
demand
theremovalof
as
Arizona's
Julyparade.Just remarkably,
newspapers
theAfricanAmericantroops.The ArizonaGazettecomplainedthatall reports
ofthe
riot"hadbeengreatly
On theotherhand,thePhoenix
thestate's
Tribune,
exaggerated."
"a sampleofthe'democracy'
calledtheaffair
for
onlyAfricanAmericannewspaper,
whichourboyshavebeenfighting."
The incidentdemonstrated
that,in therightcirracialviolencecoulderuptbetweenwhitecitizensandAfricanAmerican
cumstances,
thatoccurred
intheSouthintheearly-twentieth
soldiers,
something
frequently
century.
In Arizona,theTenthCavalryhadfewproblems
withwhiteciviliansbecausetheciviliansneededtheirprotection
and theregiment
was usuallystationedat isolatedposts
and rarely
mixedwithwhites.48
By 1920,theborderregionhad begunto quietdownas thecivilwarin Mexico
cameto an end.The Constitutionalists
and
gainedcontrolovermostofthecountry
wereableto imposea semblanceoflawandorderon theinternational
line.The Tenth
the area,and in 1920 clearedMexicanbanditsout of the
Cavalrykeptpatrolling
46J.H.
RG 393,pt. 1,Southern
Shansseyto GeorgeW.R Hunt,27 August1914,file#7433,
GeneralCorrespondence,
1913-1916,Entry4437,NARA.
Department,
47ANJ,26
July1919and Work,"TheirLife'sBlood,"368-9.
48ArizonaGazette,4
12July1919,p. 4, microfilm.
Tribune,
July1919,p. 2 and Phoenix
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
DavidK. Work
199
aroundRuby.By 1921,though,theTenthhad abandoneditsborderstations
country
therestofthedecade,theregiment
and concentrated
at FortHuachuca.Throughout
enjoyeda periodofpeace and relativeinactivity.49
thatconfronted
theU. S. armyon theMexicanborder
The chaosand confusion
The borderregionis
from1910to 1920has parallelsin theearly-twenty-first
century.
of
in
United
as
the
issues
a
of
the
source
States,
controversy
illegalimmigration
again
dominatenewsheadlines.Evenviolencehas increasedin recent
and drugsmuggling
years,especially
drugrelatedviolence,as rivaldrugcartelsbattleone anotherand the
demandsin theUnitedStates
have led to growing
Mexicanpolice.These problems
have even suggestedusingthe
forincreasedbordersecurity;some commentators
Suchdemandshavebeenmadewithout
U. S. armyto guardtheborder.
anyconsiderthatthearmywould
ationofeitherthelegalissuesinvolvedor themissionproblems
service
to thearmy's
havealso madefewreferences
Commentators
confront.
previous
without
takes
this
debate
itencountered.
on theborderand theproblems
Thus,
place
thelessonsthatmightbe learnedfromthisearlieruseofthearmyon the
considering
Mexicanborder.50
encountered
theMexicanRevolution
toenforce
efforts
The army's
during
neutrality
Forone thing,the
thatmadepolicingthebordera difficult
assignment.
manyproblems
todealwiththechaosoftherevolution.
wascompletely
Federalgovernment
unprepared
to
thegovernment
oftherevolution,
Beforetheoutbreak
paidonlysporadicattention
This
laws.
U.
S.
customs
to
enforce
main
concern
with
its
theinternational
line,
being
taskrequired
onlya minimalnumberofcustomsagentson theborder.
maintaining
and illOnce the revolution
began,the presenceof a fewhundredunprepared
This
forced
was entirely
inadequateforthenewsituation.
equippedcustomsofficers
a newborderpolicy,buttheyrefusedto investthe
to improvise
civilianauthorities
solutionforthe borderregion.This improvisation
resourcesto createa permanent
borderpolicy,as ithas historically
oftheU. S. government's
has beena hallmark
only
has
made
which
into
have
when
issues
to
border
grown majorproblems,
they
responded
U. S. leadersdecided
Duringthe MexicanRevolution,
policingthe borderdifficult.
forcethatseemed
established
an
solutionwastousethearmy, already
thatthequickest
concern.In doing
whatwas viewedas a temporary
capableofundertaking
perfectly
49Phoenix
27 March1920,p. 8, microfilm.
Tribune,
50RandalArchibald,"Arizona-Mexico
DiscussionFocuseson BorderViolence,"Neu;York
Times,16June2007,http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/16/us/16border.html?_
"NewTacticsto
JuliaPreston,
r=l&scp=16&sq=mexican%20border&st=cse&oref=slogin;
AreUnveiled,"NewYorkTimes,23 February
2008,http://www.nytimes.
ControlImmigration
JamesC.
com/2008/02/23/washington/23immig.html?scp=l&sq=mexican+border&st=nyt;
"MexicoDrugWarCausesWildWestBlood Bath,"NewYorkTimes16April2008,
Jr.,
McKinley,
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/16/world/americas/16mexico.html?scp=l&sq=mexican+border&
st=nyt(all accessed6 October2008).
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
200
SUMMER
2009
WesternHistoricalQuarterly
andsuccessors
wasusinga toolthatboththeirpredecessors
so,thecivilianleadership
haveoftenturnedto in suchsituations,
ofwhether
thecircumstances
have
regardless
in 1913theU. S. armywasno moreprepared
to
merited
suchtactics.Unfortunately,
policetheborderthanwasanyotherfederalagency.
Civilianauthorities
madethesituation
worsebyfailingtoexplainfullythearmy's
mission.Undertheambiguousmandateofenforcing
laws,theywantedto
neutrality
usethearmyina lawenforcement
but
did
not
capacity,
completely
explainthisassign^
mentto thearmybecausemanyoftheactivities
felloutside
wanted
it
to
they
perform
ofitsauthority.
Civilianleadershopedto avoida debateoverlegalissues;theywanted
an immediate
and easysolutionto an intractable
dilemma.Usingthearmyin a law
enforcement
thefailure
capacityseemedtoprovidethissimplesolution.
Unfortunately,
ofcivilianleadersto defineclearlythearmy's
createditsownproblems.
assignment
These includedthefactthatofficers
neverknewexactlywhatdutiestheyshould
how
would
be
perform, longthey
requiredto maintaina forceon the border,and
howlargetheforceshouldbe. The armyhad to definethemissionon itsown,with
tasksthatwere
thearmyundertook
verylittleinputfromcivilianleaders.As a result,
to carryout moreresponsibilities
than itslimited
illegaland attempted
technically
allowedit to perform
Duringmostofthisperiod,theresimply
manpower
adequately.
werenotenoughsoldiers
on thebordertoguardtheentireinternational
line
stationed
To
further
hindered
soldiers
found
themselves
matters,
effectively. compound
bythe
rulesofengagement
underwhichtheyoperated.These restrictive
rulesweredesigned
to avoida warbetweentheUnitedStatesand Mexico,butmadethearmy's
job that
muchmoredifficult.
Once thegovernment
therestrictive
lifted
rulesofengagement
andsentsubstantial
reinforcements
afterVilla'sraid,someofthearmy's
tasksbecameeasierto accomplish.
theendofWorldWarI, thearmy
But,evenwiththeincreasedtroopstrength
through
stillstruggled
topolicetheborderandprevent
theviolenceoftheMexicanRevolution
fromspillingoverintotheUnitedStates.Onlytheconclusionoftherevolution
and
theestablishment
ofa strongMexicancentralauthority
order
to
the
border
brought
no matter
whatpolicyit
region.The UnitedStatesarmycouldnotprotecttheborder,
a
without
Mexicangovernment
sideofthe
adopted,
capableofpolicingthesouthern
international
line.When thisgovernment
wasfinally
thearmy's
mission
established,
to enforce
ended.
neutrality
■
This content downloaded from 129.108.9.184 on Mon, 23 Dec 2013 10:58:15 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions