A beacon in the dark: The perceived value of coaching visually
impaired business leaders on interpersonal communication
competence
Carínna Wilmarín Krantz
Research assignment presented in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Philosophy in Management Coaching
at Stellenbosch University
Supervisor: Dr J Morrison
Degree of confidentiality: A
March 2016
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Declaration
I, Carínna Wilmarín Krantz, declare that the entire body of work contained in this research
assignment is my own, original work; that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly
otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not
infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for
obtaining any qualification.
CW Krantz
30 January 2016
10655549-1977
Copyright © 2016 Stellenbosch University
All rights reserved
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Acknowledgements
The MPhil Management Coaching programme offered me an opportunity to realise my dream of
furthering my career “to the next level” of professional proficiency. I am immensely grateful towards my husband, Jurie Krantz, who sponsored my studies financially while selflessly covering for
my two-year “absence” from general family activities, being mostly absorbed in the many aspects
of this study and research programme. Since the start of my undergraduate studies at
Stellenbosch University in 1977, without exception I have considered all my studies as an immense
privilege.
I wish to acknowledge and thank many more people for their contribution to my academic success:

Dr John Morrison for indispensable professional guidance and for sharing his enthusiasm for
research on topics impacting marginalised groups within mainstream society;

Dr Babita Mathur-Helm for her kind support during the first phase of this assignment;

Every staff member of USBI, USB’s library, especially Judy Williams for “walking the extra
miles”, searching and finding scholarly articles from other universities which were
inaccessibly to my account;

Dr Salomé van Coller-Peter, founder and programme manager of the MPhil in Management
Coaching at USB, with her team of innovative lecturers, assessors and supervisors;

Amanda Matthee for the professional and sensitive editing of my research assignment;

Ilse Neethling for applying her professional competence in salvaging the technical heart-beat
of this research assignment;

Each of the five research participants for contributing in a professional and unique way to this
study by “giving of self” in support of the discipline of coaching and the global blind
community;

Dr Nanette Tredoux, director of Psytech SA (Pty) Ltd, for sponsoring the 15FQ+
Psychometric Coaching Reports; also establishing a norm group for South African blind
business leaders;

The South African National Council for the Blind (SANCB) for supporting my coaching
practice;

Riaan de Coning, my 2014 coach for fusing Wimpy coffees with coaching and reflection;

My late mother and late mother-in-law, both for living their lives with unwavering courage and
integrity as litmus for ethical conduct while expecting no less of “my future self”;

My cousin, Herman Kotze, for supporting me during the block weeks in Cape Town and
keep-ing me sane with his wit, humour and big heart for humanity;

Charl de Villiers, considered family, for his honest concern about the survival of the
researcher;
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
My closest classmates – Anzel Venter, JP Cronje, Jo Thompson, Chris Pienaar, Preeya
Jagar-nath and Lulu Laubscher – for their team support in times of pulling off academic
miracles;

The children – Yolandi, Gustav Krantz and Chris Yates – for their timely and untimely smiles,
horizontal and vertical head nods with eyes rolling, in support of my academic endeavours;

Dara and Jasmyn, our family dogs, patiently keeping watch during my night shifts.
Nkosi sikelel’iAfrika
South African National Anthem, written in Braille
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Abstract
The purpose of this research study was to gain a better understanding of the perceived value of
coaching on interpersonal communication competence for blind business leaders. The main
research question explored the potential role of coaching in assisting blind business participants
with the development of their interpersonal communication skills.
The research participants and researcher were enthused by the prospect of truthful findings informing how effectively blind participants engage with sighted persons on a social and relational level in
their everyday lives. Moreover, what interpersonal communication strategies do blind participants
employ when “sending and receiving” messages considered as interpersonal communication. To
this end, research participants revealed what aspects of coaching they found useful in strengthening their interpersonal communication competence.
The research objectives were to:

Gain a better understanding of the scope of interpersonal communication needs, with specific focus on the constructs of social awareness and relational management;

Gain a better understanding of the perceived value that participants derived from the coaching facilitation;

Analyse and interpret participants’ behaviour change as depicted in the findings by
suggesting guidelines on future coaching programmes for blind business participants.
A tri-phased research methodology allowed for the collection of research data by means of
preparation data, a coaching phase and qualitative semi-structured interviews. The data analysis
included
explorative
interpretation,
informing
a
blindness
perspective
on
interpersonal
communication competence congruent to the research objectives.
Participants agreed on the value of the three phases serving contextual purposes. The first phase
generated preparation data before embarking on the coaching journey. This pre-coaching phase
allowed for the following: building rapport with the researcher, completing a self-report
questionnaire, administering the Fifteen Factors (Plus) Personality Questionnaire and conducting a
comprehensive one-on-one feedback interview. The preparation data informed the participants’
competency strengths and development potential on their social awareness and relational
competence. The second phase covered the coaching journey between the sighted researcher as
coach and the five blind business participants as coachees. The qualitative semi-structured
interviews served as the final data-capturing phase.
The analysis and interpretation of the data informed the research findings. The participants’
reporting on the potential role of coaching to assist with the development of social awareness and
relational management (interpersonal communication) has led to nine broad findings and twentytwo additional findings.
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Broad findings confirmed the value of coaching, coaching assessments, feedback interviews and
reflective practice in prioritising coaching goals and coaching topics while taking ownership of managing emotional blind spots to change limiting behaviour.
Four findings directly impacted the blind business participants’ interpersonal communication
competence: firstly, a deep-rooted “blindness identity need” for unconditional acceptance by
sighted persons; secondly, an inextinguishable need to know how blind business leaders are
perceived by sighted colleagues at work; thirdly, blindness identity leading to an invariable
subconscious (or conscious) state of alertness, hyper-vigilance and tension; and, lastly, an explicit
need to broaden expressive and receptive non-verbal language skills.
On completion of this research study, all five participants recognised the value of coaching in terms
of how they commanded reassurance in their relations with others. This resulted in extended
emotional comfort when taking control through asserting their “voices”. Experimenting with
transparent and direct communication helped them to determine how their peers, direct reports and
up-line management perceived their output, performance and value to the organisation. Previously,
the constant and lingering presence of emotional alertness, hyper-vigilance and tension caused
unexplainable emotional and physical tiredness.
The researcher wishes to extend this specific finding to all persons with disabilities. Lingering subconscious states of caution, alertness and hyper-vigilance may greatly affect persons with
disabilties’ impulsive behaviour, distrust of others, levels of threat sensitivity and attention deficit.
Non-verbal language is learned like the language of music making, computer literacy and foreign
languages through practicing, repetition, receptiveness and application. An attitude of “I won’t do
facial expression because I cannot see your facial expression” might be a weighted decision to a
blind business leader, or not. The price of maintaining such behaviour might be calculated
communication at the expense of spontaneity.
Key words
Blindness interpersonal communication
Blindness social awareness
Blindness relational management
Blindness non-verbal language
Coaching blind business leaders
Reasonable workplace accommodation
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Table of contents
Declaration
ii
Acknowledgements
iii
Abstract
v
List of tables
x
List of figures
xi
List of acronyms and abbreviations
xii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
1
1.2
BACKGROUND
1
1.3
PROBLEM STATEMENT
3
1.3.1
Research question
4
1.3.2
Research themes and patterns
4
1.4
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
5
1.5
CLARIFICATION OF KEY CONCEPTS
5
1.6
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
6
1.7
CHAPTER OUTLINE
7
1.8
SUMMARY
7
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
8
2.1
INTRODUCTION
8
2.2
BACKGROUND
8
2.2.1
Assessment as coaching tool
9
2.2.2
Physiological blind spots among sighted persons
11
2.2.3
Emotional blind spots among all people
12
2.2.4
Integration of coaching tools
15
2.3
COACHING APPROACH
15
2.3.1
Coaching as cultivator of human potential
16
2.3.2
Coaching application
16
2.3.3
Coaching types
17
2.3.4
Coaching for leadership
19
2.3.5
Coaching vision and mission
19
2.4
BLINDNESS DISABILITY AND VISION LOSS
20
2.4.1
Blindness: an inconvenience, or not
20
2.4.2
Universal eye health: a global action plan 2014 – 2019
21
2.4.3
Life worlds of the blind and the sighted
22
2.4.4
Blindness beats historical approaches to blindness bias
22
2.5
PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES IN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGS
24
2.5.1
Disability policies and legislation
25
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2.5.2
Employer and organisational perspectives
25
2.5.3
Benefits of utilising an underestimated talent pool
26
2.6
BLINDNESS DISABILITY AND INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
27
2.6.1
The silent language
29
2.6.2
Interpersonal communication
29
2.6.3
Principles and examples of verbal communication
32
2.6.4
Principles and examples of non-verbal communication
35
2.6.5
Summary
38
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
39
3.1
INTRODUCTION
39
3.2
FOREGROUND
39
3.3
THE SAMPLE
39
3.4
TRI-PHASED RESEARCH DESIGN
40
3.4.1
Constructive research themes and patterns
41
3.5
DATA COLLECTION
42
3.6
DATA ANALYSIS
43
3.7
SUMMARY
44
CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
46
4.1
INTRODUCTION
46
4.1.1
Review of research aim and objectives
46
4.2
RESEARCH INTERVIEW
48
4.2.1
Qualitative semi-structured interview (QSSI)
48
4.3
RESEARCH THEMES AND PATTERNS
49
4.4
RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
50
4.5
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
51
4.5.1
Sourcing codes
51
4.6
PURPOSE OF COACHING BLIND BUSINESS LEADERS
51
4.6.1
Participants’ pre-coaching expectations and perspectives
52
4.6.2
Coaching assessment and feedback interview
54
4.6.3
Participants’ coaching agenda, goals and topics
56
4.6.4
Incisive moments of integrated coaching experience
59
4.6.5
Coaching tool: The book Leadership For All
61
4.6.6
Coaching value as experienced by participants
63
4.6.7
Suggested guidelines for coaching blind or visually impaired business leaders
66
4.7
BLIND BUSINESS LEADERS AS RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
69
4.7.1
In personage as blind business leader, WHO am I being?
69
4.7.2
In personage as blind business leader, HOW am I being?
72
4.8
WORKPLACE LIVED EXPERIENCES OF BLIND BUSINESS LEADERS
81
4.8.1
Service orientation
81
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4.8.2
Inspirational leadership
82
4.8.3
Team working
85
4.8.4
Workplace reasonable accommodation of blind business leaders
88
4.8.5
Universal disability models
90
4.8.6
Assistive Technology (AT) and devices
92
4.9
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
94
4.9.1
Authentic communication
95
4.9.2
Verbal communication
107
4.9.3
Non-verbal communication
113
4.10
SUMMARY
124
CHAPTER 5 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
125
5.1
INTRODUCTION
125
5.2
SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS
125
5.3
GUIDELINES ON COACHING PROJECTS WITH BLIND BUSINESS LEADERS
130
5.4
FURTHER RESEARCH
131
5.5
LIMITATIONS
132
REFERENCES
133
APPENDIX A: Letter of Approval – USB DESC Ethical Clearance
145
APPENDIX B: Letter of Approval – Psytech SA (Pty) Ltd
147
APPENDIX C: Letter of Approval – SA National Council for the Blind
148
APPENDIX D: Research Participant - Invitation and Informed Consent
149
APPENDIX E: Business and Management Coaching Contract
154
APPENDIX F: Copyright Permission
157
APPENDIX G: Preparation Data: 15FQ+ Questionnaire, Participants P1-P5, Profiling
158
APPENDIX H: Preparation Data: Interpersonal- and Intra-personal competencies
159
APPENDIX I: Preparation Data: Qualitative Self-report Questionnaire – Findings
160
APPENDIX J: Qualitative Semi-Structured Interview Questionnaire
176
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List of tables
Table 2.1: Example of profile, 15FQ+ individual interpersonal communication competence
10
Table 2.2: Social awareness competency cluster
11
Table 2.3: Relational management competency cluster
11
Table 2.4: Summary: action management for emotional blind spots
13
Table 2.4: Summary: action management for emotional blind spots (continued)
14
Table 2.6: Contrasting coaching types
18
Table 2.7: Key facts on visual impairment and blindness
21
Table 2.8: Blind participants’ interpersonal communication needs in order of importance
28
Table 3.1: Description of manual data coding and analysis process
44
Table 4.1: Summary of data analysis and interpretation
47
Table 4.2: Summary of research participants’ biographical information
50
Table 4.3: Summary of research participants’ verbal and non-verbal expressions
118
Table 5.1: Additional findings
129
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire
160
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire (Continued)
161
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire (Continued)
162
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire (Continued)
163
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire (Continued)
164
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire (Continued)
165
Table I.2: Findings - Participant P1
169
Table I.3: Findings - Participant P2
170
Table I.4: Findings – Participant P3
171
Table I.5: Findings – Participant P4
172
Table I.6: Findings – Participant P5
173
Table I.7: Findings - 15FQ+ Intra-group coaching potential
174
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List of figures
Figure 5.1: Findings framework
128
Figure G.1: Pre-coaching phase: Participants Interpersonal Communication Competence
(IPCC)
158
Figure I.1: 15FQ+, Intra-group results on Interpersonal communication competence
167
Figure I.2: Participant P1, 15FQ+ results on Interpersonal communication competence
168
Figure I.3: Participant P2, 15FQ+ results on Interpersonal communication competence
169
Figure I.4: Participant P3, 15FQ+ results on Interpersonal communication competence
170
Figure I.5: Participant P4, 15FQ+ results on Interpersonal communication competence
171
Figure I.6: Participant P5, 15FQ+ results on Interpersonal communication competence
172
Figure I.1: 15FQ+, Intra-group Profiling on Interpersonal Communication
173
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List of acronyms and abbreviations
AT
Assistive Technology
BVIP
Blind and Visually Impaired Persons
CN
Coaching Narratives
CPD
Continuous Professional Development
CRPD
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
CV
Curriculum Vitae
DAISY
Digital Accessible Information System consortium
DESC
Departmental Ethical Screening Committee (USB)
ICC
Interpersonal Communication Competence
ICD10
International Classification of Diseases, Version 10
ICRF
International Coaching Research Forum
IPA
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
IPCC
Interpersonal Communication Competence
LSEN
Learners with Special Educational Needs (e.g. School for the Blind, Deaf, Autism)
PCC
Personal Construct Coaching
ROI
Return on Investment
SAHRC
South African Human Rights Commission
SANCB
South African National Council for the Blind
SRQ
Self-Report Questionnaire
USB
University of Stellenbosch Business School
VI
Visually Impaired
WABC
Worldwide Association of Business Coaches
WAFTB
World Access for the Blind
WBU
World Blind Union
QSSI
Qualitative Semi-Structured Interview
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The coaching profession has the ability to make a significant contribution to the everyday lived
experiences of blind business leaders in the workplace. Stern and Stout-Rostron (2013) identified
16 focus areas for coaching research from the International Coaching Research Forum (ICRF) 100
Proposals. Coaching outcomes is one of the 16 areas promoting sustainable leadership, selfunderstanding, satisfactory relationships, social functioning and emotional wellbeing. Stern and
Stout-Rostron (2013:74-75) stated in this regard:
We need to encourage and study: coaching in society, social responsibility, health and
wellness, and challenging situations and environments and geographic regions to
empower people to help themselves.
According to Stout-Rostron (2014:227), we face increasingly complex, dynamic and challenging
business and social territories that are in need of innovative ways “to connect’ and inspire people
through liberating human minds, imagination and passions”. Findings from Stout-Rostron
(2014:229) on how coaching is making a difference in organisations and society indicate a firm
belief in the potential and power of coaching to change business leaders’ originality, enthusiasm
and freshness of ideas by thinking for themselves.
This background describes the conception of this research study, also considered a research
adventure by the researcher.
The aim and objectives of this study is to gain an understanding of the perceived value of coaching
five blind business leaders on their interpersonal communication competence.
1.2
BACKGROUND
The inspiration for conducting qualitative research on the perceived value of coaching visually
impaired business leaders on their interpersonal communication competence emanates from one
question put forward by a blind business leader during a coaching session: “Should I declare or
should I not declare my visual disability on my curriculum vitae?” (Coachee: 2014). A fully sighted
person could counter-argue the appropriateness or not, or the necessity or not, of declaring one’s
non-disabled or fully sighted status on a CV. That question argues a preceding question directed at
the disadvantages of being blind, which deserves to be without contention. However, does the
absence of a construct imply the presence of the opposite? Does the absence of truth imply the
presence of a lie? It became an argument about polarity perspectives, informed by ethical and
moral conduct.
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From the coachee’s perspective, the question was born from emotional uncertainty about the
consequences of an answer either way, yes or no. An implied act of risk taking while applying for
jobs identifies to a degree the absence of merit and the presence of bias regarding equal access to
job opportunities for applicants with disabilities in South Africa. Likewise, the contention radiates
the presence of political correctness or the absence thereof. Answers to that question are available
in print, but according to first-person feedback from people with disabilities, employment-related
concerns have not yet matured as “a culture of accessibility” (World Health Organization,
2011:193). The Employment Equity Act (No 55 of 1998) states:
People with disabilities are entitled to keep their disability status confidential. But if the
employer is not aware of the disability or the need to be accommodated, the employer
is not obliged to provide it.
The foremost question should be irrelevant in an inclusive society. In fact, discrimination against
any person based on disability is a violation of the inherent dignity and worth of the human person
(United Nations (UN), 2006). Evidently, the coachee was looking for an alternative approach, or a
more ideal approach, in communicating blindness disability to prospective employers. The
outcome of that coaching session confirmed a profound need for “how to communicate” as equally
important to “what gets communicated” among members of the blind community functioning in a
sighted world. It is appropriate to acknowledge the common assumptions that all humans share
and the extent to which those assumptions change our personal perceptions, practical processes
and ethical goals in life.
Simon (1987:374) explained a theory of possibility within the context of empowerment and abilities.
Limitations placed on human action, feeling and thought constrain opportunities to participate on
equal terms with “competent” counterparts. Empowerment means to enable marginalised groups in
society, like persons from the blind community, to effectively participate and share authority.
Therefore, the theoretical base of this study informs an existential theory of possibilities, unlocking
the potential of blind business participants to participate more directly in society. Hence, this study
is also aimed at making blind people’s voices heard on a local and global scale as a result of this
research and coaching facilitation on interpersonal communication competence.
To varied degrees, a perceived lack of self-awareness and self-management (intrapersonal
communication) among blind business leaders link up with a perceived lack of social awareness
and relational management (interpersonal communication competence). Therefore, the knowledge
gap regarding the interpersonal communication competence of Blind and Visually Impaired (BVIP)
business leaders is worthy of a critical research assignment. This validates the question on what
makes researching this topic with blind people different from researching the same topic with
sighted individuals. Otherwise put, does eye contact or the lack thereof affect the extent of
successful interpersonal communication? What other hidden, suppressed or misunderstood factors
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might also affect interpersonal communication success among people from diverse cultural
communities, notwithstanding their visual status?
Smith and Kandath (2000:323) suggested yet another knowledge gap based on sighted persons’
ideas and assumptions about the cultural and social worlds of blind persons. In arguing this point, it
is important to consider accepting the presence of an opposite statement. All people form opinions
and perceptions based on experience and interaction with others. Perceptions that cannot be
turned into valid understanding remain assumptions: a cyclical process that forms part of human
behaviour. Blind and visually impaired persons assess their environments and social interaction
alongside sighted people with strong intent, establishing their own opinions and knowledge, based
on everyday lived experiences. In a News24.com article, Peterson (2015) reported on a remark
from a blind postgraduate student from Stellenbosch University:
The barrier for a blind person in all spheres of life is accessibility to information. New
technology doesn’t only make things more convenient for people with disabilities, but
also makes the impossible possible.
Within two sentences, this blind person summarised a concrete experience (blindness as barrier)
and a reflective observation (a primary need for access to information). Also, abstract
conceptualisation (how the use of technology can overcome and neutralise the barrier) plus active
experimentation (utilising technology to solve the initial problem) can result in what was once
considered impossible becoming possible. This descriptive interpretation acknowledges Kolb’s
Theory of Experiential Learning (Kolb, 1984).
1.3
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Coaching forms an important and adventurous part of this research study. This implies that the
coaching process should eventually clarify the research question based on qualitative data
collection, consequent findings and practical recommendations. Researching the perceived value
of coaching blind business participants on their interpersonal communication competence is an
understudied topic.
What makes this topic worth studying is an opportunity to interpret the value of coaching during the
interaction between persons with blind disability and the sighted world when sending and receiving
verbal and non-verbal messages that influence the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of self and
others.
Five blind business participants individually entered into a coaching partnership with a sighted
researcher who acted in dual capacity as coach and researcher. None of the five blind participants
has ever participated in a coaching research project, and neither have they received business
coaching in the workplace.
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Miller (2011:5) stated the most important focus of coaching reflects on the coachee’s internal
thoughts, feelings and behaviour, equating to personal and interpersonal awareness. The role of
the coach is to facilitate personal insight that may contribute to the coachee’s overall learning,
development and work performance. Valuable insight, once developed on a personal and
professional level, should lead to deliberate decision-making about transitional change. As
reported by Charan (2009:93), future leaders will be dependent on constant coaching because of
increasing levels of workplace complexities. Both experiences, namely the successes as well as
the failures of business leaders, may be threat-independent workplace competencies, as indicated
by Charan (2009:93):
As coaching has become more common, any stigma attached to receiving it at the
individual level has disappeared. Now, it is often considered a badge of honor.
Consequently, the purpose of this research is to conduct research leading to findings that will
either confirm or deny the perceived value of coaching blind business leaders to develop their
capacity for interpersonal communication.
1.3.1
Research question
This study aims to answer the primary research question: What is the potential role of coaching in
assisting blind business participants with the development of their interpersonal communication
competence?
The following secondary or sub-questions have been formulated:
i)
How do blind participants engage effectively with sighted persons on a social and relational
level in their everyday lives?
ii)
What interpersonal communication strategies do blind participants employ when “sending
and receiving” information?
iii)
What aspects of coaching do blind participants find useful for strengthening their
interpersonal communication competence?
1.3.2
Research themes and patterns
Based on the primary research question, participants intently contributed their time, social,
emotional and intellectual property to this research study. The participants and researcher coimmersed themselves in all aspects of the research topic through formal and informal
communication. Participants projected their everyday lived experiences in the coaching sessions
while addressing personal blindness disability and workplace experiences. The participants
reflected their own experiences of the phenomenon of coaching for interpersonal communication
skills based on the “how, what, where and when” of social and relational interaction.
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Firstly, the participants individually entered into a coaching partnership with the researcher, who is
also a professional coach, for a personal and professional development process, exploring the
effects and potential value-add of coaching on interpersonal communication.
Secondly, blind business participants function in a sighted world. The greatest challenge is their
ongoing need for access to information, either through the use of Assistive Technology, or by
engaging with immediate environments with interpersonal communication as the medium for
access.
Thirdly, blindness disability in the organisational setting is subject to meeting legislative
requirements as prescribed in the Code of Good Practice on Key Aspects of Disability in the
Workplace; a sub-section of the Employment Equity Act (1998).
Lastly, interpersonal communication is co-assessed by the researcher and participants on
“showing attention, determining direct addressee, signalling readiness and turn taking”
(Pourmollaabbasi, 2013) to access information, corroborate problem solving and create innovative
ideas.
1.4
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Based on the primary research question, the research process explores the following objectives:

To gain an understanding of the scope of interpersonal communication needs, with specific
focus on the constructs of social awareness and relational management

To gain an understanding of the perceived value that participants derived from the coaching
facilitation

To analyse and interpret participants’ behaviour change as depicted in the findings;
suggesting guidelines on future coaching programmes for people with blindness disabilities.
1.5
CLARIFICATION OF KEY CONCEPTS
The definitions of some of the key concepts are given below for purposes of clarification:
Accessibility
“… lies at the heart of the right dignity – being able to live as an equal
citizen in one’s community, being accorded respect for your personal
space, having the right to equal opportunities and negotiating one’s
life unhindered by man-made barriers” (Government Gazette,
2015:12).
Blind
“… describes a condition in which a person has loss of vision.
Visually impaired is the generic term, used to refer to all degrees of
vision loss” (National Union of Journalists, 2012:27). Blindness is the
inability to see, permanently or temporarily. The condition is
recognised as the most severe form of visual impairment, reducing
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persons’
independence
and
interpersonal
communication
competence (World Health Organization, 2014).
Communication
“… includes languages, display of text, Braille, tactile communication,
large print, accessible multimedia as well as written, audio, plainlanguage, human-reader and augmentative and alternative modes,
means
and
formats
of
communication,
including
accessible
information and communication technology” (Government Gazette,
2015:12).
Communication disability
“… an impairment to the capacity to use expressive and/or receptive
language in one or more of the following areas: speech, conveying
information, understanding information” (World Health Organization,
2014).
Disability
“… is imposed by society when a person with a long-term physical,
psychosocial, cognitive, neurological and/or sensory impairment is
denied access to full participation in all aspects of life, and when
society fails to uphold the rights and specific needs of individuals with
impairments” (Government Gazette, 2015:12).
Sensory disability
“…a condition affecting one of the five sense, typically vision, hearing,
or touch” (World Health Organization, 2014).
Visual impairment
“… can limit persons’ ability to perform everyday tasks and can affect
their quality of life and ability to interact with the surrounding world.
The premise is significant deviation from functioning of the norm. It is
a loss with embedded gain” (World Health Organization, 2013:8).
Persons with disabilities
“… include those who have long-term physical, psychosocial,
cognitive, neurological and/or sensory impairments which, in
interaction with various barriers, may hinder their full and effective
participation in society on an equal basis with others or within the
range considered normal for a human being (Government Gazette,
2015:12).
1.6
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A selection of five blind business leaders (average age 47) took part in this research study. All the
participants hold postgraduate qualifications in a variety of professional disciplines. Their places of
residence are in Gauteng Province, South Africa. The participants selected the venues for the
interactive research sessions, which were either at their work during office hours or at their homes
after work or over weekends. The researcher utilised triangulation as medium to obtain qualitative
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data. With the consent of the participants, the researcher generated field notes during the precoaching as well as coaching phases. A recording of the qualitative semi-structured interviews
offered research data through full transcriptions. A process of coding helped to identify meaningful
units from which themes and patterns emerged for further analysis and interpretation.
1.7
CHAPTER OUTLINE
The remainder of this research assignment is outlined as follows:
Chapter 2 provides a literature review that underpins the theoretical framework and philosophical
approach in researching persons with blind disability.
Chapter 3 explains the research methodology based on both input and output by five blind
participants in a coaching and research relationship with a sighted coach who is also conducting
the researcher.
Chapter 4 reflects on the outcome of the research methodology as applied in practice and provides
an interpretative analysis of the findings of this research study.
Chapter 5 recaptures the research findings and conclusions. It also suggests practical guidelines
on coaching partnerships with blind or visually impaired business leaders. Recommendations for
future research include information on access to the newly established psychometric norm-group
on the Fifteen Factors (Plus) Personality Questionnaire (15FQ+) with Psytech SA (Pty) Ltd and
Psytech International (Pty) Ltd., specifically for blind and visually impaired business candidates.
Suggestions for future research include the use of both quantitative and qualitative research
methodologies.
1.8
SUMMARY
One question from a blind business leader during a coaching session inspired the sighted
researcher to embark on a learning journey with five blind participants. Interpersonal
communication is much more than verbal language supported by non-verbal gestures, body
language and more. The researcher entered the world of the blind community, sharing the multidimensional everyday experiences as painted in absence of light. A beacon in the dark held the
proverbial promise of “shedding light” on a blind participant’s ability and skills to communicate more
spontaneously. Hence, there is a perceived need for a deeper consciousness about interpersonal
communication. The months co-invested in a coaching partnership offered an alternative slogan to
“Nothing about us, without us” (Charlton, 2000:16; Rowland, 2012), namely “Everything about us,
with us”.
The following chapter presents the literature review, based on the theoretical principles and
research constructs of this study.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter explores academic literature on how coaching can contribute to the development of
the interpersonal communication competence of blind business leaders. An in-depth interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary search for existing primary articles showed this topic as
understudied. Saunders (2011:157) mentioned that the absence of existing literature closely
related to the research aim and objectives calls for a broader review that matches the most
relevant themes under investigation. Weick (1995:385) pointed out that context determines
theoretical processes; hence, this research attempts to explore and interpret the contextual role of
interpersonal communication as experienced by blind persons.
This research topic is of interest to the blind community and the discipline of coaching. The key
knowledge gap is conceptualised as how, and to what extent, coaching can assist blind and
visually impaired business leaders with effective interpersonal communication. Initial assumptions
by the researcher on the research question ask for clarification through explanation of “what came
before and what comes next” (Weick, 1995:389). The research question therefore motivates a
description of findings derived from academic literature integrated with the research design,
methods and techniques (described in Chapter 3). This chapter discusses coaching as “the
process of equipping people with the tools, knowledge and opportunities they need to develop
them and become more effective” (Peterson & Hicks, 1996:14). The review continues with
interpersonal communication theory and concepts of experiential learning within organisational
settings. Disabilities as a diversity culture among other cultures deserve further probing, in line with
the ethical conduct of coaches, organisations and cultures.
2.2
BACKGROUND
The research participants in this study were blind business leaders. This research is carried out
within the context of coaching, blindness disability embedded within organisational settings, and
interpersonal communication.
Secondary aspects (assessment as a coaching tool, physiological blind spots and emotional blind
spots) deserve a separate discussion. Theoretical principles form part of the discussion in each
section of this review as Bruscia (2005:545) explained that the development of theory through
reflection on one’s own experiences in contrast to the ideas and perspectives of others is also
important. Moreover, during this research, every phase represents two sides of the coin:
simultaneously from a blind perspective and a sighted perspective.
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2.2.1
Assessment as coaching tool
Psychometric assessments are conducted to serve a specific purpose, which is to find answers to
prevailing questions. Generally, coaching projects require assessments with the purpose to inform
objectives and coaching topics (Scheepers, 2012:166). In the context of this study, five blind
participants holding senior executive positions in their respective organisations also underwent
assessments. While their job specifications are benchmarked against, inter alia, a transformational
leadership role, up to 30% variance in job performance is attributable to personality differentiation.
The Fifteen Factor Questionnaire Plus (15FQ+) is a quantitative, objective assessment of
personality and individual differences. The profiling results provide insight into how people typically
think, feel and interact in ways that may be potentially productive or counter-productive to
themselves as well as to the organisation (Psytech, 2015).
According to Peltier (2010:28-29), “an accurate assessment is essential for good coaching”. An
assessment may consist of different forms of intervention through compilation of an assessment
battery. Examples may include interview checklists, notes on qualitative behavioural observation, a
360-degree evaluation, cognitive tests, personality questionnaires and competency-based
assessments. An assessment battery must meet the criteria of accuracy, efficiency and
comprehensiveness in order to render valid and reliable information about the measured construct.
The 15FQ+ identifies interpersonal communication competence as social awareness and relational
management. According to the conceptual framework proposed by Goleman (1996), a total of ten
constructs represent interpersonal communication. Results on a participant’s interpersonal
communication competence are indicated on a rating scale of 1 to 10 in an assessment report.
The interpersonal domain profile chart excludes personal domain profiling, otherwise referred to as
intrapersonal communication competence. Intrapersonal communication details self-awareness
and self-management constructs like self-confidence, achievement orientation, conscientiousness
and adaptability (Psytech, 2015; Goleman, 1996:39) not included in the objectives of this research
study.
Table 2.1 below illustrates an individual’s assessment results on the Fifteen Factors (Plus)
Personality Questionnaire (15FQ+), ranking interpersonal constructs on a scale of 1 to 10.
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Table 2.1: Example of profile, 15FQ+ individual interpersonal communication competence
Scores (1-2) Scores (3-4) Scores (5-6) Scores (7-8) Scores (9-10)
Low (L) Moderate-Low (ML) Moderate (M) Moderate-High MH) High (H)
15FQ+ INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCY PROFILE CHART
Social awareness
Score
Level
Empathy
3
ML
Interpersonal
4
ML
Organisational awareness
6
M
Service orientation
7
MH
Score
Level
Persuasiveness
6
M
Conflict management
7
MH
Inspirational leadership
6
M
Change catalyst
4
ML
Team working
2
L
Open communication
5
M
Overall social
awareness score
5
M
█
Overall relationship
management score
5
M
█
Overall interpersonal
communication
competence score
5
M
█
cluster
1
2
3
5
6
7
8
9
10
8
9
10
█
█
openness
Relationship
4
█
█
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
management cluster
█
█
█
█
█
█
Source: Adapted from Psytech International (Pty) Ltd: Interpersonal Domain Profile Chart.
The interpersonal domain includes the social awareness competence cluster and relationship
management competency cluster. Each cluster comprises specific constructs displayed in Table
2.2 and Table 2.3. According to Psytech (2015), social awareness competencies enable a person
to understand others’ motives, emotions and behaviour; to be open to others’ points of view and
perspectives as well as to be sensitive to interpersonal and organisational dynamics.
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Table 2.2: Social awareness competency cluster
Constructs
Descriptors
Empathy
Affable; personable; warm-hearted
Interpersonal
Interest in establishing rapport with colleagues and clients; collaboration with
others; tact and diplomacy; open to others’ views and opinions
openness
Organisational
Commitment to following organisational rules; ownership and responsibility
for own mistakes or errors; ability to work without close supervision
awareness
Service orientation
Commitment to producing work of a high standard; detail orientation;
commitment to finishing tasks; understanding clients’ requirements
Source: Adapted from Psytech International (Pty) Ltd, (2015).
The relationship management competency cluster enables a person to communicate effectively; to
relate to others with diplomacy and tact; to network; to negotiate successfully; to work
collaboratively; to openly share information; to actively participate in team projects; to motivate
others; and to actively promote change and development of colleagues’ potential through
coaching, facilitation, mentoring and training.
Table 2.3: Relational management competency cluster
Constructs
Descriptors
Persuasiveness
Social presence; empathy and support; balanced negotiation style
Conflict management
Moving negotiations forward without conceding on important issues;
confident and motivated; attending to emotional undercurrents; diplomatic
and tactful
Inspirational leadership
Leadership styles are directive, delegative, participative, consultative and
negotiative; personal styles are venturesome; talkative; socially confident;
lively
Change catalyst
Experimenting; open to change; unconventional
Team working
Group orientated; cultivating a network of colleagues; open and
straightforward in dealing with people and concerns
Open communication
Happy to share information and knowledge with colleagues; in favour of
developing staff / colleagues; positive towards coaching or mentoring as
development tool
Source: Adapted from Psytech International (Pty) Ltd, (2015).
2.2.2
Physiological blind spots among sighted persons
According to Gregory and Cavanagh (2011), a physiological blind spot, which is called a scotoma,
is an area on the retina without receptors to respond to light. This optic nerve is a cable that carries
multiple nerve fibres from the brain to the eyeball. The optic nerve enters the back of the eye and
spreads nerve fibres onto the back of the eye to generate light-detecting cell layers, called the
retina. The small round spot where this cable enters the back of the eye forms an optic disc. There
are no light-detecting cells on this disc, resulting in a very small gap in the visual field of each eye
called the “blind spot”. Gregory and Cavanagh (2011) further explained that each eye has a visual
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field that overlaps with that of the other eye to compensate for the blind spot. Automatically, the
brain fills in missing information. An artificial blind spot appears when the retina needs to adapt to
sudden change in levels of light. This may result in darkness, experienced by sighted people as the
opposite of light or experienced as a variegated black colour, exhibiting patches or streaks.
Persons with permanent physiological blindness see nothing due to the lack of visual sensation.
According to Cattaneo, Vecchi, Cornoldi, Mammarella, Bonino, Ricciardi and Pietrini (2008:1350),
a person’s visual field refers to the total area detected through sight. Visual acuity measures clarity
and sharpness of sight, expressed as a fraction: numerator identifies maximum distance to read
varied standard-size letters; denominator refers to the usual distance a person with no visual
impairment can read the same letters. International Classification of Diseases (ICD10) defines
blindness as best-corrected visual acuity when less than 3/60 or visual field is not more than 10
degrees in the better eye. The definition for visual impairment is best-corrected visual acuity of less
than 20/60. Normal vision is 20/20 meters with a visual field of 180 degrees. According to
Pourmollaabbasi (2013), congenital completely blind persons were born blind or became blind
during childhood before age one. Adventitious completely blind persons became blind in different
ways as teenagers, or during adulthood. Congenital and adventitious partially sighted persons can
perceive light and may have a visual acuity of 20/70 or worse in the better eye, affecting at least
3.5% of the world’s population. This accounts for 264 million people with partial sight in the world
(WHO, 2014).
2.2.3
Emotional blind spots among all people
Rostron (2012:116) stated that a coaching conversation usually starts within the domains of the
coachee’s self-awareness and self-management, describing meta-cognition or intra-personal
communication. The conversation might then proceed to an interpersonal space of social
awareness and relational management, including the feelings, thoughts and behaviour of those
involved in the conversation. Malandro (2009) argued that even the best leaders have blind spots.
Unproductive behaviour may sabotage a leader’s success, undermining the team and organisation.
Successful managers benefit from recognising and overcoming their blind spots.
Table 2.4 below summarises automatic behaviours that may be invisible to the self however
strikingly obvious to colleagues and others. Emotional blind spots are not “malicious”; the goal is
not to become a perfect leader but rather to become a courageous leader in recovering lost
potential.
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Table 2.4: Summary: action management for emotional blind spots
Blind spots
Symptoms
Damage control
Resolution
Going it alone


Rejecting support
Withdrawing from
others
Self-centred decisionmaking processes
Not recognising when
you are being
insensitive to
“differences and
others”
Dismissing reactions
of others as their
problem.

“You are missing in
action.”
“Frustration builds and
people withdraw their
discretionary effort.”
“Insensitivity and a low
level of awareness
create an unsafe
environment.”
“People emotionally
disengage, and work
around the leader.”

Having an answer for
everything
Rigid and fixed views
Not listening
Refusing to explore
alternative options



Softening the
message
Not delivering the
tough message
Talking in general –
not providing specific
and real examples

“Others feel devalued.”
“Angry and
insignificant”
“Innovation and
creativity come to a
standstill as the “I
know" leader
performs.”
“Leaders who are not
direct raise anxiety
levels to staggering
heights.”
“Resulting in a lack of
focus on business
needs”
Pointing the finger at
others
Treating others as the
enemy or opposition
Building silos rather
than supporting
enterprise perspective

“Leaders who blame
others are perceived
as petty, small and
divisive.”
“They polarise the
organisation and divide
people into camps.”



Being
insensitive to
one’s impact on
others
An “I know”
attitude
Avoiding
difficult
conversations








Blaming others
or blaming
circumstances



















Treating
commitments
casually



Not delivering on time
Always maintaining an
excuse to avoid being
held accountable
Not providing a clear
“I commit” or “I don’t”



“When people cannot
trust your word in all
matters large and
small, they discount
you.”
“Reduce your
credibility”
“Imitate your
behaviour”


Ask for pointers on
when you are
withdrawing
Start including
others.
Asking: "Do you feel
that I listen to you?”
“Do you believe that I
have confidence in
you?”
“Have I said anything
that is limiting our
working
relationship?"
Recognising “that
your blind spots
cause you to miss
important information
and ideas”
Asking: "What have I
missed?”
Asking “people if
they are open to
your coaching or
feedback”
“Most will readily
respond ‘yes’”
“Then say what you
have to say…”
Asking: “How has
my behaviour
contributed to this
problem?
“Take accountability
publicly by owning
your role in the
problem”
“Fix your thinking,
not others”
“Be crystal clear
about your
commitments.”
“When revoking a
commitment,
communicate prior to
the deadline.”
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Table 2.4: Summary: action management for emotional blind spots (continued)
Blind spots
Conspiring
against others
Symptoms



Withholding
emotional
Commitment



Not taking a
stand





Tolerating
“good enough”



Damage control
Making negative
comments about
others
Displaying nonverbal
cues of disapproval,
disappointment, or
disinterest
Talking about people,
not talking to them

Resisting change and
withholding support
Withdrawing your
passion and
enthusiasm
Agreeing intellectually
but not committing
emotionally

Not making decisions
Reversing decisions
that you have already
made
High levels of
ambiguity
Lack of decisive action
Paralysed teams

Failure to anticipate
and embrace change
Refusing to investigate
solutions outside of
your comfort zone
Rejecting new ideas,
reacting instead of
being proactive








Resolution
“When you conspire
against others, you are
dishonest, deceitful,
and weak.”
“Your behaviour
erodes partnerships
and you are unable of
influencing people.”

“Leaders who are not
transparent are viewed
as disingenuous,
disengaged, and
inauthentic.”
“Your behaviour slows
or stops changes”
“If you are not
committed, why should
they be?”

“When you are
unable to fully
commit,
communicate and
share where you are
stuck instead of
letting your
behaviour do the
talking.”
“People lose
confidence in leaders
who wait for
consensus.”
“Slow to make
decisions.”
“Are unwilling to take a
clear and decisive
stand.”

“Stop making others
read your mind and
be clear about what
you want and what
you are willing to
commit.”
Saying: "I am not
ready to make this
decision but I will
give you my answer
soonest.”
“Others are
discouraged when the
leader avoids
excellence in all
areas.”
“People want to be on
the winning team.”
“Leaders lose support
as people resign to
‘nothing will ever
change here’."





“Apologise for your
impact, restate what
you have to say in a
supportive manner.”
“Talk to the person
with whom you have
an unresolved
issue.”
“Examine things
holding you back.”
“Raise your level of
leadership
awareness and
effectiveness - lead
by example.”
“This will inspire
others to do the
same.”
Source: Summarised from Malandro (2009).
According to Rostron (2012:94) and Malandro (2009), all humans have blind spots. Moreover, it is
the responsibility of the coach to help coachees to identifying their blind spots. It is noteworthy that
neither Rostron nor Malandro seemed to differentiate between physiological blind spots and
emotional blind spots. Evidently, the textual narratives imply the latter. Coachees need to learn
how to identify and engage with their emotional blind spots through facilitated self-management.
Ungerer, Herholdt and Le Roux (2013:185) challenged readers with an anonymous quote
regarding emotional blind spots: “Are you fit company for the person you wish to become?”
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Rostron (2014:93) also reported that coaches and coachees need to self-asses their personal
assumptions about expecting the coach to have all the answers. Such an attitude presents with
mythical limitations. All persons have emotional blind spots, referring to perceptions that others
hold about them without actually being aware of limiting habits, attitudes and behaviour. Those
constructs could turn into personal strengths through means of coaching, personal learning and
professional development. An ethos worth exploring is firstly to change thinking paradigms,
experimenting with new ideas and contributing to the quality of others’ lives.
2.2.4
Integration of coaching tools
This section explores how the integrated use of coaching tools may show areas for personal
learning and professional development during the coaching journey, with reference to the
identification of emotional blind spots, the 15FQ+ interpersonal communication constructs in
combination with the Johari Window relational model.
Alan Chapman (2003) has investigated the origin of Johari Window assessment tool. Devised by
American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955, they called this relationship tool
Johari after combining their first names, Joe and Harry. This tool was developed while the two
psychologists researched group dynamics at the University of California, Los Angeles. The first
publication of the Johari Window model appeared in the Proceedings of the Western Training
Laboratory in Group Development by UCLA Extension Office in 1955. Joseph Luft expanded the
model at a later stage. Notwithstanding the lengthy period from 1955 to 2015, the Johari Window
model is especially relevant due to modern emphasis on ‘soft skills’, behaviour, empathy,
cooperation, inter-group dynamics and interpersonal communication. When integrated with the
awareness constructs from the 15FQ+, personal reflection and self-coaching it contributes to
enhanced personal-awareness and relational management. Advantages include improved metacognition, personal insight, motivated change management, listening to and hearing the input from
others, seeing different sides of oneself, and realistically increasing the levels of “open self”.
Disadvantages can include an intrusion of personal space and information outside a trusting
relationship implied by group dynamics. However, participants may exercise their right not to
participate.
Used as coaching tools, the integration of the Johari Window model with the 15FQ+ personality
questionnaire provides an opportunity to explore interpersonal awareness that might match with
unidentified emotional blind spots; an ideal opportunity to explore possible coaching topics and to
set development goals. The process of identifying coaching topics by using appropriate coaching
tools are considered positive developmental steps on the coaching journey.
2.3
COACHING APPROACH
A study by Kilburg (1996:142) defined management coaching as a facilitating relationship between
a coachee with managerial authority in an organisational setting and an appropriately qualified
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coach. The role of the coach is to utilise varied coaching techniques, methods and coaching
models in support of realising the coachee’s achievement of identified goals and coaching topics.
A coaching partnership influences the coachee’s personal learning and professional development.
Hargrove (2008:2) explained: “Masterful coaching is about inspiring, empowering, and enabling
people to live deeply in the future, while acting boldly in the present.” From a sighted perspective,
blind business leaders inherently satisfy these requirements to out-perform their sighted business
peers in a competitive working environment. They dare to be inspirational and bold in their
everyday lived experiences, with or without opportunities for personal and professional
development at work. The question remains: To what extent does coaching influence the way blind
business leaders communicate themselves to their environment and to others? Scholarly literature
indicates coaching of blind business leaders as an understudied domain.
2.3.1
Coaching as cultivator of human potential
Wales (2002:275) reported that coaching is a costly organisational expense, subject to a
substantial return on investment (ROI) for a business. Jones (2008:36) conceded that during
economically difficult times, organisations need to nurture and retain talent for long-term
competitive advantage. Research on coaching business leaders shows the demand for highcalibre coaches, bearing credibility in delivering contractual results. In the book Coaching High
Achievers, Jones and Spooner (2006:44) pointed out that coachees are only open-minded when
they respect their coach, and that this respect is built on the knowledge of the coach. The coaching
process needs to facilitate the coachee towards higher achievements. Coaches must own the
ability to challenge limiting behaviour and awareness, provoke thinking and coping styles, and
experiment with alternative inputs in reaching substitute outcomes. Rogers (1961:33) described his
interest in and opinion on the role of the coach as follows:
If I can provide a certain type of relationship, the other person will discover within
himself the capacity to use that relationship for growth and change, and personal
development will occur.
2.3.2
Coaching application
As reported by Peltier (2010:102), Carl Rogers “was a champion of the soft-stuff”. Besides, soft
skills influence the successes of the organisational world covering diverse disciplines without direct
acknowledgement to Rogers. Stout-Rostron (2012:49) contended with Rogers’ “unconditional
positive regard” for an effective therapist and patient relationship. Positive support of the coachee
is imperative to any coaching intervention. Moreover, within the organisational sector, adding
constructs of genuineness and empathy to unconditional positive regard underscores ethical
conduct by the coach. Delivery of soft skills through training, mentoring, counselling and coaching
appears inherently a form of facilitated support. As opposed to utilising coaching for soft skills
development, mentoring supports a more traditional way of teaching and training in terms of
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technical knowledge and hands-on practical problem solving. The mentor leads from a basis of
expertise in providing answers to problems (Connor & Pokora, 2012:16). Mishra (2014) pointed out
that “soft skills are a set of skills defined and interpreted differently by various communication
scholars”. In addition, soft skills relate to productivity. Therefore, soft skills are the tools navigating
productivity in an organisation. Mishra argued that “… soft skills cannot be taught like hard skills.
Soft skills have a subjective orientation and therefore it is difficult to quantify, measure, and
observe” (Mishra, 2014:50).
The latter statement is overridden by findings in the same article on the demand for soft skills
identified by recruiters. Mishra (2014:52) affirmed an 80% preference by recruiters for the four
most important soft skills, namely communication skills, problem-solving skills, interpersonal skills
and teamwork.
Through a counter-argument of the above statements, Ferris, Perrewé, Anthony and Gilmore
(2000:36) confirmed the properties of soft skills as a catalyst to improve communication and
effectively synthesise the collective interpersonal interactions necessary for teamwork and
organisational performance. Interpersonal communication is a skill, based on intellectual and
emotional abilities. An integration of knowledge, skills and abilities define a person’s competence.
Ferris et al. (2000:27) reported how the lack of good interpersonal skills often contributes to
“management derailment”. Furthermore, executive coaches designated to skills coaching report on
the shortage of social and relational skills among business leaders. In arguing this generalised
statement, an appropriate coaching assessment might clarify the extended need for “soft skills
coaching” among business managers. Ferris et al. (2000:34) recommended coaching assessment
for improved self-awareness “…by understanding one’s personality and how one makes
decisions”. Academic literature confirms the influence of coaching assessments, as earlier
discussed. The role of “coaching in communication” and vice versa warrants a separate review.
2.3.3
Coaching types
Coaching is not therapy although coaching complements therapeutic intervention, counselling and
teaching, training or mentoring. A coaching partnership between coach and coachee aims to
deliver alternative outcomes identified by observable change in behaviour, personal and
professional development and enhanced business results. Cavanagh and Grant (2004:1) reported
on the inclusivity properties of coaching where executive coaches include personal constructs of
the coachee, engaging with emotions, values, beliefs and personal perspectives. Arguably, human
nature is an integrated and synthesised “system”, shaped by the principled “domino effect” of
cognitive behavioural coaching with reference to the intellectual, emotional and behavioural
constructs.
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Table 2.6 illustrates role properties in terms of context, content, consequences and client from
three types of coaching: executive coaching, workplace coaching and life coaching. A description
of each type of coaching follows below.
Table 2.6: Contrasting coaching types
Role properties
Executive coaching
Business coaching
Life coaching
Context
• Leadership
• Employment
• Whole of life
• Focus on job task
• Guided by
• Management
• Coachee’s career
Content
development per
and performance as
organisation’s
per organisation’s
agenda
agenda
• Organisational
Key consequences
performance
• Personal and team
coachee’s agenda
• Personal satisfaction
performance
• Personal career
development
Client
• Executive level
• Employee
• Organisation
• Organisation
• Private citizen
Source: Adapted from Cavanagh and Grant (2004:3).
2.3.3.1 Executive coaching
Cavanagh and Grant (2004:3) are of the opinion that the executive coachee has both managerial
and leadership responsibilities. Coaching topics may include strategic planning, conflict
management, diversity and transformational leadership development. According to Stout-Rostron
(2012:15), the focus of executive coaching is on the professional development of executives and
senior managers, with the objective to modify and transform individual performance; consequently
improving organisational success.
2.3.3.2 Business coaching
The Worldwide Association of Business Coaches (WABC, 2013) defined business coaching as:
The process of engaging in regular, structured conversation with a client, with the goal
of enhancing the client’s awareness and behaviour so as to achieve business
objectives for both the client and their organization.
According to WABC (2013), the business client is “An individual or team who is within a business,
profit or non-profit organization, institution or government and who is the recipient of business
coaching”. Cavanagh and Grant (2004:3) identified business leaders as employees on all job
levels and line managers with non-executive responsibilities. Coaching topics may include team
building, skills development and performance improvement, mainly for production escalation.
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2.3.3.3 Life coaching
Life coaching is mainly concerned with personal matters and in general does not take place at
work. It holds certain risk similarities with executive coaching in terms of change in the
implementation of projects affecting job security, income gain or loss and relational management.
Naughton (2002) referred to life coaching as a way of enhancing the quality of coachees’ lives
without entrenching on the healing profession’s medical model where the client or coachee may be
rescued from symptoms that need a form of intervention resulting in “fixing” the symptoms.
2.3.3.4 Sameness and differences covering executive, business and life coaching
“Uplifting humanity” as the personal slogan of the researcher integrates all human properties
derived from the earlier discussed Johari Window (Chapman: 2003), the 15FQ+ personality
questionnaire (Psytech: 2015) measuring interpersonal communication competence, and
emotional blind spots (Malandro: 2009). According to Bradshaw (1990:288), “… whatever is the
most personal is indeed the most common”. Specified purposive goals for coaching topics and
qualification of the coach and the coachee’s context help to determine the type of facilitated
coaching. Naughton (2002) explained a universal coaching approach as looking at where the
coachee might be “today”, wishing for direction on “where to go” and “how to get there”, and
turning inspirational collaboration into aspirational goalsetting.
2.3.4
Coaching for leadership
According to Walston (2014:115), the importance of increasing managerial skills and abilities is
widely acknowledged. Organisations need wise, competent and motivated leaders; and the
development of those competencies involves coaching, mentoring and facilitated transformational
learning. Coaching is a critical intervention for leadership development. Koonce (2010:50)
described the unique role of a coach. Besides bringing subject matter expertise and appropriate
experience to the coaching process, a coach does not provide specific solutions or technical
advice regarding business complexities. Such is the role of a consultant. Coaches ask incisive
questions, challenge and engage the coachee in support of creating shifts in the coachee’s
thinking, self-management, awareness and perspectives. Further, the coachee brings to the
coaching process “aspects of self”, personal perspectives, beliefs, experiences, opinions and a
subjective worldview.
2.3.5
Coaching vision and mission
Passmore and Fillery-Travis (2011:72) debated the scarcity of empirical coaching research. In
addition, the influence of coaching research as basis for future studies is derived from a historical
route of coaching development, since 1937.
The second phase of coaching research awakened in the 1990s with prominent researchers
establishing a coaching discipline with their works. Current coaching research applies both inter-
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disciplinary approaches and cross-disciplinary accessing. This creates the scope for diverse
application of experiential coaching techniques and newfound theoretical coaching methodologies.
In a study on coaching techniques, Armatas (2011) mentioned the use of direct and indirect
suggestions as an integral part of human communication. “Suggestions” as a “communication
technique” may be intentional or non-intentional, directly or indirectly. The skilful use of
suggestions as a coaching technique during a coaching conversation informs an intention to
support a coaching agenda for change. The author suggests the use of “suggestions” in narratives,
analogies, metaphors and paradoxes, and likewise during verbal and non-verbal communication.
In terms of coaching blind and visually impaired participants, the lack of non-verbal cues might
influence the successful application of this coaching technique, or else, find that the sensory
compensatory factors of blind and visually impaired participants behave as sensory “gate-keepers”
during a coaching conversation. Cavanagh and Grant (2014:11) believed that by raising “the bar of
coaching training and practice” it might ensure the delivery of real value to clients. Coaches,
coachees and organisations are compelled to provide assurances to scholarly inquiries about the
worthiness of coaching as an alternative organisational dynamism.
2.4
BLINDNESS DISABILITY AND VISION LOSS
Findings from Bolt (2005:550) indicate a continuum of global terminology for disabled persons.
Academic articles present with a large variety of terms, categorically describing persons within
different contexts. Researching the influence of coaching on the interpersonal communication
competence of visually impaired business leaders, the researcher decided on the use of “blind
participants” or “blind business leaders” because of the composition of the sample group. To this
end, Bolt (2005:539) described the Social Model of Disability as progressive. This model proposes
that disability does not stem from a person’s impairment, but rather from barriers in society, culture,
the environment, and from economic constraints (World Health Organization, 2011). Insights have
shifted traditional typologies from limitation to enablement. Disability terminology set by the World
Health Organization’s Global Action Plan for universal eye health serves is used as guideline in
this study (WHO, 2013).
2.4.1
Blindness: an inconvenience, or not
The study by Rao (2001:531) explained how some Bengali women in Calcutta, India, use the term
“inconvenience” when referring to their children with disabilities. Jamie Weller, an adventitious blind
person, refers to his life story in My blindness? No more than an inconvenience. He became blind
after qualifying as an aircraft engineer in the Royal Navy, which left his family devastated because
of their ignorance about blindness. Jamie received rehabilitation, choosing another discipline of
studies and became a professional tax consultant with one of the ‘big four’ global auditing firms.
Weller (2005:129) reported in own words:
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When I lost my eyesight 14 years ago, I certainly never dreamed I would be following my
current career, but then I’ve always regarded my blindness as no more than an
inconvenience. It just takes some extra thought to search for practical solutions. I then
get on with my life.
Universal eye health: a global action plan 2014 – 2019
2.4.2
Information published by the World Health Organization (WHO) reflects valid and reliable statistics
based on global quantitative surveys conducted in collaboration with the World Blind Union (WBU)
at time of publication.
Table 2.7: Key facts on visual impairment and blindness
Statistics
Key facts on visual impairment and blindness
285 million
Visually impaired persons worldwide
39 million
Blind persons
246 million
Low vision
90%
% of world’s visually impaired population living in developing countries
82%
Blind persons are aged 50 and above
80%
% of all visual impairment is considered “needless blindness”
19 million
Visually impaired children worldwide
12 million
Visually impaired children due to refractive errors – can be treated
1.4 million
Children below age 15 who are irreversibly blind
0.75%
South African population prevalence for blindness
Source: Adapted from World Health Organization (2014).
The Universal Eye Health Global Action Plan 2014-2019 (WHO, 2013:5-8) approaches visual
impairment with force. Member states (including South Africa), international partners and
organisations in the United Nations system collaborate on action directives. A global target is to
work towards a 25% reduction in “needless blindness” by 2019. The global action plan includes the
following approaches:
i)
Universal access and equity: In all member states, it is imperative to assess the magnitude
and causes of visual impairment, including the effectiveness of eye health care systems.
ii)
Human rights: It is important for advocacy purposes that global targets and national
indicators meet the set requirements of the action plan.
iii)
Evidence-based practice: Operational research is vital and needs funding. It provides
evidence on ways to overcome barriers in service provision and cost-effective strategies for
improving and preserving eye health in communities.
iv)
Life course approach: Governments and business partners are responsible for supporting
those with irreversible visual impairment through accessible health care, rehabilitation
programmes, education and employment opportunities.
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v)
Empowerment of people with visual impairment: Global partnerships and alliances are
bridging eye care development by strengthening effective public health responses for the
prevention of visual impairment. Some programmes against eye diseases have had major
success in human resource development, financial allocations and effective collaboration
with private and social enterprises. The World Health Organization’s documentation of
successful programmes provides solutions, benefitting all member states.
The next section is a summary of Siegfried Saerberg’s (2015) complex academic article describing
personal philosophical constructs from a blind researcher’s perspective.
2.4.3
Life worlds of the blind and the sighted
Academic articles authored by Siegfried Saerberg (2015) challenge philosophical arguments.
Saerberg explored his own blindness within a sighted world through multi-loop phenomenological
descriptions. The depth of detailed observation spurs serial comparisons on the advantages of
blindness and living with sight. Seeking clarity on commonalities and differences about bodily and
sensory orientation, the article shows “that blindness is not the contradiction of sight. Neither
contradicts sight the discourse of blindness” (Saerberg, 2015:580). Invisibility as an element of
everyday life-world experiences requires darkness. A constructivist approach defines that nothing
exists without a constructive paradigm equal to the realism of nexus and ideas, meeting in parallel.
Thus, a connection between people or things embodies inter-construct communication.
To this end, blindness becomes an abstraction of perception, equal to sight only without deficit.
Saerberg (2015:581) argued the subjective meaning of experiences by blind and sighted persons;
meanings reflected in a person’s behaviour through sensory touching, feeling, hearing and seeing.
Vision is a negotiation between human senses, determining how a blind person senses own
emotions, thoughts and body language. When sensing fails to interpret a blind person’s
environment there can be no claim of “having seen something”, causing an overlooked experience.
Such concept forms part of blind and sighted persons’ life-worlds, generating intellectual gaps in
relations when communicated content “has gone over someone’s head”.
According to Saerberg (2015:582), blindness “… is not a loss of sight but a different organization of
sensory and bodily orientation and practice”. Living in a blind body directly supports access to a
blind life-world for a blind researcher. Blind persons find themselves in a minority position in
society, facing discrimination, prejudice and stigmatisation: unbeknown to sighted researchers.
Saerberg (2015:583) contended that blindness is a lifelong journey with sighted partners; those
who look, see and share. Some are looking without seeing the invisible traits of the visibly blind.
That might be a human tragedy.
2.4.4
Blindness beats historical approaches to blindness bias
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), Article 27
(United Nations, 2006a), established a new dispensation for human rights and development issues
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on a global scale. The publication of the World Report on Disability (2011) by the World Health
Organization (WHO) puts the focus on policy-makers, practitioners, researchers, academics,
development agencies and civil society regarding the status of persons with disabilities. In South
Africa, the Draft National Disability Rights Policy (2015) summarises from the Constitution of the
Republic of South Africa (1996: 1246):
Everyone is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and benefit of the
law. Equality includes the full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms. To
promote the achievement of equality, legislative and other measures designed to
protect or advance persons, or categories of persons, disadvantaged by unfair
discriminatory may be taken.
Daniel Kish, a congenitally blind person, contributed his perspectives on blindness in A Blind Man’s
Vision of Blindness (2005). His voice counted for thousands of blind and visually impaired persons
associated with World Access for the Blind (WAFTB), with its head office in California, United
States. The ethos of WAFTB is “no limits” to equalise opportunities for the success and
development of blind and visually impaired persons in “how to see without sight and to master their
way in darkness” (Kish, 2005).
On a daily basis, blind persons negotiate their way around good intentions loaded with misplaced
kindness. Everyday living is demanding. Blind persons functioning in a sight-dominated world are
in search of dignity, respect and self-reliance. For the most part, sighted persons show
compassion, kindness, care and support for blind persons. However, kindness defined by
sympathy, and lack of understanding of the every-day lived experiences of blind persons can
become a threat to blind persons’ independence and self-empowerment. According to Olkin
(2007:5), the moral model of disability holds symbolic meaning of religious nature, emanating from
society’s belief systems. In this, disability is a defect caused by sin, evil and lapse of faith.
Furthermore, supporting persons with disabilities takes on different forms of institutionalised living
and exclusion from mainstream society, mostly faking good intention “to protect”. In strong words,
a blind person defined the moral model as “killing with kindness” (Kish, 2005). All of humanity can
benefit from kindness, not only marginalised groups. Kish continued: “It is not the blindness that
most bothers us, but the belittling way that goes hand in hand with sympathy and talk-down.”
The medical model of disability diagnoses disabilities as an abnormal and pathological physical
problem. It has moved beyond moral symbolism towards a deficit that resides in the bodily system
of a person. Abnormality resides in medicine. To this end, a disability medical intervention focuses
on neutralising an abnormality to the greatest extent possible.
The social model manages disability as a construct mirroring societal fears and biasness.
Bommersheim and Chandra stated that “Persons with disabilities constitute the world’s largest
minority” (2015:1). According to Olkin, this minority “has previously been denied civil rights, equal
access” and is associated with stigma, discrimination, social isolation, economic dependence, high
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unemployment and a higher rate of institutionalisation (2007:6). The paradox reveals that society
often refers to persons with disabilities as brave, courageous, inspirational and coping despite their
“conditions” while often re-enforcing that blind persons depend on the eyes of others to experience
meaning-making.
Kish (2005) stated that blindness is not about “a fear for the dark”. Blindness is all about abilities,
competencies, skills, adaption, resourcefulness, self-directed living in the dark and about
conscientiousness in reaching dreams. Regarding the title of this assignment (A beacon in the
dark: The perceived value of coaching visually impaired business leaders on interpersonal
communication competence), Kish’s “living in the dark” remains a contentious remark unless its
intent is to shine a light on society’s lack of understanding the reasonable every-day living needs of
blind persons. This also means the inclusion of the presence of the absence, turning blindness into
“nothingness” as realistically experienced by blind persons. Thus, a shining light serves to
enlighten society’s prevailing ignorance on how blind persons “work with blindness” and not
against it. Also, it acknowledges that society creates a disabling attitude towards persons with
disabilities when ignoring a mind shift towards blindness as a social construct of gain versus loss,
action preferred above reaction, and taking care instead of being cared for.
Kish (2014) elaborated on “echolocation” in How blind people use batlike sonar as a learned skill
developed by a number of blind persons all over the world. Blind echolocators teach themselves to
use tongue clicks and echoes to navigate their surroundings with ease. Animals like bats, whales,
dolphins and some nocturnal birds use echolocation in a similar way. Research in human
wayfinding is still ongoing and not restricted to blind persons only.
In closing this section, kindness does prevail when it is equal to understanding persons with
blindness as a person-first social construct of disability. Kindness without understanding can be as
emotionally harmful towards any fellow human being as understanding without kindness. The next
section reviews the position of blind business leaders in organisational settings.
2.5
PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES IN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGS
Findings from Maja, Mann, Sing, Steyn and Naidoo (2011) indicated that South Africa has policies
and legislation in place to overcome hurdles that persons with disabilities encounter in the labour
market. Practical concerns relating to the implementation of these policies deserve ongoing
refinement. Research by Maja et al. (2011:24) indicated a lack of knowledge by employers about
different forms of disability; also, that negative attitudes toward disabled persons by fellow
employees and physical hurdles towards accessing the workplace still exist. Positive contributions
made by employees with disability overshadow the previously mentioned barriers.
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2.5.1
Disability policies and legislation
Jones (1997:71) asserted that the legal rights of persons with disabilities with regard to career
opportunities are not complex in its criteria of fundamental equal treatment by employers and
organisations. Businesses should have internal protocols and policies targeting the recruitment and
employment of persons with disabilities. That may include interactive “word-of-mouth”
communication.
2.5.2
Employer and organisational perspectives
Ellen (2015) noted that:
Job-hunting circa 2015 is an exhausting, relentless, soul-sapping crapshoot. Potential
employees need computers, transport and endless stamina for interviews and filling out
questionnaires. Without sustainable, focused, properly managed and funded support,
disabled persons could not easily keep up with these requirements in searching for
appropriate employment.
The study by Gilbride, Stensrud, Vandergoot and Golden (2003:135) suggested that employers
who are positive towards hiring and accommodating employees with disabilities do prioritise
specific hiring guidelines. The ideal employee performs most effectively on essential functions of a
job, with or without accommodations. Employees with disabilities, presenting with well-developed
soft skills and core workplace competencies are in high demand. Employers want assurance that
the employees with disabilities will deliver on their key performance areas in a consistent and
reliable manner. Gilbride et al. (2003:134) noted that for employers holding employees with
disabilities in high regard, “disability is just another type of diversity”.
Universal organisational governance provides for unique competencies by all employees, taking
into account diverse needs and a variety of human qualities. A study by Golub (2006) identified
elements that contribute to a positive workforce, namely sameness, purposiveness, performance
and acceptance (Golub, 2006:716). Consequently, Golub’s study led to the design of an integrated
human resource model, identifying the role responsibilities between employers and visually
impaired employees. The main pillars of this model are mutual accommodation and mutual
respect. Employers take on the responsibility of living the culture of their organisation, providing
technical hardware and assistive technology as well as easy access to all amenities for visually
impaired persons. By comparison, Golub’s model identified the responsibilities of visually impaired
employees. They need to “show up” in a collaborative manner towards all employees, educating
sighted colleagues on the nature and needs of visual impairment. Visually impaired employees can
live their unique status of “differently abled” by managing a positive attitude towards work
performance. Visually impaired employees can command respect from fellow colleagues by
abstaining from an attitude of entitlement, commanding privileged treatment and unreasonable
demands that may not support their work performance. Regarding workplace transformation, we
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live in times where the rate of knowledge is doubling every thirteen months. Dedicated and
ambitious professionals continue with professional development and upskilling of workplace
competencies. According to a 2015 Industry Report (Hallett, 2015), employers, organisations and
employees benefit from an attitude of renewal, continual adjustment to market forces and an
inclusive approach:
As you are part of a global workforce, you need to adjust to changing needs and learning
must be a part of everything you do, as change is an inevitable part of your future.
Jones (1997:72) referred to neutralising workplace barriers within the framework of legislation and
rehabilitation as potential career advancement for persons with disabilities. The business sector
can benefit beyond expectation when fully acknowledging the economic contribution of persons
with disabilities, especially by providing them with resources and rewards for attainment of career
success. The next section explores the perceived benefits of employing persons with disabilities in
the formal business sector.
2.5.3
Benefits of utilising an underestimated talent pool
Frase (2009) contended that although not all jobs are accessible for blind persons, the exceptions
have become those based on technological advances that expand work opportunities for blind and
visually impaired persons. According to the American Foundation for the Blind (AFB, 2015),
adaptive technology enables blind and visually impaired persons to read, write and utilise
information electronically. Examples of reasonable accommodation in support of blind and visually
impaired employees’ quality of work include computerised screen-reading programs and speaking
text on the screen while converting content to Braille. Additional assistive devices include screen
magnification, synthetic speech software, technical modification and portable note takers. Blind
persons can do any job that requires a technical interface (like a computer or a phone), or devices
that rely primarily on intellect.
Reporting on the work ethics of blind employees, Frase (2009) indicated that they may be inclined
to work longer hours and work harder than their sighted peers do. Frase (2009:57) stated, “They
tend to be highly focused, with remarkable attention to detail”. Because of persons with disabilities’
positive learning attitude, training and mentoring as well as coaching are being made more
available to a minority workforce to inclusively expand the same services to the full workforce.
According to Maja et al. (2011), organisations employing persons with disabilities score equity
points and receive differentiated tax incentives. Risk management and safety records of blind and
visually impaired employees generally outlast those of sighted employees. It is however of interest
to consider disability insurance for the protection of the person with the disability in order to
continue with a career and earning an income.
Cranke (2015) explained that disability insurance policies are person specific based on special
needs or extraordinary needs:
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Disability insurance protects your most vital asset - the ability to work and earn an
income. Keep in mind though that disability insurance policies should be tailor-made to
suit your particular needs. There's no one size fits all solution.
South African legislation provides for three different types of disability insurance. Firstly, Own
Occupation Disability is the only insurance category without penalty for going back to work in a
different occupation while on a claim. Secondly, Occupational Disability covers an inability to
perform specific job-related work. Lastly, Total Disability covers total inability to work regardless of
the job or occupation. There is a small difference between disability cover and other types of
insurance. Cranke (2015) is of the opinion that losing the ability to work may mean financial
suffering to most persons.
Conversely, Levitin (2015) challenged the human mind to invest in serial scaffolding of knowledge.
Constant change influences all aspects of human existence. Approximately 300 exa-bytes (300
billion billion) of human-made pieces of information compete per second for a person’s attention.
Yet, the processing capacity of a person’s conscious mind is 120 bit per second, challenging
intellectual processing capacity and decision-making ability. The mentioned statistics apply to all
people, sighted, blind, visually impaired and differently abled.
The next section reviews interpersonal communication as cluster construct of social awareness
and relational management.
2.6
BLINDNESS DISABILITY AND INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Blind and visually impaired persons may be disadvantaged in social situations since face-to-face
conversations rely on verbal as well as non-verbal cues. Krishna, Colbry, Black, Balasubramanian
and Panchanatan (2008) confirmed that the lack of access to interpersonal cues like eye contact
may lead to awkwardness, such as asking questions or answering questions directed to the wrong
people. Sighted persons may be insensitive to or unaware of their own use of non-verbal cues
when in conversation with blind persons. Interpersonal communication competence influences all
people’s face value and quality of interaction. Blind and visually impaired persons utilise authentic
ways to cope with the lack of visual stimuli in everyday lived experience. Sound sources from the
surrounding environment provide “audio illumination” with sounds reflecting off objects.
The research study by Krishna et al. (2008) described a human-centric approach by firstly
enquiring from blind persons about their primary interpersonal communication needs. The focus
group identified a primary need to engage impromptu with sighted persons without any form of
social disconnect. An example of non-verbal communication is glancing at a watch to signal closing
a meeting. Sighted persons may respond appropriately, mostly without realising that blind
counterparts are unaware of such non-verbal cues prompting the wrap-up of the meeting.
According to Knapp (1992:30), up to 65% of a dyad conversation is non-verbal. Gupta (2013)
indicated that about two-thirds of all interpersonal communication between two people or single
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speakers with a group of listeners consist of non-verbal communication. Blind persons often refrain
from constantly asking for non-verbal descriptions, putting them at a disadvantage and leaving
them socially excluded and isolated. Physical exclusion and social isolation cause concern
because humans are social beings in need of meaningful communication and interaction with other
humans.
Interview data obtained from Krishna et al. (2008) suggested two aspects in need of attention in
terms of blind and visually impaired persons. Firstly, blind and visually impaired persons have a
need for access to non-verbal cues of others during interpersonal communication that sighted
people seem to take for granted. This includes eye contact, gestures, waving, pointing, facial
expression and body posture. Secondly, blind and visually impaired persons want to know how
others perceive them during social interactions. Blind persons cannot visually perceive their own
demeanour during communication. However, blind persons need to understand how sighted
persons experience them during social interaction. Coaching may add value to blind persons’
perceptions of their own non-verbal communication while reflecting on habits and mannerisms in
need of changed behaviour. In a survey by Krishna et al. (2008), blind participants expressed
interpersonal communication needs in the following order of importance (see Table 2.8 in this
regard):
Table 2.8: Blind participants’ interpersonal communication needs in order of importance
Ranking
Survey questions
Potential coaching topics
1
I would like to know if any of my personal mannerisms
might interfere with my social interactions with others.
Social training
2
I would like to know what facial expressions others are
displaying while I am interacting with them.
Facial expression
3
When I am standing in a group of people, I would like to
know the names of the people around me.
Person identification
4
I would like to know what gestures or other body motions
people are using while I am interacting with them.
Gesture and mannerism
recognition
5
When I am standing in a group of people, I would like to
know how many people there are, and where each
person is.
People detection and localisation
6
When I am standing in a group of people, I would like to
know which way each person is facing, and which way
they are looking.
Assessing attention
7
I would like to know if the appearance of others has
changed (such as the addition of glasses or a new hairdo) since I last saw them.
Extracting physical descriptors
8
When I am communicating with other people, I would like
to know what others look like.
Extracting physical descriptors
Source: Adapted from Krishna et al. (2008).
Results from the study by Krishna et al. (2008) identified interpersonal communication needs
ranked by participants’ expressed needs for social awareness and relational management. The
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original table did not include potential coaching topics. Coaching topics have therefore been added
by the researcher based on further interpretation of this article under review.
The next review explores the potential of silent communication as mother-tongue language of blind
and visually impaired persons.
2.6.1
The silent language
Insufficient body language of blind and visually impaired persons impedes interpersonal
communication with sighted people. Strauss (2000) described how a pilot project with four
congenitally blind persons started in Denmark in 1995. Over time, the project evolved into an
established course named Communicative Body Language for Adults Born Blind (Strauss,
2000:130). Persons born blind have never read communication signals from other people.
Therefore, it may be challenging “to have a voice” to make themselves heard and to keep the
attention of another person during conversation. This resulted in isolation caused by the absence
of signals showing attention by the congenitally blind person. To this end, blind persons may sense
others’ emotions in an atmosphere, but may lack the knowledge of what those signals between
others present or might consist of.
This course (Communicative Body Language for Adults Born Blind) contributes to the interpersonal
communication competence of blind persons through training their body language to become part
of their mother-tongue language. The course curriculum focuses on reflective practices and
feedback within group context. The principles of adult learning, self-directed experimentation and
reflective practice are key contributors to the reported successes of this course.
The assumption is that persons born blind might never achieve a body language as expressive or
varied as sighted people. However, the course proved successful in teaching blind persons the
most important communication signals, influencing their lives in a positive way. The achievement
lies in blind persons’ improved competence to retain attention. Feedback from course participants
suggested changed behaviour by sighted persons towards them through the correct use and
application of body language signals. The main objective of this course is to improve the quality of
life and the ability of blind persons to communicate with the world in which we all live.
Blind persons who completed the course confirmed having a stronger personality and identity as a
result of this intervention. They were able to support verbal statements and emotional expressions
through body signals. Hence, congenitally blind persons can learn a large number of physical
gestures, retain the lingua semantics and apply these appropriately during conversations.
2.6.2
Interpersonal communication
Lee (1993) reviewed the construct of communication, finding that individuals struggle to define their
meaning for the term “communication” and that meanings varied substantially. The word
communication stems from the Latin communis, meaning “common”. The act of communication
establishes “commonness” between individuals, with the purpose of sharing information, ideas or
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attitudes. According to Lee (1993), one definition that stood the test of time is: “Communication is
the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop.” Successful communication
depends upon the competence of the receiver of signals or messages. Much time may go into the
preparation of messages. However, without the message “landing with the target”, no interpersonal
communication can take place.
Gardner (2014) referred to interpersonal intelligence as “people smart” competence. It is an ability
to understand and interact effectively with others; involving effective verbal and non-verbal
communication. Multiple perspectives include sensitivity towards the moods and temperaments of
others.
How do people access personal wisdom to come to terms with situations in life that are beyond
personal control? Birren and Fisher (1990:324) constructed an answer to this question:
Wisdom seems to emerge as a dialectic that, on one pole, is bounded by the
transcendence of limitations and, on the other, by their acceptance. Wisdom is tested by
circumstances in which we have to decide what is changeable and what is not.
The above-mentioned quote identifies coaching as an ideal instrument in addressing questions on
personal change, growth and development. A person’s character, personality, inherent abilities,
learned skills, competence and attitude, among others, define the principle of acknowledged
diversity. Everyday life experience teaches us the dichotomous subjectivity of finding ideal
answers, either to ideal or to non-ideal questions. Even a person’s very best effort in practicing
interpersonal communication cannot guarantee a close to perfect, satisfactory outcome.
In view of Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity (published in 1915), Redd (2015) explained that
life events do happen to people at different times in different places due to alternative contexts
beholding diverse contents. This statement indicates that all people need to find ways to cope with
exceptional circumstances that might be on the one hand the absence of, or on the other hand an
overabundance of appropriate or unseemly factors. In Distinctive Footprints of Life: Where are you
heading towards? Yeboah (2014: n.p.) suggested:
A world without radio is a deaf world. A world without television is a blind world. A world
without telephone is a dumb world. A world without communication is indeed a crippled
world.
According to Kramsch (2006:249), the communication revolution in the 1960s in Europe resulted in
a social revolution in favour of a democratic approach to dialogue and interaction. The interest
focused more on what language could do in social contexts, including expressed intentions and
active interpretation of the meanings of words. Kramsch (2006:252) contended that communication
competence does not only result from information, but also from symbolic power coming with the
interpretation of inter-human signals and cues. “Human communication is more complex than only
saying the right word to the right person in the right manner” (Kramsch, 2006:251).
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Morreale and Pearson (2008:224) pointed out that interpersonal communication is widely
recognised as the core competence in personal and professional success. According to DeVito
(2004:142), a significant percentage of effective interpersonal communication competence
depends on the ability to read and interpret visual cues. Most people rely on verbal communication
(written or oral) and non-verbal communication (body language, gestures, paralinguistic sounds
and other human behaviours) for meaning making. Thus, interpersonal communication cues serve
as signals for speaking, listening, cognitive processing and appropriate response. This is inherently
challenging for blind and visually impaired persons due to the lack of eye contact because eye
contact is an important communication medium. In some instances, eye contact substitutes
communication that cannot be verbalised. Eye contact may also supplement verbal communication
by qualifying or negating verbal messages.
The study by Davidhizar (1992:222-224) describes eye behaviour by sighted persons. During most
interpersonal interactions, people repeatedly make eye contact for short periods. While thinking,
eyes move sideways, and during visualisation, eyes turn upwards or focus straight ahead. With an
emotional experience, the speaker often looks down at the dominant hand. Aspects that influence
eye behaviour are cultural background, personality traits and gender. The use of eye contact varies
among persons of different cultures. Some ethnic groups consider eye contact an impolite invasion
of privacy, which leads to eye aversion during interaction. Other groups value eye contact as an
indication of positive self-awareness, social awareness and relational management. Gazes of more
than 80% of the time during conversation reflect sincerity, friendliness, maturity and selfconfidence. Giving around 15% eye contact during a conversation is perceived as evasive,
indifferent and immature behaviour. Eye contact holds the element of intimacy by complementing
physical closeness; alternately, intense eye contact can be manipulative and intimidating,
depending on the purpose of the non-verbal signals through the language of the eyes.
Wainwright (1985:1) explained how most people use unspoken language such as eye contact,
body language and non-verbal communication unconsciously, without realising the amount of
sensing and expression contained in communication messages. Pourmollaabbasi (2013)
described alternative behaviour to eye contact by blind persons, derived from a study conducted
by the Islamic Azad University in Iran. Findings indicate that blind participants used four alternative
communication techniques to eye contact during conversations. These are, in brief, by showing
attention, determining direct addressee, signalling readiness to communicate and turn taking
during communication.
Lee and Hatesohl (1993) described listening as the most frequently used communication skill. Yet,
listening is also the skill in which people are the least trained. Formal training includes important
communication skills such as writing, reading and speaking, with listening receiving little or none
formal attention. Humans can think faster than speaking, with an average speaking rate of 125
words per minute. The normative, cognitive capacity for speaking reaches 400 words per minute
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depending on the articulate capacity of the speaker. Lee and Hatesohl (1993) argued that 75% of
cognitive abilities remain open for wandering in this equation. Nichols (1957) established that “… if
we define the good listener as one giving full attention to the speaker, first-grade children are the
best listeners of all”.
It is hard work to listen intently, utilising physical and mental capacity to concentrate for a period of
time. Despite having to listen to a dull topic, persons with a positive attitude towards life-long
learning may listen for specific content to be useful in future. While listening, it is vital to retain the
train of thought that informs a chain of logic. Nichols (1975) recommended anticipated listening as
a learning technique. The speaker may support the listening experience through explanations or
emotional association; also adding sensory experience for all involved. Mental summaries or
reflection on the content can also support the retention of information in order to become
knowledge to the listener.
Based on his study, Pourmollaabbasi (2013) suggested that showing attention turned out the most
common alternative technique to eye contact. Firstly, in order to show attention, blind participants
laughed, turned their face, applied verbal strategies or used words like “see”, “look”, “uhm” and
“ahn”. Secondly, to determine the direct addressee, blind participants called others directly by their
first name or spoke indirectly “into the group”. Touching one another substituted having to call out
names. Thirdly, by signalling readiness to communicate as an alternative strategy for eye contact,
the blind participants used expressions like “yes”, “no”, “I agree” and “I disagree”. Lastly, taking
turns during communication involved interruption, paralinguistic sound production, apologies,
verbal agreement and verbal disagreement.
According to Franco (2008), blind persons may not always be quite successful in turn taking. While
being part of group conversations, they may interrupt other conversational partners. In arguing this
point, the researcher believes this behaviour presents itself to all humans during social gatherings,
regardless of their particular visual status.
Interpersonal communication refers to two primary signal systems: verbal and non-verbal. The next
section reviews aspects of verbal communication.
2.6.3
Principles and examples of verbal communication
Verbal communication consists of both oral and written words, excluding laughter and
paralinguistic sounds like “er” and “um” (DeVito, 2013:107). In most instances, verbal
communication and non-verbal communication support one another. An example is to express
anger with body posture and an angry looking face. Delia, O’Keefe and O’Keefe (1982) argued for
the construction of meaning from received messages in combination with one’s own social and
cultural perspectives. One does not “receive” meaning, one “creates” meaning through
interpersonal communication.
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According to Baron (1990), metacommunication is communication about communication and a
meta-message is a message about a message. The smiley icon is a meta-message, referring to a
message about a message. Internet communication requires definite rules of civility called
netiquette; for Twitter it is called ‘twittiquette’. Both approaches are synonymous with etiquette.
Examples of usage include communication of needed information: clear, brief and in an organised
way. When writing in CAPITAL LETTERS, it may imply emphasis or a form of ‘shouting’,
depending on the context of the content. Offensive language, bragging and plagiarising hold no
place in social media, least of all against the name of a professional person.
Baron (1990:242) pointed to the importance and useful interpersonal skill of becoming proficient in
detecting when someone else is asking for constructive criticism or simply asking for a compliment.
An appropriate recommendation refers to expressing constructive criticism in dialogue rather than
monologue. Therefore, neutral and unthreatening communication, like a coaching conversation,
enhances self-awareness and relational management.
Velting (1999) discussed the construct of assertiveness in interpersonal communication. The
informing philosophy of assertive people is: “I win when you win when we win.” Assertive persons
claim and command their own rights differently from their aggressive counterparts. Assertive
persons do not hurt others intentionally, although they speak their minds and include perspectives
by other people. The ability to distinguish among assertive messages, aggressive messages and
non-assertive communication is a valuable one.
2.6.3.1 Effective use of verbal communication
Mast (2002:420) stated the following: “Humans constantly form impressions about other people
and these impressions shape the way we interact with others.” This statement indicates the
drawing of inferences about other people, and it bases judgement on verbal and non-verbal cues
expressed by a “sender”. Judgements may seldom be accurate, causing likely inaccuracy that may
jeopardise successful communication. Mast (2002:421) commented in this regard: “The
prerequisite for an accurate judgment would be that the sender uses the same cues … as the
perceiver uses.”
According to DeVito (2013), intentional attitude may imply “judging the book by its cover”.
Extensional attitude derives the opposite; the focus is primarily on the face value of another person
from first-person perspective, avoiding subjective judgement or labelling by others. DeVito
suggested starting by observing the other person or situation from a neutral perspective and then
forming an opinion on the behaviour of that person or the dynamics of a situation.
Hence, DeVito (2013:130) asserted that:
The corrective to intentional orientation is to focus first on the object, person, or event
and then on the way in which the object, person, or event is talked about. Labels are
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certainly helpful guides, but don’t allow them to obscure what they’re meant to
symbolize.
Owing to the complexity of human nature and the world, nobody can see everything of anything or
experience anything to the full. An attitude of “all-ness” (refer to Table 2.4: emotional blind spot of
an “I know” attitude limiting the opportunity for learning, change and development). The opposite
attitude of “non-all-ness” should therefore motivate individuals to learn more, get to know more,
see more, hear more and communicate more. DeVito (2013:130) quoted the famed British Prime
Minister Benjamin Disraeli as saying, “to be conscious that you are ignorant is a great step toward
knowledge”.
DeVito (2013:133) investigated the difference between factual and inferential statements in relation
to cultural, national or religious groups, claiming, “The more you discriminate among individuals
covered by the same label, the less likely you are to discriminate against any group”. The
semantics of language does not discriminate between facts and perceptions. “Fact-perception
confusion” may affect clear thinking and solid communication. Managing concrete evidence versus
managing abstract assumptions about concrete evidence can disintegrate any valid argument.
Thus, confusion blooms among inferential and non-verified statements. Careful distinction between
facts and perceptions allow for more direct, clearer and more transparent communication.
DeVito (2013:132) reported “indiscrimination” as a form of stereotyping. Stereotyping overrides the
uniqueness of individual persons and events. Linguistic terminology offers generalised terms such
as lecturer, student, friend, enemy and others. However, DeVito (2013:133) challenged the lack of
indiscrimination – “to fall into the trap of indiscrimination” through labelling a group without
acknowledging the individuals within a group.
Read (2004) stated that language accesses polarised descriptions – particularly within a
framework of extreme opposites, referring to “either / or” rather than “both, and more”. For the
majority of persons, life happens on a continuum with the extremes representing exceptional
experiences. DeVito (2013:133) noted a tendency among most people to communicate on the
“middle ground” or continuum, avoiding descriptions about people, objects and events in the
category of extremes like “good versus bad, rich versus poor, white versus black”. The polarities
exclude all-round possibilities. Read (2004:457) pointed out that polarity thinking and
communication ignores the richness of information in between: “Don’t allow the ready availability of
extreme terms to obscure the reality of what lies in between.”
Interpersonal communication is dependent on persons’ social awareness and relational
management. Eliot (1949, n.p.) offered an appropriate quotation in The Cocktail Party:
We die to each other daily. What we know of other people is only our memory of the
moments during which we knew them; and they have changed since then. To pretend
that they and we are the same is a useful and convenient social convention, which
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must sometimes be broken. We must also remember that at every meeting we are
meeting a stranger.
The next section addresses the principles and examples of non-verbal communication.
2.6.4
Principles and examples of non-verbal communication
Nešić and Nešić (2015) referred to non-verbal communication as essential for human social
interaction. Inter-communication can take place through static physical cues like facial and body
appearance, or as faces and bodies in motion. Such communication may happen through direct
touch or through spatial distance, referred to as proxemics communication. In general,
communication may occur through different types of non-verbal cues, or in combination with verbal
cues. According to De Gelder and Bertelson, (2003:460):
Research on perceptual processing, whether behavioural or physiological, has generally
considered one sense modality (sight, hearing, touch, smell, etc.) at a time. Yet, most
events in the natural environment generate stimulation to several modalities. An
explosion simultaneously emits light, noise and heat, and experiencing all of these
together, make for a richer percept than each individually; a speaker produces facial
movements in a predictable temporal relationship to corresponding speech sounds and
experiencing both together can provide a more adequate percept.
Erickson and Schulkin (2003) identified the importance of facial expression, both for basic survival
and social interaction. On the one hand, basic facial responses to stimuli like sweet and bitter
tastes have communicative value; this implies that facial responses have a more complex role in
non-verbal communication, since the perception and production of facial expressions are cognitive
processes, supported by numerous subcortical and cortical areas. No other emotion centre exists
in the brain. Therefore, emotion remains part of the brain’s cognitive function. The next section
focusses on body language and gestures as communicative acts.
The primary activity feature that distinguishes humans from other mammals is the ability of vertical
movement by the lower limbs, enabling the use of upper limbs for expression and gestural
communication. Bavelas, Gerwing, Sutton and Prevost (2008) pointed out that blind and visually
impaired persons cannot see the body language or gestures made by another person. When
sighted or blind people communicate over the phone or via electronic devices, gestures may be
present despite the fact that neither may be directly aware of gestures made by the other person.
Communication via electronic media is a substitute form of verbal communication, and the closest
to hearing the virtual voice of blind and visually impaired persons. Typed sentences substitute
facial expression; and so does the use of emoticon symbols like smiley faces. DeVito (2013:14)
identified two websites offering specific symbols for substitute use during non-verbal
communication: www.netlingo.com/smiley.cfm and www.netlingo.com/emailsh.cfm [Accessed:
2015-10-05].
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Bavelas et al. maintained that the alternatives to speech are visual perception of hand movements.
In this context, the researcher wishes to add the use of body language in totality, and not only hand
movements, to non-verbal communication. The role of gestures is to support the speaker in
expressing thoughts, helping viewers to understand what they hear. Galati, Sini, Schmidt and Tinti
(2003) reported only a few studies on the facial expressions of emotions in people who are blind.
Of the few studies undertaken, the samples were blind children and not blind adults.
DeVito (2013:139-141) described non-verbal communication as relational communication without
words but including laughter, vocalised pauses, facial expression, eye movement, bodily gestures,
touching others and paralinguistic sounds (“er”, “um”, “ah”, “aha” and “ugh”). Non-verbal language
is a form of signalling and showing of messages through “sending and receiving” messages, nonorally and non-written. Emphasis, or accentuating words or parts of sentences, happens through
the voice (normal voice or a raised voice), a fist gesture or staring eye contact. A universal gesture
is the smile, suggesting kindness, humour and friendliness, while a frown suggests disapproval or
questioning the status quo. Body language may contradict verbal messages, for example by
“winking”, indicating the absence of seriousness. Body movements like putting up a hand in the air
may indicate a need for attention. A questioning look with raised eyebrows shows the need for
clarity. Hand gestures and positioning of the head may also act as substitute for verbal messages.
2.6.4.1 Lines of non-verbal communication
Body language as a subset of non-verbal communication should not be confused with sign
language practised by persons from the deaf community. Sandler and Lillo-Martin (2006:3-4)
mentioned that body language does not consist of grammar, but is termed as “language” because
it is based in social culture. On the other hand, “sign languages are full languages like spoken
languages, having their own complex grammar systems” (Sandler & Lillo-Martin, 2006:3).
According to Matsumoto, Yoo, Hirayama and Petrova (2005), different cultures greatly influence
the nature of non-verbal communication. Therefore, non-verbal communication cannot depict a
universal form of global language. There are commonalities and exceptions that are culture
specific. Specific substitutes for verbal communication rely on current application, not historical
references. For example: Forming a circle with the thumb and index fingers means “nothing” or
“zero” in French culture, “money” in Japanese culture, and sexual suggestions in some southern
European cultures. Facial expressions help to show different emotions. While listening to others,
bodily regulators co-converse with the speaker, like nodding the head, changing eye focus and
producing paralinguistic sounds like “uhm” or “tsk”. Using adaptor behaviour like clicking a ballpoint
pen, chewing on a pencil, moistening the lips or scratching an itch substitutes verbal
communication. Examples of common gestures, used mostly without thinking, are folding the arms
over chest, waving hands, pointing with the index finger and resting feet on a table or chair. Each
of these common gestures have different meanings depending on the prevailing culture.
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The study by Sheppard and Strathman (1989) described body communication without movement.
It explained how body appearance like height and weight, type of skin, the colour of the eyes and
hair leave others with an impression. It is like an active silent story, told by the body as a person’s
personal image.
Much of interpersonal interaction happens through facial communication, the including signalling of
emotions and relaying information. Facial expressions can communicate happiness, surprise, fear,
sadness and more. According to Gladstone and Parker (2002), smiling people appear more
likable, approachable and open to conversation than non-smiling persons and persons smiling in
pretence. Careful analysis might reveal that low expressive people like blind and visually impaired
persons are completely content and happy while lacking facial expressions in line with the sighted
norm.
Hans and Hans (2015:48) discussed the role of eye contact in non-verbal communication. The
study of eye behaviour is called oculesics. The word stems from the Latin “oculus” which means
eye. Evidently, the face and eyes are the primary focus during communication. Visual and auditory
senses absorb most of the spatial and perceptual information. Hans and Hans (2015:48) said the
belief that the “eyes are the window to the soul” is an accurate description of “where people think
others are located”. In this context, blind and visually impaired persons rightfully have their own
“window to the soul”, located within their tactile sense, taste, smell and auditory sense. Rosen
(1998:59) described a similar phenomenon: “While you’re listening to what a patient is saying, with
your third ear listen to why they are saying it.” As such, non-verbal communication offers a way to
communicate with others and extended surroundings by using oneself as a “third-ear tool”.
Hans and Hans (2015:48) referred to the power of touch and “haptics” as the study of
communication by touch. Sound human development relies on touch as a comforting sensory
experience. Touch can be welcoming, threatening or persuasive. Different types of touch include
“functional-professional, social-polite, friendship-warmth, love-intimacy, and sexual-arousal touch”
(Hans & Hans, 2015:48). DeVito (2013:152) pointed out that touching can be a positive or negative
experience, for example when holding someone’s arm to control their movements, this may be
resented. Such behaviour may send signals of manipulation and control “on behalf”.
Silence communicates during interaction; silence serves communication functions, like words and
gestures. To this end, Lane, Koetting and Bishop (2002) noted that silence provides time to think.
As such, silence communicates emotions and achieves specific effects by “loading an atmosphere”
as a strategy to bring a message across. When having nothing to say, silence will communicate
absence of verbal communication or sounds.
DeVito (2013:333) described the communicative nature of time as, “… how a person’s or a
culture’s treatment of time reveals something about the person or culture”. DeVito (2013:164-166)
referred to “chronemics” as the technical terminology for the study of temporal communication,
considered as the “use and management of time”. This time factor may be “psychological time”,
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orienting a person towards the past, present and future. Schedules, planning and organising
revolve around time to gain some degree of personal control. “Cultural time” gets culturally
controlled, whether by seasonal cycles, natural phenomena, or people’s cultural perception of
verbal communication in “forever”, “soon”, “late” or “as soon as possible”.
2.6.5
Summary
This chapter investigated existing academic literature in line with the aim and objectives of this
research study. The approach was to engage with available information according to the research
themes and patterns identified in the title of this assignment. “A beacon in the dark” relates to
educating and informing society about the social disability model and the role of a prejudiced group
in causing disability labelling and hurdles for disabled persons. To determine the perceived value
of coaching visually impaired business leaders, literature on coaching as a business and
management development tool, utilised on a global scale in a workplace and organisational
context, was explored. Coaching blind and visually impaired business leaders appeared to be an
understudied field. Hence, the findings of this study hope to change the status quo. This chapter
also considered the ‘what’, ‘how’, ‘where’ and ‘when’ of verbal and non-verbal communication in
the everyday lived experience of sighted and blind persons.
Organisational assessments play a vital role in a coaching process. The review identified useful
quantitative and qualitative instruments offering profiling to sensitise coaches in terms of the soft
skills as strengths and potential development areas. In a broader context, where academic
literature refers only to persons with disabilities, it justifiably includes blind and visually impaired
persons.
In conclusion, the four research themes and patterns addressed in this review are coaching, blind
and
visually
impaired
business
leaders,
the
organisational
context
and
interpersonal
communication constructs influencing the social awareness and relational management of all
peoples.
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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1
INTRODUCTION
In order to contribute to the discipline of coaching as well as members of the blind community, a
qualitative research methodology has been adopted in this study. Glesne and Peskhin (1992:6)
stated that the unique realities of blind and visually impaired persons sanction “a methodology that
encompasses an interpretivist paradigm which portrays a world in which reality is socially
constructed, complex and ever-changing”. The research objectives informed the aim of this study.
The design and methodology facilitated the research process, exploring and interpreting the
influence of coaching on the development of interpersonal communication competence with blind
business participants.
3.2
FOREGROUND
Qualitative research provides an opportunity to include the voices of minority or marginalised
groups into mainstream research. Social research implies that researchers become involved with
the everyday lived experiences of participants: learning about their social constructs and
addressing the void in earlier identified knowledge gaps.
This explorative and interpretative study utilised coaching assessments, feedback interviews,
coaching sessions and qualitative semi-structured interviews with a sample of five blind business
leaders. Recorded interviews were transcribed by the researcher to become familiar with the data.
The data analysis and interpretation was based on the identification of recurring themes and
patterns offering insight into the research aim and objectives. Further disclosures from
conversations added admissible data for triangulation when analysed and interpreted.
3.3
THE SAMPLE
The research was conducted among five blind business leaders in Gauteng Province. An initial
snowball sampling provided a list of 22 interested and potential participants from different
provinces in South Africa through the South African National Council for the Blind (SANCB). Upon
release of the ethical clearance by University of Stellenbosch Business School’s Departmental
Ethical Screening Committee (USB DESC) on 30 April 2015 (see Appendix A), a sample of five
participants was purposefully selected.
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3.4
TRI-PHASED RESEARCH DESIGN
This section comprises three phases: an introductory pre-coaching phase (Phase 1), followed by
the coaching phase (Phase 2), and lastly the post-coaching phase (Phase 3) for the interview and
processing of research data.
Phase 1 consisted of three sessions, and commenced with Session 1 as the “chemistry” session.
Each participant received comprehensive information on the purpose of the research study as well
as the scope of the coaching assessment process. The Business and Management Coaching
Contract was co-signed by researcher and participants for the protection of confidentiality rights
(see Appendix E). Session 2 allowed for an interactive completion of a Self-Report Questionnaire
as well as the Fifteen Factors (Plus) Personality Questionnaire (15FQ). The researcher read out
the questionnaire items, completing participant answers electronically on behalf of the participants.
The results from the coaching assessment served to determine the scope of participants’
interpersonal communication needs. Session 3 provided the participants with feedback on the
assessment results, enabling the identification of potential coaching topics. Participants each
received an electronic version of their customised feedback report for further reflection and
contemplation on coaching goals and topics. Each interactive session lasted between 1.5 and 2
hours.
Phase 2 comprised a minimum of five coaching sessions, scheduled over four to six months
depending on each participant’s programme and availability. Each coaching session lasted
between 1.5 and 2 hours. As a result of some participants’ demanding work schedules, the
duration of some sessions extended to 2.5 hours without compromising the quality of the sessions.
The coaching phase in itself focused on the second research objective by applying coaching as a
professional learning and development tool while informing the perceived value of coaching.
Phase 3 allowed for the qualitative semi-structured interviews, as well as the completion of the
audio recording transcriptions by the researcher. The researcher proceeded with the processing of
the data to reach the findings and make recommendations based on this study.
During all the sessions of the three phases, with consent of the participants, the researcher
compiled observational notes. Besides the formal coaching sessions, both the researcher and
participants engaged in reflective practice, participated in topical debates, argued pragmatically
and explored the social constructs believed to be affecting the participants’ interpersonal
communication competence. The Kolb (1984) experiential learning model developed participants’
self-coaching abilities. Almost all participants engaged in putting the experiential learning cycle to
use while at work to experiment with their own levels of social awareness and relational
management. Over a period of six months, all interpersonal communication between the
researcher and participants subconsciously occurred “in a coaching way”. On a conscious level,
participants willingly practiced the experiential learning steps of concrete experiences, reflective
observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation in their everyday living.
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Interpersonal communication became a reflective mirroring tool and experiential force for selftransformation. The “coaching way” was not confined to only the formal coaching sessions, but
was integrated in multiple aspects of the participants’ lives as a way to reconfigure their thinking
processes, feelings and behaviour.
3.4.1
Constructive research themes and patterns
The literature review in Chapter 2 served to unpack four main themes and patterns: firstly,
coaching; secondly, blind and visually impaired persons; thirdly, persons with disabilities in an
organisational setting exploring principles of reasonable workplace accommodation within a
“culture of accessibility” (WHO, 2011:193); and, lastly, interpersonal communication as the core
workplace and social competence. During the three research phases, the four themes and patterns
remained central to the research aim and objectives, exploring the perceived influence of coaching
on social awareness and relational management. Everyday lived experiences of five blind business
leaders’ added sub-themes and patterns derived from intra-personal needs. Through reflective
practice, participants became consciously aware of the “self” in managing some equations believed
to belong to the “sighted world”. Indeed, based on the primary research question, participants
willingly contributed their time and their social, emotional and intellectual learning abilities to this
research study by doing the following, among others:
i)
Complete a Personality Questionnaire and receive feedback with the purpose of determining
the scope of interpersonal communication needs required for social awareness and relational
management before starting the coaching phase in line with the first research objective.
ii)
Take part in coaching conversations with the purpose of personal learning and professional
development in line with the second research objective.
iii)
Consider future coaching for self-transformation and leadership role strengthening in line with
the third research objective.
iv)
Accept the researcher as a “member-visitor” in the blind community while sharing from their
everyday life experiences as blind participants, allowing the researcher to participate in
interpersonal communication scenarios.
v)
Share information about workplace experience, “a culture of accessibility” (WHO, 2011: 193)
or lack of reasonable accommodation for disabled persons that is an imminent part of blind
and visually impaired business persons’ everyday living experience.
vi)
Apply interpersonal communication competence through verbal communication (Assistive
Technology (AT) in written and oral communication) and non-verbal communication (body
language, gestures, paralinguistic application, mannerisms and more).
The research findings and recommendations should inform the knowledge gap on what could be
the potential role of coaching in assisting blind business participants with the development of their
interpersonal communication competence.
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3.5
DATA COLLECTION
Elliott, Fischer and Rennie (1999:216) described qualitative research as an attempt to understand
and interpret people’s behaviour when engaging with everyday lived experiences. One of the
objectives of this study is to gain an understanding of whether and to what extent the participants
might have benefitted from the coaching process in strengthening their interpersonal
communication competence. Research depends on assumptions that feed back to the primary and
secondary research questions that may confirm or deny participants’ perspectives on the role of
coaching in interpersonal communication. Capturing the research data involved the process of
triangulation. The initial self-report orientation questionnaire completed by the participants added to
the field notes as a source of data. The researcher became a source of qualitative data, having
conducted the personality assessments and provided feedback to each participant. The
assessment results offered valid and reliable quantitative data on participants’ interpersonal
communication constructs. In addition, the researcher conducted the coaching sessions, observing
the richness of the personal learning and professional development experienced by each
participant.
The semi-structured recorded interviews formed the bulk of the research data. Transcriptions of the
interviews were done before analysing the data. Participants were interviewed at a venue of their
choice; some at work during office hours, the rest at their homes after work. During the interviews,
the participants used English as the official language of the business industry. During the
interviews, the researcher observed adjusted behaviour among all five participants. The
interpersonal constructs of open communication, interpersonal openness and inspirational
leadership presented itself spontaneously during the interviews, much more than during the initial
“chemistry session”. According to Myers and Newman (2006:3), in a qualitative semi-structured
interview the “script” is incomplete. The researcher as interviewer prepares thematic questions
beforehand. However, the researcher needs to improvise alternative questions keeping the
research aim and objectives in mind in order to obtain qualitative data during the qualitative semistructured interviews.
A critical aspect during the data-analysis phase was to identify common themes and patterns from
participants’ descriptions based on individual perspectives, assumptions and everyday lived
experiences. The tri-phased research design with five blind business participants over a period of
six months proved to be a unique and multi-levelled experience.
Research processes start simply, following a structured sequence of events. The nature of the
research question and the scholarly discipline inform the route to arrive at a destination with data
analysis and the interpretation of results, leading to findings and recommendations (Leedy &
Ormrod, 2014:5-7).
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3.6
DATA ANALYSIS
Upon the start of this research study, meeting with each participant for the “chemistry session”, a
two-way subjective form of observational data gathering and analysis commenced. The mere
interaction between a blind participant and a sighted researcher alerted and sensitised the social
awareness and relational management of both persons. Participants analysed the researcher
through listening to the voice and the content of the meeting, and based their decision to partake in
the research study on their impressions of the researcher and the comprehensive amount of time
involved in the study. Building rapport and establishing a preliminary trusting relation evolved into
five individual research contracts that included an assessment phase, a coaching phase and,
lastly, the phase of the qualitative semi-structured interviews. Contracting for a minimum of ten
inter-active sessions covering three phases, excluding time for self-reflection, personal reading,
experiential learning and e-mail communication, required a conscientious commitment from each
participant. The researcher was fully committed and entering into a research partnership with each
participant with enthusiasm, commitment, interest and perseverance. The researcher’s behaviour
was undoubtedly analysed and found acceptable by each participant in order to proceed with the
study.
Qualitative data analysis co-occurred during each interactive session through observation of
behaviour, compiling notes, reflective practices, providing additional reading material to participant
in line with the coaching topic, managing the session schedule, sending reminders and more. The
participants’ interpersonal communication competence was monitored on a conscious and subconscious level by the researcher taking note of consistent behaviour. The researcher made notes
as a reflective practice after the sessions. During the sessions, participants resorted to incremental
reflection of learning, identifying additional coaching topics that related to their everyday lived
experiences. The coaching goal contracted during the first coaching session guided the overall
process, including the coaching phase. A summary of the analysis and interpretation of
correlational data for Phase 1 and Phase 2 is available in Chapter 4.
Moran (2000:15) explained that the subjective nature of interpretative analysis feeds into a
perceived objectivity with the researcher for a detailed understanding of the participants’ subjective
everyday lived experiences. According to Chapman and Smith (2002:127), a flexible and detailed
methodology is useful in a domain where the coaching topics are relatively novel and include
potentially sensitive conversations between the coach as researcher and coachees as researcher
participants. The participants’ everyday subjective lived experiences gathered specific meanings
within the context of the four themes and patterns on coaching, blindness disability, organisational
settings and interpersonal communication competence. Careful reading and detailed analysis
prevented misreadings of meaningful data. Triangulation compiled a substantive amount of
qualitative data in this study.
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The results focused on the commonalities and differences among the themes and patterns that
emerged from the coded data. Research themes and patterns that overlapped with the literature
review needed cross-referencing with the research objectives. Therefore, the qualitative data was
justified as truthful and dependable. The findings reflected the research outcome as the perceived
value of coaching blind participants on interpersonal communication towards a behaviour change
based on a coaching intervention. The researcher utilised a manual data analysis process, having
worked and lived with the data on a daily basis over a period of six months. Table 3.1 below
outlines the steps followed in the process of analysing and interpreting the data.
Table 3.1: Description of manual data coding and analysis process
Step
Researcher activity
1
Do daily back-ups on electronic hard drive of field notes, memos, reflective observations,
interview recordings and transcripts. Data sources kept in safe 24/7 since start of research
process.
2
Read transcripts and researcher notes for content mapping and impressions of content
comparison; re-read thoroughly and allocate colour coding to concepts and participant
impressions; establish themes and patterns.
3
Structure coded patterns; extend development of themes and patterns according to the four
categories from the literature review (1. coaching; 2. blindness disability;
3. organisational settings; 4. interpersonal communication).
4
Generate hardcopy printouts for manually working with the narratives and text
5
Analyse and interpret the coded themes and patterns in the three research phases:

Pre-coaching phase: Analyse and interpret the participants’ feedback on personal
perspectives, opinions and interests.

Coaching phase: Analyse and interpret diverse themes and patterns relating to
coaching, blindness disability, organisational settings and interpersonal communication
(themes from literature review).

Qualitative semi-structured interviews: Analyse and interpret common themes and
patterns relating to the research objectives and themes developed by the research
participants.
6
Integrate common concepts within themes and patterns, seek for correlation data per
participant transcript (intra-correlation), and cross-map transcripts from five participants (intercorrelation) that informed the research objectives.
7
Identify the participants’ direct quotations for confirmation of the coded themes and patterns.
8
Draw conclusions and summarise and interpret the findings derived from the researcher’s
subjective interpretation of the thematic relationships among coded narratives by five blind
research participants.
3.7
SUMMARY
This chapter described the research methodology as implemented during the research study. The
sampling process, and its alignment with the aim and objectives of this study, was described.
Likewise, the initial research question, aim and objectives determined the criteria for the specific
sampling of blind business leaders as research participants. A description of the data collection as
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well as the data analysis processes was also given. Next, the researcher analysed, coded and
categorised the data. The next chapter will outline the evidence of the research findings.
According to Leedy and Ormrod (2014:101), qualitative research methodology requires scholarly
consideration meeting multiple realities from different participants. The nature of the qualitative
research data in this study allowed for both exploratory and interpretative analysis by the
researcher. The tri-phased research process required a considerable investment in time from the
five participants and the researcher, with an acknowledgement by the participants of every
moment’s worth.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2011: 267-270), scientific research effectively
enhances public understanding of disability issues regarding “…the impact of environmental
factors (policies, physical environment, attitudes) on disability, and how to measure it”. A further
directive from the mentioned report is to conduct research on the everyday lived experiences of
persons with disabilities. Consultation should be in collaboration with persons with disabilities.
Persons with disabilities and their families are encouraged to participate in scientific informed
research projects; adding value to the body of knowledge covering a range of academic
disciplines.
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CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
4.1
INTRODUCTION
Mouton (2001:245) referred to “the rights of vulnerable groups” – those individuals whose minority
voices are mostly silent in mainstream society. However, within the context of this research
assignment the five blind participants showed low levels of “vulnerability” as a result of, inter alia,
the functional coping skills and enhanced problem-solving competence that they have developed.
The results from the 15FQ+ personality questionnaire profiled each participant’s social and
relational constructs on a ten-point scale. Each participant identified a number of interpersonal
constructs as needed, and chose coaching topics after the feedback interviews.
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the participants’ interpersonal behaviour and
professional development during a tri-phased research process.
4.1.1
Review of research aim and objectives
Based on the primary and secondary research questions, the research process pursued the
research objectives in order to draw conclusions on the five blind business participants’
perspectives on coaching. The findings should answer the primary research question of what might
be the role of coaching in assisting blind business participants with the development of their
interpersonal communication competence. Secondary questions helped to discover additional
information about how effectively blind participants engage with sighted persons on a social and
relational level as part of their everyday lived experience. The research process aimed to clarify the
strategic nature of interpersonal communication competence as employed by blind participants
when “sending and receiving” information. Research data obtained during the coaching phase of
this study translated into dependable findings on specific aspects of coaching that blind
participants found useful in strengthening their interpersonal communication competence.
The first research objective was to gain a better understanding of the scope of interpersonal
communication needs with specific focus on the constructs of social awareness and relational
management. The second objective was to gain a better understanding of the perceived value that
participants derived from the coaching facilitation. The third objective was to analyse and interpret
the participants’ behaviour change as depicted in the findings by suggesting guidelines for future
coaching programmes for blind business participants. Table 4.1 serves as a summary of the data
analysis and interpretation process, visually displaying the integrated process leading to the
research findings.
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Table 4.1: Summary of data analysis and interpretation
CATEGORIES
THEMES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1 Review of research aim and
objectives
4.2 RESEARCH INTERVIEW
4.2.1 Qualitative semi-structured
interviews
SUB-THEMES / PATTERNS
Research aim leading to the
research objectives and findings
4.3 RESEARCH THEMES AND
PATTERNS
4.4 RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
4.5 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATIONS
4.5.1 Sourcing codes
4.6 PURPOSE OF COACHING BLIND
BUSINESS LEADERS
4.6.1 Participants’ pre-coaching
expectations and perspectives
4.6.2 Coaching assessment
and feedback interview
4.6.3 Participants’ coaching
agenda, goals and topics
4.6.4 Incisive moments of integrated
coaching experience
4.6.5 Coaching tool: The book
Leadership For All (Ungerer,
Herholdt & Le Roux, 2013)
4.6.6 Coaching value as experienced
by participants
4.6.7 Suggested guidelines for
coaching blind or visually
impaired business leaders
4.7.1 In personage as blind business
leader: WHO am I being?
4.7.2 In personage as blind
business leader: HOW am I
being?
Primary research question
4.7 BLIND BUSINESS LEADERS AS
RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
Secondary research question 3
4.9 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Objective 3
4.7.2.1 Blind participants’ coping
and managing styles
4.8.1 Service orientation
4.8.2 Inspirational leadership
4.8.3 Team work
4.8.4 Workplace reasonable
accommodation of blind leaders
4.8.5 Universal Disability Models
4.8.6 Assistive Technology (AT)
and devices
4.9.1 Authentic communication
Secondary research question 2
4.9.2 Verbal communication
4.9.3 Non-verbal communication
4.10 SUMMARY
Objective 2
4.7.2.2 Personal preferences, selfpreservation or contempt
4.7.2.3 Participants’ anxiety and fear
4.7.2.4 Prospects of regaining sight:
Mythical perspectives, or not?
Secondary research question 1
4.8 WORKPLACE LIVED XPERIENCES
OF BLIND BUSINESS LEADERS
Objective 1
4.9.1.1 Perceptions of research title
4.9.1.2 Communication and perceptions
4.9.1.3 Proposed communication
changes for sighted persons
4.9.1.4 Communication and ethical
conduct
4.9.1.5 Communication, blind spots
and habits
4.9.1.6 Communication and crisis
management
4.9.2.1 Oral communication
4.9.2.2 Written communication
4.9.3.1 Body language
4.9.3.2 Paralanguage
4.9.3.3 Tactile communication
4.9.3.4 Temporal communication
4.9.3.5 Silent communication n
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4.2
RESEARCH INTERVIEW
According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2012:372), the research interview serves as a
purposeful conversation to establish rapport between two or more individuals. The authors
conceded that interviews can support the process of data capturing to gather truthful and
dependable data, relevant to the research questions and objectives. Naraine (2005:65) elaborated
on the purpose of an interview as an opportunity to obtain information often not directly observed,
like the participant’s perspectives, thoughts, feelings, intentions, values and more; also, to make
the participant’s perspectives more explicit.
The actual observation by the researcher of the interpersonal communication of each individual
participant spanned a period of six months (May – October 2015). The interpersonal
communication included both formal and informal interactions. Although thoroughly noted in
memos and field notes, observation may be insufficient and inadequate when the aim of the study
is to explore and interpret how participants apply experiential learning from coaching in their
everyday working lives. In the process, the participants learned to voice their concrete
experiences, to engage in reflective practice, and to consider a variety of alternative solutions with
which to experiment. All the participants applied Kolb’s theory of experiential learning (Kolb: 1984)
as methodology for self-exploration and venturesome experimentation during the coaching phase
of this research study.
King (2004:11) noted that qualitative semi-structured interviews are “non-standardised qualitative
research interviews” comprised of themes and patterns, and key questions to be covered:
The goal of any qualitative research interview is therefore to see the research topic from the
perspective of the interviewee, and to understand how and why they come to have this
particular perspective. To meet this goal, qualitative research interviews will generally have
the following characteristics: a low degree of structure imposed by the interviewer and a
preponderance of open questions.
Saunders et al. (2012:377) asserted that qualitative semi-structured interviews can explore,
describe or explain themes and patterns that have emerged from the use of qualitative
questionnaires.
4.2.1
Qualitative semi-structured interview (QSSI)
The interview questionnaire aimed to elicit everyday work experiences from the participants.
Therefore, the compilation of the questionnaire depended on a design that included the themes
and patterns to be explored. The data captured during the qualitative semi-structured interviews
needed to be aligned with the objectives and research questions discussed under 4.1.1 above.
According to Saunders et al. (2012:391), open questions may likely start with “what”, “how” and
“why” to match typical coaching questions. Although “why” questions can be replaced with “what”
and “how” questions, eliminating the “why” questions may soften the questioning and avoid a
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threatening approach. Open questions enabled participants to describe their opinions and to reply
as truthfully as they wished. (See Appendix J for the qualitative semi-structured interview
questionnaire.)
4.3
RESEARCH THEMES AND PATTERNS
Research data was aligned with the research objectives. Furthermore, the objectives were aligned
with the aim of the study in order to determine the perceived value of coaching in assisting blind
business participants with the development of their interpersonal communication competence. The
pre-coaching phase addressed the first research objective. This entailed a qualitative assessment
reflecting the scope of interpersonal communication needs with specific focus on the constructs of
social awareness and relational management as experienced by the five blind business
participants.
The coaching phase provided formal, interactive, one-on-one coaching sessions between the
sighted researcher as coach and each individual blind participant as coachee. These coaching
sessions addressed the second research objective, namely to determine the perceived value that
participants derived from the coaching facilitation. The data obtained from the coaching phase
provided an opportunity to report on this research objective.
During the coaching phase, participants explored beyond their personal “comfort zones” with
learning experiences, daring to actively experiment with new learning conceptualised during the
coaching sessions. Participants also utilised their reflective practice, which entailed a new way of
thinking about their thoughts while monitoring their feelings or their emotions. Participants reported
on their reflective practice during the coaching phase, identifying an increased awareness of how
their actions influenced their everyday lived behaviour. Participants mainly utilised their working
environment as “laboratory for testing” their own simulations on changed behaviour. Their
experienced results developed into self-identified coaching topics during the ongoing coaching
sessions.
The researcher was committed to observational note taking, generating memos and reflective
notes. Throughout the research process, participants communicated with the researcher via e-mail
and telephone conversations. Participants either needed to adjust the session schedules, or
requested reading material on topics and subjects they encountered while experimenting with new
learning insights as a result of the coaching sessions.
Lastly, the semi-structured interviews explored the blind business participants’ interpersonal
communication behaviour in order to help answer the primary and secondary research questions
about whether coaching can help them develop their interpersonal communication skills. The data
analysis, interpretation and findings meet the third research objective in suggesting guidelines on
future coaching programs for blind and visually impaired business participants.
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The data obtained from semi-structured interviews were analysed and coded manually.
Preparation data obtained from the pre-coaching and coaching phases were also analysed and
coded, identifying themes and patterns that were cross-referenced with unfolding themes from the
semi-structured interviews. The coded data disclosed varied research themes and patterns that
were categorised for multiple-cycled and in-depth interpretation. The next section describes the
participants’ biographical information.
4.4
RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
The formal contracting assured the participants of anonymity and confidentiality. Hence, Chapters
4 and 5 do not expose any identifying information of the research participants.
Table 4.2: Summary of research participants’ biographical information
BLIND RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS – BUSINESS LEADERS
Participative
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
researcher
Gender
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
White
Black
White
White
Asian
White
Mainstream
LSEN**
School for
the Blind
LSEN**
School for
the Blind
LSEN**
School for
the Blind
LSEN**
School for
the Blind
LSEN**
School for
the Blind
Postgraduate
Postgraduate
Postgraduate
Postgraduate
Postgraduate
Postgraduate
50+
40+
50+
50+
30+
50+
Disability
status
N/a - Sighted
Blind
Blind
Blind
Blind
Blind
Previous
coaching
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
Job level
Senior
managerial
Senior
managerial
Senior
managerial
Senior
managerial
Senior
managerial
Senior
managerial
Travel local
& global
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Computer
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Race
Schooling
Qualification
Age group
[average age
47 years]
& AT*
*AT: Assistive Technology **LSEN: Schools for Learners with Special Educational Needs
The selection criteria included participatory willingness and practical availability, being legally blind,
employed as a business leader and never been coached before. To ensure easy access, all
participants were based in Gauteng Province. The sample group consisted of males and females
with diverse ethnic upbringing, practising English, Afrikaans and/or African languages as mother
tongue. The median age of the sample was 47 years. The participants represented businesses or
organisations in the private sector and in government. In their respective roles as business leaders,
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each participant had multi-level role responsibilities, engaging with and overseeing large numbers
of employees (at least 50 employees each). The sample group was not representative of the target
population of blind business people and blind business leaders in South Africa. (See Appendix D
for Participant Invitation and Informed Consent document; and Appendix E for the Coaching
Contract.)
The sample of five blind participants cited individual and customary reasons for taking part in this
study. Individual reasons ranged from a sense of curiosity to find out what coaching was all about
to how coaching differs from interventions like mentoring, counselling and therapy. In terms of
customary reasons, all five participants identified with the opportunity to contribute to the body of
coaching knowledge through rigorous research, and to support the development of sustainable
development goals within the global blind community. The participants contracted with the
researcher for business coaching facilitation as a relatively “new form of business development
rehabilitation” for blind business professionals. The sighted researcher was welcomed without
reservation into the close-knitted network of the blind community. Although the researcher was not
a newcomer to the disability sector, the research questions inspired personal learning and
professional development for both the researcher and the research participants (as reported by the
participants).
The next section presents a summary of the analysis and findings, incorporating extensive
descriptions of the coaching role in assisting blind business participants with the development of
their interpersonal communication competence. The narratives illustrate the participants’ interests,
opinions and preferences extracted from their everyday lived experiences as blind business
leaders.
4.5
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Sourcing codes

CN: Coaching narratives

QSSI: Qualitative semi-structured interview

Participants’ reference coding: P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5
The next section explores the potential role of coaching for blind business leaders to gain an
understanding of their experience of coaching as a medium to support their professional
development in the workplace.
4.6
PURPOSE OF COACHING BLIND BUSINESS LEADERS
The mainstream approach to business coaching can be summarised as follows, as reported in
Chapter 2 by WABC (2013):
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The process of engaging in regular, structured conversation with a client, with the goal of
enhancing the client’s awareness and behaviour so as to achieve business objectives for
both the client and their organization.
The American Foundation for the Blind (AFB, 2015a) devoted itself to the special needs of blind
and visually impaired persons on a global scale through its Business Coaching as Rehabilitation
Approach:
We are the voice of the blind, speaking to international bodies on issues concerning
blindness and visual impairments in conjunction with our members. We provide services
to the visually impaired to work on the issues affecting the equality of life for blind
people.
AFB in conjunction with the World Blind Union (WBU) offers different types of rehabilitation
services to people who are blind or visually impaired. AFB’s programmes include communitybased rehabilitation programmes with job and business development services such as supported
employment, the setting up of business ventures, job or business searches, and business coaching
(AFB, 2015).
4.6.1
Participants’ pre-coaching expectations and perspectives
Globally, since the beginning of the 21st century, the word “coaching” has become a well-known
term in the business sector and on a personal level. An informed person will know what coaching is
all about and what coaching is not. In this study, as a starting point, the participants indicated their
perspectives on and expectations of coaching:
Um … one is to be given skills to manage and ought to deal with business-related
matters. Maybe to perceive things in a different way.
P1, QSSI, SRQ
Oh … um … it is not to learn from somebody else. The coaching process asks people to
set their own thinking and reflect on their own experience. It is vital how coaching
influences a blind person’s “being in the world” … for me as a blind person I think it can
be a strong force between “clinging to something” versus “not to be tied up in anything”.
Also the coach needs the competence to un-struck the participant.
P2, QSSI, CN
Um … it’s a process of um … of strengthening the person’s skills and building on
obvious strengths and um … noting areas of weakness where more attention might be
required. It will give insight into myself and an objective perspective on my hopes and
future business plans.
P3, QSSI, SRQ
Um … I think … to create some sort of um … tool to empower people in the business
and management, to help them find direction, um … a facilitated approach rather than to
tell someone what to do. Hopefully, it will help me to reflect, communicate and identify
challenges and opportunities, on the strengths and weaknesses in my current situation.
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P4, QSSI, SRQ
Um … I think it is possible to reflect on … on what I do at work and how I do my work in
a structured systematic kind of way and um … I also think of the fact that it is a bit like
um … applied psychotherapy, um … but with a particular context, a particular focus. I
will get to know myself better and I may learn to understand other people better.
P5, QSSI, SRQ
All the participants experienced the coaching process as a negotiated space in which to receive
certain skills to apply effectively in the workplace. Participants P1, P4 and P5 took the
responsibility to apply their newly acquired skills to the benefit of the business. They displayed
organisational awareness and service orientation (social awareness) to become a change catalyst
(relational management) for improved performance. P2 expressed emotional self-awareness as a
core result from coaching, referring to a blind person’s “being in the world” because of achievement
orientation (self-management) and self-confidence (self-awareness). Stout-Rostron pointed out
that “being and becoming” is an ontological level of development where a coaching intervention
facilitates a process between “who the client is and who the client wishes to become … and what
needs to change in terms of thinking, feeling and behaviour” (Stout-Rostron, 2012:95). P2
described an intra-personal ambivalence of an existential nature, namely to be emotionally secure
in what might be familiar and known, versus to dare boldly in facing change and new experiences.
P2 identified the role responsibility of the coach as an independent “coaching tool” practising
empathy (social awareness) and understanding to facilitate a process for the coach to gain insight
into the coachee’s issues. Coaching can therefore help the coachee to conceptualise active
experimentation to neutralise a “dead-end” experience.
P3 and P4 focused on the coaching as a self-enhancing tool, optimising development in a
responsible way. Both referred to personal “strengths” and “weaknesses”, showing self-confidence
in terms of the competencies they had already mastered and successfully applied in their working
environments. The “weaknesses” were identified as areas for personal growth, learning and
development. (Refer to Appendices G, H and I for a comprehensive interpretation and findings).
Hence, the purpose of the coaching process would be to acknowledge their untapped potential and
to learn how to change or adjust their thinking, feeling and behaviour with an entrepreneurial edge
in mind. P5 held a different opinion and did not acknowledge the potential value of coaching. The
participants compared coaching with “applied psychotherapy” that presumed the inclusion of past
issues that were context dependent. However, giving credit to coaching as a way of getting to
know oneself better in order to understand others better indicates a positive approach towards
interpersonal openness. P5 confirmed a strong preference for working in a structured, systematic
way as standardised procedures reflect organisational awareness in terms of following specific
rules.
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4.6.2
Coaching assessment and feedback interview
To meet the first research objective and to determine the scope of interpersonal communication
needs with specific focus on the constructs of social awareness and relational management,
participants consented to the completion of a qualitative Self-Report Questionnaire and a
quantitative Personality Questionnaire (15FQ+). The purpose of utilising both questionnaires was
to apply coaching tools to determine the participants’ potential interpersonal communication
development areas. Therefore, the questionnaires helped to determine to what extent a specific
construct has been developed – either fully or partially. The researcher and participants completed
both questionnaires interactively with the researcher reading the questions and typing the
participants’ answers on the computerised version of the questionnaire’s protocols.
In terms of the 15FQ+ Personality Questionnaire, Psytech SA (Pty) Ltd processed the raw data
and supplied the profiled results as a confidential report in electronic format to the researcher.
Pseudonyms replaced the real names of the candidates. This report profiled each participant’s
interpersonal communication competence on a scale of 0 to 10. The Social Awareness Cluster
measured four constructs while the Relational Management Cluster measured six constructs.
(Refer to Tables 2.2 and 2.3 for the respective clusters and listed constructs.) The researcher
analysed, interpreted and integrated the results from both questionnaires and scheduled individual
feedback sessions with each participant. The narratives to follow reflect the participants’ insights
into their subjective experience of the questionnaires and the feedback interviews conducted by
the researcher:
Um … I would say the tool itself, the way it was crafted, um … made me feel it was valid
because there was also an element of fairness. Validity goes hand in hand, um … with
fairness. Once it is fair then it can be reliable. That’s how I found it.
P1, QSSI
Um … Ja … it was very helpful in that it heightened my self-awareness and provided
material for self-reflection. Um … one particular thing comes to mind for me that was a
compromise for me that stood out, one thing I wasn’t sure that I knew about myself that I
don’t enjoy being the centre of attention. But I just knew that wherever I am in the area of
feeling ill at ease, or uncomfortable but I haven’t actually been able to succinctly know
that it was the cause of that particular feeling of unease. When it was reflected back to
me I was like “yes I know that, oh, oh, yes I know!” Um … it was a re-enforcement of
something that I think I vaguely knew. I don’t think that I have ever reflected on that
particular aspect before. You did refer to self-empowerment and growth areas and, yes
… um … like moving into my own potential in areas where I think are the central areas
for development which were highlighted during the feedback interview. Um … it was a
fact of “I know that it is fine” and it was up to me to choose if I wanted to change that or
not. Assessment as a coaching tool reflected my current reality. It is vital that coaching
tools must be appropriate for the purpose and comprehension of blind and visually
impaired persons.
P2, QSSI, CN
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Um … I didn’t find any reason to doubt a question. I thought, um … it captured the
information on the main matters very well. I regard myself as having um … good working
experience, but I use the word “soft discovery” deliberately in that I did glean areas
where I’m stronger and areas where I could be more attentive in future in what I do.
P3, QSSI
Um … I just was quite taken aback by some of the content of the assessment because
the fact that it actually comes out very clearly how tactful I am and how my interpersonal
skills help me a lot in regard to how I’m able to move forward and how I’m able to
function in a work environment.
P4, QSSI
Um … I like doing the questionnaires; I like the feedback that I got from you, in other
words, the person in interaction. I thought that you understood my experience with the
feedback session quite well, but I did not like the actual content of the feedback that I
got. At the time, I thought I’m just been hypersensitive about it, but a lot of the content
did not resonate with me then. It was just, sometimes you get a surprise and it actually
registers with you, sometimes you get a surprise and it doesn’t register with you, and it
was one of those that the content didn’t register with me then. Only later during the
coaching did I realise what happens when trying to manipulate the assessment
questions, the results could be “a game of smoke and mirrors”. And I realised the
assessment feedback was overwhelming accurate in mirroring my personality traits and
my emotional status. At the time I simply did not like hearing the truth and having to deal
with that at the time. The coaching instrument taught me that my complete and whole
identity had been formed around the fact that I cannot see. It seems I have not been
able to be immune within my own circumstances, due to the fact that I need people. It is
so liberating to discover how things are and how things are not …
P5, QSSI, CN
All the participants agreed on the validity (measuring what the coaching instrument intended to
measure) and reliability (consistency of the measuring properties) of the 15FQ+ Personality
Questionnaire. P1 to P4 experienced the content of the feedback as truthful, dependable and
believable. They could resonate with the existing interpersonal communication constructs on a
rating scale of 0 to 10, compared to the norm group of General SA Population 2010. Participants
P1 to P4 debated the “weight” or importance within their respective business sectors of prioritising
coaching topics for the five coaching sessions, scheduled to follow the feedback interview.
Participants P1 to P4 justified their respective assessment results as “a confirmation of
information”.
Noted: Psytech SA (Pty) Ltd offers Continuous Professional Development (CPD) via its
assessment instruments underpinned by rigorous research processes (refer to Appendix B in this
regard). The assessment data and reports compiled for the five blind research participants in this
study have established a new sample group for blind and visually impaired business candidates in
South Africa. This sample group needs to increase substantially by adding more sampling data to
the group before establishing a norm group. The researcher acknowledges the role responsibility
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of Psytech SA (Pty) Ltd in using an inclusive approach to enhance the diversity and transformation
of the assessment instruments in its global assessment products. Establishing a norm group for
blind and visually impaired persons on the 15FQ+ Personality Questionnaire adds value to the
body of coaching knowledge, the body of psychology knowledge and the blind community.
During the feedback interview, P5 mostly dismissed the content of the feedback. P5 appeared
threat-sensitive towards the content but eagerly debated the value of including certain constructs
as coaching topics. Refer in this regard to Appendix G: P5 for an indication of the reflective need
for coaching on the following constructs: Open Communication, Interpersonal Openness, Conflict
Management, Change Catalyst, Organisational Awareness, Service Orientation and Empathy.
However, any rating on the 0-10 scale offers the potential for further learning, reflective insight and
professional development. The coaching topics are inclusive, cover the overall distribution of
scaling outcomes, and refer to all ten constructs of interpersonal communication that are required
for social awareness and relational management.
The researcher was sensitively aware of not causing any emotional harm to the participant’s selfworth and self-confidence. The purpose of a feedback interview is not to agree on all aspects, but
to gain personal insight into the weighting of the results as a guideline for further exploration,
experimentation, reflection, learning and development. Weeks later, in a coaching session, P5
reflected on the value of the content of the report because he reflected on the cause of certain
symptoms that have hampered his interpersonal communication and relational management over
many years. What was considered only information during the feedback, matured into personal
knowledge for P5, resulting in heightened levels of self-awareness, self-management
(intrapersonal communication), and social-awareness and relational management (interpersonal
communication competence).
In conclusion, and based on the assessments and feedback, all five candidates agreed on a need
for coaching on social and relational aspects, and were open to facilitation on topics that hampered
their relations within themselves (intrapersonal communication) and with others, mainly in the
workplace.
4.6.3
Participants’ coaching agenda, goals and topics
The participants’ busy schedules during office hours significantly impacted the coaching phase of
this research study. Does this statement bear a different weight compared to the participants’
sighted peers who also have over-stretched time schedules and work responsibilities? In Section
4.7.1, participants P1 and P2 confirmed that blind and visually impaired persons utilise more time
and need to work twice as hard as their sighted peers in an attempt to meet or beat the standards
and quality of work produced by their sighted peers. Despite managing very busy schedules, all
five participants were committed to this research study and gladly participated by giving of their
time and sharing their insight over a period of six months. The majority of interactive sessions
happened after hours and during weekends.
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Coaching goals and development topics emerged from the profiling indicators and the feedback
interviews. However, participants were free to change the schedule, coaching agenda and topics
based on their own changing needs and their own continuum of everyday interpersonal
communication:
Um … because of my schedule um … we could just change the coaching time itself and
adjust topics for discussion as life, um … goes on. Um … it was not the coaching tools
or conversations itself, but the time on my side in this year which was so very … very …
um … hectic. An important coaching topic for me is on public speaking. Not everyone,
um … shares the speaker’s views. One needs um … to determine how the audience
reacts to your message. Another coaching topic is on teamwork. I, um … prefer to work
alone. When we have to develop work, the rest of the group is quiet. Maybe they um …
lack knowledge or they resist me as a leader. It’s like um … being a group only because
of numbers. They don’t prepare for meetings. I set up a meeting to discuss and um …
nobody attended.
P1, QSSI, CN
A valuable coaching topic is on the reflective space of coaching that causes blind
participants to becoming consciously aware of the way they communicate with other
blind and visually impaired and sighted people in the world of work; realising other
people’s perception of how they communicate differs profoundly from their own
perception of how they communicate. I need to unpack this.
P2, CN
Um … we need a conversation on um … probably rather ask people to explain
something and probably to not avoid confrontation because I tend to avoid confrontation.
Um … because it comes with the territory of you know being a people’s person trying to
be tactful but very often people at work don’t really understand when you’re being tactful;
diplomacy doesn’t work with everyone. Sometimes you rather come out and say it as it
is, um … with other consequences. I think one of the major areas were the whole thing
on how to lead and how to operate within an open door policy, um … to ensure that I’m
actually able to thrive and move forward in my work. That is a focus area for me to try
and get some strategic direction, um … and make sure that people in ExCo actually
listen to a strategic direction that I’m able to provide and how one could possibly go
about actually doing that. That is on the forefront of my agenda. Also, um I want to
discuss public speaking as a coaching topic. Often I have to speak at important events
and I don’t do Braille notes it just distracts me, but then I become anxious fearing that I
would forget what I wanted to speak about and then I behave differently than I would
have … I think I really need to um … focus a little bit on how to not micro-manage, um …
you know how to get away from that and try to delegate. I think that part I need some
assistance with in order to let go of certain responsibilities because currently I’m doing
everything on the side. I know I need some, um … sort of professional growth on a
number of aspects.
P4, QSSI, CN
I wish to pay more attention to interpersonal competence, my ability to influence others
and the ability to listen to others and understand the difference between situations where
either of those skills is called for. Innovation is always called for, whether it is required to
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solve small or big problems, each day demands innovation; how to stay awake after very
little sleep the night before, how to deal with the sudden onset of depression, your
colleague’s unexpected tears or fit of temper, or to take a fresh look at an old problem.
Let’s talk about this. It is completely correct that I suffer from the qualms after meetings
about how well did I land with the team. I don’t wish to discard this topic then, realising
that it serves as a guideline. We can discuss this topic about time management. How I
communicate time to colleagues and others. To reshuffle things are more difficult than to
change the pattern of things. A big thing, um … topic for me is on how I accommodate
others at my own expense, then ending mostly in bad vibes and no good
communication. For the coaching conversations, I ended up setting my own agenda
without really realising that I was doing it. I think you told me in advance that you would
not be setting the agenda. Nevertheless, I think it didn’t really dawn on me that I was
going to have to set my own agenda. I think it was good because by mutual consent I
would have felt burdened by that and … but in the end um … I think it all happened quite
easily and I thought it was very well done on your part.
P5, QSSI, CN
Both P1 and P4 requested coaching on public speaking. All five participants do public speaking on
a regular basis, whether on invitation as motivational speakers or voluntarily applying themselves
in their respective professional disciplines by delivering conference papers, reporting on workrelated projects and contributing in other scenarios. The construct Persuasiveness refers to “social
presence, empathy and support, balanced negotiation style”. (Refer to Appendix G for the
participants’ assessment profiles.) It is significant to observe that all five candidates scored
moderate to high on the 0-10 scale in terms of Persuasiveness. Notwithstanding the participants’
respective senior managerial role responsibilities, they depended on other people for a variety of
needs. Without an option, they find themselves among people with no option to “go it alone” or to
work in total privacy for a lengthy period. Maintaining a social presence is no indicator of
continuous interpersonal communication and neither does it guarantee, figuratively speaking,
having their voices heard by colleagues. Senior management job levels imply taking leadership,
having opinions, solving problems and mentoring teams and down-line reports. A participant’s
measuring of self-confidence within the self-awareness competency cluster should indicate some
correlation with Persuasiveness. Levels of internalised anxiety might affect Self-confidence and
Persuasiveness. However, the presence of properties like “anxiety” would not be a truthful
reflection of the absence of a polarity property like “boldness”.
All five participants displayed a sense of persuasiveness in delivering their messages according to
the expectations of their audiences. They focused on their roles as inspirational leaders, worked
with teams and, in the case of P1, experienced a lack of cooperation from the team. Reasons for
the team’s non-performance remained unclear until P1 conceptualised another strategic approach
to address the team issue. It was resolved much easier than anticipated when P1 changed his
leadership style approach from directive to a negotiating style. P2 wanted to benefit from
interpersonal openness through interaction between blind and visually impaired persons, as well as
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inter-action between blind and sighted persons. A sense of empathy towards the ignorance of
sighted people about how blind and visually impaired persons behave and operate, served as an
inspiration to educate colleagues about the iniquities and uncertainties that exist due to the lack of
eye contact and the lack communication through body language. From both sides, the receiver and
the sender needed to clarify reasons for their behaviour, building an empathic understanding on
how to experiment with alternative ways of greeting to avoid awkwardness and long silences.
P4 and P5 both provided a comprehensive list of coaching topics. They mentioned the most
prominent needs above. From all the participants, P4 behaved in the most spontaneous way
during the qualitative semi-structured interview, explicitly using body language and gestures to
create comprehension of expressions and to show intent. P4 requested conflict management as a
coaching topic because P4’s “emotional resilience” or “emotional self-control” (self-awareness) was
subject to her own emotional “blind spots”. However, not being a “push-over”, members of the
Executive Committee strategically intimidated and manipulated P4’s sense of persuasiveness in
getting P4’s “business voice” fully established. The primary and secondary leadership styles
according to the 15FQ+ became a coaching conversation, prompting P4 into experiential learning
with alternative approaches to resolve this issue. At the end of the coaching journey P4 reported a
180° successful polarity improvement in her leadership role at work.
P5 became an active promoter for coaching after initial resistance towards the feedback content.
Although not an easy learning process, P5 allowed curiosity to inspire and drive the coaching
agenda by realising that so many experiences “go overhead” instead of being pursued with the
support of the coach and colleagues during open communication. P5 confirmed that he was
emotionally prone to uncertainties, doubting his own status in the office and exercising personal
authority over the team, all aspects that affect sound relations and cause unnecessary
misunderstandings. P5 seemed to have developed strong self-assessment skills (self-awareness)
in order to enhance self-management in moments when sound interpersonal communication in
such a senior position is vital. During the coaching and reflective practice, P5 became aware of an
almost life-long habit of accommodating the needs of others at the expense of his own emotional
self-control. The outcome of this personal development experiences feature in the next section.
4.6.4
Incisive moments of integrated coaching experience
According to findings from Longhurst (2006), “Aha” moments are experienced somatically
(physically), emotionally and cognitively – like the striking of chords in cross-matching a spectrum
of the individual’s holistic “being”. Longhurst said in this regard: “The more chords it strikes, the
greater the resonance and degree of cognitive and behavioural change” (2006:61). According to
Bohm (1994:159), the difference between an “Aha” moment of insight and just knowing something
new is felt in the body. Bohm explained this in the following way:
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Wherever it comes from, the important point is that it works directly at the physical level
of the organism, along with everything else. So it really affects you through and through.
Coaches therefore do experience clarifying moments of insight as part of a coaching journey.
Literature does not seem to refer to such incisive moments experienced by coaches. However,
from personal experience, when the coach observes through the eyes of the coachee the birth of
an epiphany, such experience may to some extent be the same for the coach. This is how the
research participants experienced such enlightening moments during the coaching phase:
Um … the coaching environment itself was so conducive and accommodative that many
such moments occur. Upon um … reflection, the uniqueness of um … changes dawn on
you.
P1, QSSI, CN
I have had, um … “aha” moments in the coaching that provided material for reflection. It
heightened my self-awareness and provided material for experimentation with “ways of
being”, or noticing a pattern that was left unconscious. When it appears again, as soon
as I have the “aha” moment, the awareness is there but then when the pattern repeats
itself in any situation one becomes more conscious that it is happening.
P2, QSSI
Um … the whole coaching process was one of discovery and um ... new territory. Um …
the way questions were constructed and topics facilitated by your questions and
guidelines I found very interesting. I, um … have benefitted all the way.
P3, QSSI
I started, um … realising things about myself that I didn’t understand before. Um … I
used to think of myself as the person who is quick to take a contrary position who is
quite combative, um … who is there for um … basically, a difficult person. I think all of
that is true, but in the sense I have found myself in a position to other people for large
parts of my life. I think a lot of that started out from a desire on my part mostly in
opposition to other people, from taking that too far, from pulling back, and so I think that
was the one big thing. After the coaching experience, I’ve been able to evaluate some
of the things that happened to me since. And I think one of the really interesting things
for me has been that the other big thing I realise now was that I have never
understood at all my relationship to other people um … I mean I’ve had just had a
far more limited understanding of my relationship to other people than I ever expected.
Um … so it has been quite a revelation to realise that I have to manage my own
kindness without borders to preserve relations.
P5, QSSI, CN
Participants P1 and P3 reported an overall coaching experience that could be compared to a chain
of special moments of personal learning and change. P2 referred to “aha” moments feeding into
reflective practice for enhanced self-awareness. P2 yet again referred to “ways of being” but
without “ways of becoming”, as discussed in the previous topic. “Ways of being” seemed to elicit
recurring events without moving up the consciousness ladder, but remaining on the step of
“consciously competent”. If “ways of becoming” could impact longstanding behaviour, becoming
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“unconsciously competent” can significantly change behaviour. P5‘s answer confirmed an
improved way of experiencing other people and relationships than before the coaching journey.
Also, opposing and counter-arguments from the past might have prevented P5 from building
constructive interpersonal relations. For blind people, these “revelations” may pave the way for
future social awareness and relational management from an equal vantage point, yet with
blindness as an inclusive component adding value to P5’s differently functioning competencies.
4.6.5
Coaching tool: The book Leadership For All
The purpose of the book Leadership For All (Ungerer, Herholdt & Le Roux, 2013) is to make a
contribution in the leadership “practices” domain. Various books cover the “what of leadership”.
However, there is a shortage of material that guides leaders to “entrain”, experiment and explore
options for the “how to of leadership” and to refine their natural leadership style and leadership
competence. This book offers 101 reflective practices that guide readers and leaders to expand
their competence repertoire in clusters of knowledge and cognitive competence, attitude and social
competence as well as emotional and personal competence. Reflective exercises are grouped into
competency clusters and universal virtue themes, enabling readers and leaders to focus on those
aspects that they want to change, improve or explore. Leadership For All (Ungerer et al., 2013) is
available from Knowledge Resources Publishing in Johannesburg; also from the USB. (Refer to
Appendix F.)
Although the researcher had been coaching blind business leaders before starting on this research
assignment, the researcher identified the need for accessible leadership information as part of
additional reading and learning during a coaching journey. Such material should address the
“what” and “how” of leadership for blind coachees. The researcher initiated the translation of this
book into Braille and Digital Accessible Information SYstem consortium (DAISY) audio format,
available from the South African Library for the Blind (SALB) in Grahamstown. Despite limited extra
time, all research participants accessed the content of this book through Braille or DAISY
electronic readers. Knowledge Resources Publishers granted permission for the distribution of the
DAISY version on a global scale to members from the blind community. The audio CDs can be
borrowed but remain the property of SALB, like with all standardised library services. The research
participants shared their impressions of this coaching tool, guided by the research question: What
aspects of coaching do blind participants find useful for strengthening their interpersonal
communication competence through utilising this coaching tool?
Um … the book is quite valuable. I enjoy reading it because with the book, always when
you read it um … there is a new interpretation and a new understanding. So for me it’s
been very, very, valuable so far. To be honest I haven’t had much time for the reflective
exercises, reason being I was inundated with an enormous workload during 2015,
consuming all my time, but time permitting, um … I see no problem to continue with the
reflective exercises next year.
P1, QSSI
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Um … yes, I use the DAISY version and … even when traveling it is convenient for me
to listen and reflect later or listen again. It requires focused attention and a willingness to
engage with it fully. I don’t think one can do those exercises when you are not fully
committed to doing it. One needs to be in the right space yourself. The reflective
exercises becomes like a sophisticated habit. Um …, the self-awareness then feeds into
the way I relate to others … different contexts, different relations, but like um … in a way
with more understanding of where others come from and how to communicate differently
to get a … another outcome that serves the person … that serves the purpose of getting
together and serving my own changed behaviour.
P2, QSSI
Um … it’s such a self-help kind of book. I am busy reading it. I want the book to inform
my own ability to give leadership. At work, I’ve been asked to hold a workshop on
leadership with another team of senior managers. And um … I will certainly take from
the book, um … analyses and information that I’m going to use. In my opinion, the
structure of the book is very thorough. Um … the information is well founded and I think
it’s a really must-read for somebody who’s eager to understand their own leadership
skills better and so strengthen their skills.
P3, QSSI
Um … I think um … the book is very useful. It is a systematic um … almost analytical
approach to … to … the concept and from the point of reference that I can continue
using um … which would provide me with a structured way in which I can approach this
coaching paradigm in future. I’ve worked pretty much through the book. Um … I um …
thought while I have the book and while it’s all new to me I should as a first trip around
the block … try to work through the book quite, ja … maybe quickly. Um … not of so
much rushing through the book, but getting through it at quite a pace so that I don’t get
bogged down in my own thought processes with the idea then I’d like to go back to it at
some point later. Some reflection exercises took me hours to complete but it was worth
it. I realised that some longstanding issues had been addressed through reflection.
Other times um … I would just think in circles and not move onto active experimentation
with alternative ways of addressing um … the issues. Reflective exercises kindly forced
me into some form of stocktaking and integrating multi-dimensional ways of fixing my
own thinking. Um … I use traveling time for reflection. I use it to get some perspective on
what had just happened and to get inspiration from it. By the time of arrival, I had spent
my traveling time to recharge my battery.
P5, QSSI, CN
Participants P1, P2, P3 and P5 had accessed the content of the book. P4 reported an intention to
utilise the book during December 2015 holiday. P2 and P5 used traveling time to listen to the book
and to reflect on exercises. An obvious remark would be to confirm that all participants have
vehicle drivers, allowing them to attend to different activities while traveling. P2 referred to
reflective practice as a “sophisticated habit”. In this context, reflective practice can be described as
“thinking about one’s thoughts, monitoring one’s feelings about emotions, and acting in accordance
with the balance between thoughts and emotions through expressed behaviour”. Those
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participants who have already used the book referred positively to the “self-help” component of the
book.
P5 re-affirmed his preference for accessing information in a structured way. Participants indicated
the effect of limited time but put in an effort to access the content of the book in order to explore
their leadership styles. P3 considered using some of the content during a leadership workshop at
work, which confirms commitment towards inspirational leadership, organisational awareness,
service orientation, team working, open communication with colleagues and acting as a change
catalyst during the presumed leadership workshop at P3’s business.
4.6.6
Coaching value as experienced by participants
In accordance with the title, aims and objectives of this research assignment the researcher and
participants consolidated multiple research actions that might contribute towards answering the
research questions. The researcher wishes to acknowledge every participant’s positive attitude
and conscientiousness in contributing to every step in the research process in order to reach the
goal of crystallising truthful and dependable research findings. As a step in the process,
participants willingly shared their insights, experiences and outcomes from the coaching phase:
Um … in my organisation, top management doesn’t understand and share the plight of
disabled employees. It is, um … like “I would not understand your pain because I’m not
in the same boat; I’m not in your shoes”. It seems as if top management only reacts
when I “demand”, but what makes them unresponsive to my requests um … more in the
form of commands than demands? As a concession in the work place, I push myself not
to disappoint others. Um … there is a problem with some of our disabled persons, um …
in the way we forget how we act and behave. I think people are like stones having
survived harsh weathers, winds, rains, snowy areas. When we um … get in contact, we
get smoothen out. In due time, we um … gain experience, become sharper in the way
we do things. We um … learn to solve problems; we learn tactics and techniques. In
your research study um … I felt sometimes grinding myself, I am a slave driver to
myself. Blindness restricts me from um … doing things. I face unique challenges as blind
person, um … I face disparities every day in how I see things differently. Um … that is
my reality. The coaching helped me to um … help myself more, and speak out more in
my own voice. Um …, my voice was silent for maybe too long. It now um … has
changed. I am so, um … grateful.
P1, QSSI, CN
Um … what was so interesting to see is … at the end of the day, um … it’s all about me
and not about the coach. It’s how I engaged with the process. I, um … think there was a
natural or, let’s put it this way, a more spontaneous rapport between myself and you as
the coach and I got more out of it because I could experiment again and um … again in
my own way. It was um … reassuring to know we were in partnership and that my coach
was watching the precipice that I am unable to see, um … literally and figuratively
speaking. You would not forsake my endeavours, or leave me humiliated or vulnerable.
It was like, um … you protected my own process, but um … only from a distance.
Systematically I could act in a planned way, but also in unplanned ways. It gave me um
… so much insight in my own unconscious behaviour and um … the coaching identified
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gaps in the competence of my own “being”. Those have also changed, and um … will
change more with more reflection and coaching to come.
P2, QSSI, CN
Um … come to think of all the different topics covered during um … the sessions made
me realise that I enjoy testing my own thinking on others. I think it becomes almost
another way of reflecting my own thinking. Um … it is bouncing off ideas; it becomes an
exchange of ideas in a robust debate without winners or losers. Um … I like to win and I
realised that others also like to win. Thinking only in solitude may result in becoming
overly confident in my own ideas. Responses from others whom I trust with my thinking
um … alerted me to include myself in the outcome of projects; even if the outcome may
be compromised because um … I could not have everything my way. My um …
definition of enthusiasm is having an overpowering love and interest for what one does.
Coaching raised my awareness on the need to find um … a way to project my own
enthusiasm um … and other strengths onto others. As a business leader, I realised I can
um … only inspire my team by leading with example without um … having to expose
more than the “available self” inside myself. Blindness is a lonely journey. There are
other visually impaired persons in my team at work and um … we hold a common
reference point as um … members of the blind community. The coaching experience
have sensitised me on um … how others perceive me and how I have perceived myself
in this blindness identity. I am um … grateful to continue learning different approaches to
solving daily issues.
P3, QSSI, CN
Um … I think one of the major areas was the whole thing on how to lead and how to
open doors um … to ensure that I’m actually able to thrive and move forward in my work.
So, that has been one of my focus areas to try and get some strategic direction. And um
… the coaching made me value my, the way I interact with people and it helped me to
become more pro-active and self-confident. Rather than um … to keep quiet about
things and let things take its course. It made me question a lot of things in the
organisation and things I thought I had no control over um … I realised that I need to be
able to take control of it now. I think before … I felt like indebted to people, like to my
colleagues, and all of that. However, now I realise it’s actually a give and take thing. So
there’s no way I’m going to make exceptions for people um … as I used to do. Because I
felt so overly indebted for everything they were doing for me. Um … that was over and
above what colleagues would do for a sighted person. Very often, I think people in the
workplace, because they’re so reliant on others for certain things, because even where I
need to meet and greet others, I am completely reliant on assistance to socialise and
interact with people around me. I think I’ve realised that I need to have this open door
communication with my team. The coaching came at the right time when I was in
transition with new assistance and team members. It was just um … a matter of trying to
establish the best sort of systems in working with each other at the time. Coaching
challenged me on how to maintain my enthusiasm during stressful work situations um …
I found something that worked um … it was to laugh about something else taking my
mind off the stressful stuff.
P4, QSSR, CN
Um … I think in terms of quantifying the value of coaching um … experienced during the
research study, means my answer will describe the most valuable steps during the
study, up to the last session. Initially, I reacted with ambivalence when the assessment
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feedback mirrored to me the typical cycle in my manner of how I was dealing with new
things in my life. It was like a revelation to, um … acknowledge a theme in my life how I
used to communicate um … with others. I tried to accommodate others without setting
boundaries beforehand. Um … then, when I didn’t like what I experienced or my
accommodation was not sufficiently appreciated, um … or taken too much advantage of,
I started to over-react in a forceful way and um …, then people experienced a serious
backlash from me. Then um … I realised I might have been too harsh and then I used to
retaliate and apologise for my reaction, and try to um … reconcile a way to move on and
find my way back. For so many years this theme um … has been a big deal and, I could
not understand why I tend to rub people up um … the wrong way. I now understand that
I have been too accommodating, I have been over-committed; I have tried to please, and
um … and then decided “No, I’m not playing along anymore”. I think um … in my
leadership style it has translated into me not saying um … upfront what I was thinking
and leaving other people to talk, until um … they unexpectedly met with stiff resistance.
The coaching and my hard work on the reflection side has shown me that I need to try
much harder to break the might of this habit; um … also if I wish to please someone, it
needs to be purposeful. Um … I realise when I want to help others, I have to deal with
the consequences coming um … along with the commitment of offering my support. I try
now to be a better listener and a better communicator by asking more questions even
when I am in fact trying to make a statement. Moreover, from um … today’s perspective,
I hold no idea about the fact that initially I wanted to back out after the feedback
interview. It was um … an extreme experience then. It was um … very scary then. To
explain the value of the coaching um … experience, is that I really started enjoying to be
upfront with people whether it is with a question um … or with a statement. It now works
for me. I can’t explain how happy I am being more balanced um ... in my approach. I
have um … really been reflecting and thinking about this business; it was real good for
me to um … discover through the coaching and the reflection um … the impact of the
wrong kind of way how I used to um … accommodate other people in my life.
P5, QSSI, CN
The second research question determined the interpersonal communication strategies that blind
participants employ when “sending and receiving” information. In order to interpret the question it is
useful to refer to the second research objective, which is about gaining a better understanding of
the perceived value that participants derived from the coaching facilitation.
Based on the participants’ above-mentioned narratives, it becomes clear that the participants need
“to have a voice” to ensure equal recognition and acknowledgement than their sighted peers.
South African legislation has paved the way for equal rights among all people. However, these
rights need to be exercised. The narrative by P1 metaphorically describes the way people
influence one another; how the interpersonal communication constructs of open communication,
empathy, interpersonal openness and inspirational leadership impact personal learning, team
working and organisational governance. As a result of the coaching and reflective practice, P1 has
confirmed the value of coaching in employing interpersonal communication strategies and
acquiring a recognisable “voice” in future. The narrative by P2 described changed behaviour as a
result of the coaching intervention within the self-awareness cluster; mainly addressing emotional
self-awareness and accurate self-assessment. The mentioned constructs cross-match with social
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awareness and relational management during interpersonal communication. P2 mentioned how
the researcher as coach took on the role of “risk manager” on behalf of a blind participant exploring
opportunities that provided experiential learning during the coaching phase. In this context, “risk
management” served to protect P2 from potential physical or emotional harm.
This coaching partnership confirmed that blind business participants are dependent on other
people with empathy and compassion whom they can trust with their personal learning and
professional development. Participant P3 narrated the value of coaching in support of a natural
inclination towards reflective practice. According to P3, it is about bouncing off ideas with others
while taking cognisance of others’ perspectives and input. P3 utilised the coaching to find a
different way of transferring enthusiasm to members of the team. During the sessions it became
clear that a person’s inherent abilities and skills remain undisclosed and non-communicated until
the “receiver” is prepared and ready to accept the “message”. Therefore, this finding confirms the
importance of uncompromised information when “sending” and “receiving” messages during
interpersonal communication. The narrative from participant P4 confirmed a pre-coaching need to
adjust leadership styles through changed policy strategies. Similar to the expressed needs of P1,
P4 needed to find “a voice” reckoned equally by sighted peers within the organisational structure.
During the coaching phase, P4 experienced a transition within her team composition at work. She
described this as ideal time to experiment with ways to communicate with newcomers in a more
assertive way. This finding confirms the ability of intrapersonal communication competence to feed
into interpersonal communication.
Participant P5 described a “quantum leap experience” resulting from the coaching intervention.
The finding confirms the value of coaching in identifying life-long hampering habits, and the power
of an experiential coaching methodology, also referred to as Kolb’s Cycle of Experiential Learning
(Kolb, 1984), allowing the coachee to take up a challenge that delivered positive outcomes in
changed behaviour, personal insight and achievement orientation.
4.6.7
Suggested guidelines for coaching blind or visually impaired business leaders
This research assignment inspired and motivated the researcher to undertake a global search for
research with similar aims, research questions and objectives. After searching for similar scholarly
articles for a period of 18 months, it appears that this research topic remains understudied. The
reason for including a question on suggested guidelines for the future coaching of blind and
visually impaired business leaders is the opportunity for the participants to formulate guidelines
based on personal experience. Participants willingly shared from their own perspectives on the
coaching goals and from their own perspectives:
Um … as human beings we are Jack of all trades, and masters of none. When we
receive coaching we become experts, um … we become experienced and we become
um … involved. So I would say coaching makes one to be a complete “being” because
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you then approach life and situations according to what they are and according to where
those situations um … how those situations manifest themselves. We must remember
um … the sky is endless in whatever we strive to do. In the workplace, you are thrown in
deep water. Um … you ask and nobody answers. Older colleagues say “we found out for
ourselves” or “nobody gave me that info”. It is very um … important to know how to
relate um … with new colleagues and coaching will um … serve up to that expectation.
The part of non-verbal um … communication in the coaching helped me understand um
… to learn to communicate better. For all my years um … I have been anxious inside,
and now I started using my hands and my face also to speak for me … um … this I
learned from the coaching but I will practice um … much, much more.
P1, QSSI
Um … the fact that the coachee cannot see, possibly to just remain cognisance of the
fact that they cannot see, um … might be one of the attributions related to their area of
struggle. But it may actually have nothing to do with their abilities; um … so a certain
amount of discernment is required to understand um … almost see it like there is … ah
… I want to give a really practical example. Think of when one strains or puts content
into a colander um … then there is some leakage and it’s almost like bringing one’s
whole “being” and situation into a container. Um … there is some leakage and some of
that leakage has to do with one’s perceptions based on one’s visual impairment, but not
all of that is related to that. Um … I don’t think that coaching is a forever and ever thing. I
think that if I’m encountering a challenge, then coaching can offer me somebody to be a
sounding board or help me unveil my own “blind spots”. I think coaches and coachees
can get to the point where you become self-indulgent and find a resistance in oneself.
Um … some resistance is about feelings that one is emotionally not ready to go to
places that are sometimes hard to go to. Sometimes it can be hard and taxing and
draining … and there is a time for it, ja. I think coaching needs a schedule for a
contained period, like twelve sessions, or whatever number of sessions and then both
coaching partners go away and the learning must come out. From my own reading on
coaching, it can get to a situation where all you are doing is concentrating on your “own
being”, and I want to mention the importance of balancing the inward-looking with the
output looking; to um … be observer to one’s own inward-looking. I think, um … the risk
is that one can become too much of own “inward-looking”. I think one needs the
emotional energy to work with one’s “blind spots” which can be taxing and draining.
P2, QSSI
Um … to think of guidelines contributing to this process … um … I would always
recommend reading and questioning as a way of life not just during coaching journeys.
One must be curious and inquisitive um … learning to hate the principles of “not
knowing”. Then coaching will play into the need of blind and visually impaired persons
for adding value to their experience of receiving the coaching.
P3, QSSI
Um … I think possibly not only for people who are blind or visually impaired. At the
beginning, I had no idea what coaching is and what I could achieve from coaching. I
learned that a focused mind could change the journey into many directions. One must
um … not be opposed to changing things that don’t work … to volunteer for a task that
might be beyond one’s perceived capability is how we learn. We need to be willing to
make the best of every situation. I believe I am only learning from experiences.
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P4, QSSI, CN
Um, through this coaching experience I can see, um … that the potential to be more
successful at things can come forward. I must add that in my experience, successful
people are not particularly good at describing the reasons for their success. They simply
don’t know. They may be um … good at identifying habits that have suited them well or
helped them. Um … they may be honest and say they have had to work hard, but I have
yet to find an entrepreneur, or a sports player or a musician who could account for their
talents. It um … might be different if you then assess them with an objective coaching
tool to include more of their sub-consciousness … um … I’m not sure. I would imagine
that each process develops its own dynamic. I would not presume to um … to suggest
differences in other coaching projects, which may be completely irrelevant to my context.
It just seems to … um … like it’s not something I would want to make my business to
recommend some guidelines. I would like to say to keep the coaching customised and
personalised as we um … have done. It worked very well for me.
P5, QSSI, CN
All participants contributed towards formulating suggested guidelines for similar coaching projects
in future. Although their answers were authentic and supported the question, the analysis and
interpretation indicated fairly wide and shallow projections, almost as if the participants preferred to
stay within the “secure space of their known territory” based on their own experience. One possible
interpretation is that the participants voiced an opinion on what was familiar to them, lacking the
courage to suggest innovative ideas outside of their own familiar boundaries or lived experiences.
P1 suggested that people are Jacks of all trades and that they could become masters of some
trades by utilising coaching. P1 thinks metaphorically, referring to “the sky is the limit” and being
“thrown in the deep end of the water” when starting a new job, thus dealing with interpersonal
openness and eagerness to establish rapport with colleagues. As a change catalyst, P1 projects
an innovative approach and willingness to experiment with opportunities that might arise. P2 also
used a metaphor to project the idea of what happens when blind persons fully expose themselves
in a situation; such “leakage” could reflect an aspect beyond the control of both the coach and the
coachee. This could serve as ideal coaching topics. P2 continued with practical suggestions on
finding a balance between how much coaching could be absorbed and allowing enough time to put
the learning into practice. P2 referred to her own emotional “blind spots” in reference to the
literature in Chapter 2, section 2.4.1, on “emotional blind spots”; also characteristic of all humans,
not only blind or visually impaired persons. Once again, according to Rostron (2012:94):
All humans have blind spots. Further, it is the responsibility of the coach to help the
coachee in identifying their blind spots. It is noteworthy that Rostron does not seem to
differentiate between physiological blind spots and emotional blind spots. Evidently, the
context of the textual narrative implies the latter. Coachees need to learn how to identify
and engage with their “emotional blind spots” through enhanced self-management …
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Both P2 and P4 referred to the time aspect of a coaching journey. The analysis and interpretation
of their narrative data indicated a “seasonal approach” where both coach and coachee should
protect the experience if it turns out to be not the ideal time to be fully engaged in or focused on the
process. Both referred to the coaching guidelines in terms of an inclusive society, which included
blind and visually impaired persons, in order to value to human diversity. P3 confirmed a serious
consideration to include reading and interactive questioning in every coaching process. Therefore,
should a coachee not be inclined to reading (Braille or Daisy access), the coach should consider
such behaviour an ideal area for changed behaviour and personal development. P5 answered the
question from a more distanced perspective, unwilling to impose his own preferences as guidelines
on situations that might contextually be completely different from his experience. Yet, P5 offered
personal interest in the reason for the behaviour of highly successful people. It appears that from
P5’s own enquiries or “research”, no dependable answers have satisfied his quest to solve this
curiosity and interest. P5 suggested a coaching assessment as a possible alternative way to clarify
the strengths and potential development areas of those people considered highly successful.
Should P5 find a satisfying answer to the raised question, it might reflect his default inclination to
act as a change catalyst at work and elsewhere by possibly passing on “the secret behind highly
successful people’s successes”.
4.7
BLIND BUSINESS LEADERS AS RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
Drawing from the literature review in Chapter 2, Saerberg (2015:583) contended that “blindness is
a lifelong journey with sighted partners; those who look, see and share”. Sighted partners need to
describe what they see without including their own perceptions or interpretations in order to allow
blind individuals an opportunity for personal impressions and imagination. If more detail is required,
the blind person will duly ask for more information. Such a partnership remains a negotiated space
of “give and take”, allowing for optimal interpersonal communicative engagement. A detail-sensitive
description should be that and nothing more. In addition, the value of a description of a single word
might be more powerful to the receiver than a comprehensive ill-detailed description. The next
section informs the reader on the blindness experience of blind business leaders.
4.7.1
In personage as blind business leader, WHO am I being?
According to the South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC, 2015:27), research has
shown that persons with disabilities, contrary to prejudicial beliefs, do make good employees. What
are the traits that make persons with disabilities who they are? Research by the SAHRC confirms
that persons with disabilities have personal traits that are valuable competencies at work and in the
social environment. These traits include initiative, perseverance, adaptability, goal-orientation and
problem solving. These are also the likely characteristics that people with disabilities need to
develop to overcome barriers to their success in their everyday lives. The five participants
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described their perceptions of who they are as blind business leaders, summarised from
triangulated data sources:
I think my blindness has shaped my character. Um … I am what I am and who I am due
to my blindness. I wouldn’t have, um … I think achieved what I’ve achieved, um … if I
was not blind, um … and also it makes me um … to be a unique person. So um … that
is how relevant blindness is in defining who I am as a whole person. I am an acclaimed
expert in my field as a professional and as a leader, um … but I have to work twice as
hard as sighted persons to achieve the same and I’m battling to understand how others
perceive me; I’m battling with how different people um … see different things in the
same object. I am telling myself the life of a disabled person can be very complex. I am
um … a strong person.
My blindness marginalises me, making me also vulnerable. I am judging myself, thinking
um … I don’t do it as good as sighted people … and then I start to question my visual
perception, asking myself um … “If I was sighted …?” I know as a leader um … I’m best
to develop other people in um … my team and other teams. I am not advocating for
special treatment, but resources should be available um … on an equal basis to help me
perform my work properly.
P1, QSSI, CN
To me, um … the question is in what way are each one of us different to the other, um
… my visual impairment um … does not define me at all. At all is the wrong word. It does
not define me in total. Um … an attribute that can’t be dismissed; but, um … that counts
for all situations. So … um … my blindness um … can be a hindrance in certain
situations and it … probably had enhanced my spirituality to some extent … um …
because it certainly has been the reason why I had spent more time on my own than I
think I would have if I was sighted. So, it is finding that inner peace as part of spirituality.
And um … also to some extent I think it certainly has contributed to my ability to have
insight into people generally speaking because um … of how people respond to me
based on my blindness even before they get to know me as a person. I think blindness
handed me an obstacle and therefore caused me some human suffering and um … I
think that without that experience of woundedness I might have had less compassion
and less insight and less understanding for others who suffered similar experience um
… or discrimination. I am curious to know how blindness moulded my character … depth
doesn’t come cheap. Even so, blindness also strengthened my character in so far as
perseverance and um … more stamina and possibly enhanced my creativity. I have to
um … find best ways of solving problems outside using a manual. At times, I wonder
where I would be in the world if I could see. I am a professional intelligent person in a
leadership role, but I had to work much harder than my colleagues to achieve what I
have achieved. So, in um … that respect I ended up exceeding my own expectations um
… possibly exceeding the expectations of others for sure. It is um … a constant assault
on my sense of self-confidence, so … it affects one’s being; um … it completely does.
P2, QSSI, CN
I think you get two approaches by blind people to their blindness and to their lives. Um
… those who like to minimise what blindness is in their lives and those who perhaps take
it to the other extreme. I’m not at either of the extremes. Um … blindness is a defining
characteristic of my life, not the defining characteristic. Um … I’m in a leadership
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position, I’ve certain intelligence, certain knowledge, certain skills, certain ambitions, um
… certain activities past, present, hopefully future. Um … the fact that one is a blind
person does influence every aspect. Due to my blindness, sources of information are
harder to access. I am able to live my blindness without being emotional about it. Um …
there are frustrating times, there are times of longing that I wish um … I could have seen
something. Um … but I’m usually described as somebody who doesn’t get excited or
worked up. Regarding my character and competence, um … I am confident in myself, I
do influence situations, I listen well to others, I am persuasive and persistent in my
approach to achieve and accomplish. I am naturally curious. Further, I am selfdisciplined, very punctual and very private. Sometimes I am too tolerant though I readily
place my trust in other people until I have personal proof of untrustworthiness.
P3, QSSI, CN
I think it is very relevant. It shapes um … how I work, how I live, how I interact with
people. I think I am less socially confident than my sighted colleagues are. I think um …
the fact that I am blind does influence my social confidence to a degree. I miss visual
cues. Um … it depends on how um … comfortable I am with particular people um … that
enables me to be myself and um … ja … just to let me be myself and not be inhibited in
any way, like um … in the coaching, and each situation is based on my perception of
how other people see me. I am always cognisant of other people’s feelings; I am um …
a leader because my colleagues come to me for advice and inputs that mean that they
know that I can speak up for myself. I am an activist for disability rights issues both
nationally and internationally. Um … in different ways I’m keenly involved in voluntary
work for disabled people’s organisations.
P4, QSSI, CN
I think that um … for me being blind is central to who I am and maybe worth saying that
at a young age I tried very hard to avoid it as an issue by trying to live my life on the
basis of that it was irrelevant. Um … I now know that was a mistake for which I paid a
very high price um … I now know that it is central to who and what I am. Blindness has
determined every step of my life and it has um … it has had a big influence on who I
ended up being, and I think that the only difficulty that I now have is actually how to know
when what I experience is in fact not attributable to my blindness. In my career I am very
lucky to be in a leadership position at work; I would have felt equally lucky for such
opportunity if I was able to see. I am not at all socially confident because the lack of eye
contact makes it very difficult for sighted people to communicate um … with me.
P5, QSSR, QN
In describing themes and patterns on who they have become and how blindness was defining their
“being”, participants explained the “I am” characteristics.
All participants (P1-P5) held leadership roles at work. P1 and P2 were of the opinion that they
became professional experts and leaders in their respective fields because they had to work twice
as hard as their sighted peers, which secured senior managerial positions for them. Even so,
maintaining pride in their work, all participants except P3 indicated a lack of self-confidence and
social confidence despite their leadership competence. Self-confidence is one of the selfawareness constructs that are dependent on successful self-management within the intrapersonal
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communication domain. See Appendix I for findings on the cross-matching between intrapersonal
and inter-personal communication competencies, as part of the preparation data. As mentioned
before, this study acknowledges the influence of intrapersonal communication constructs without
including any possible outcomes or findings related to intrapersonal constructs.
P1 felt emotionally vulnerable because of marginalisation as a blind person, battling with selfconfidence due to fluctuating “messages” of acceptance by colleagues; adding the wish: “… if I
could see …” P2 confirmed being blind “influences my self-confidence as ‘being’, wondering …
where I would be in the world if I could see”. P4 reported, “I am less socially confident;
blindness influences my social confidence … I miss visual cues …” P5 pointed out, “I am not
socially confident … lack of eye contact complicates communication with sighted people”. P3
mentioned, “I am confident in myself … however, I do experience emotions loaded with a longing
to see …”
Regarding a relevant perception of blindness, P1, P4 and P5 were of the opinion that blindness
has fully shaped and defined their lives to the extent of who they have “being in becoming” as
adults. P2 and P3 declared that their blindness as ‘a’ defining characteristic of their lives but not
‘the’ defining characteristic. Evidently, from initial resistance to acceptance of the overall influence
of blindness on their everyday lived experiences, while listening to themselves and arguing their
answer to the question, P2 and P3 concluded that blindness was an omnipresence affecting every
aspect of their lives. Hence, during the qualitative semi-structured interview (QSSI), P2 and P3
seemingly made a shift in their self-awareness.
4.7.2
In personage as blind business leader, HOW am I being?
Sapir (1927:556) explained the cause of humankind’s behaviour as widespread, if not universal,
“… in accordance with an elaborate and secret code that is written nowhere, known by none, and
understood by all”. According to Pentland (2010:210), “Our research suggests that people’s
behaviour is much more a function of their social network than generally imagined”. Pentland
(2010) further reported that research demonstrates that people’s immersion of “self” in surrounding
social networks is part of the typical human condition and not an exception to the rule. Individuals
are strongly susceptible to the influences of peer group behaviour. In the following narratives,
participants elaborated on their interests and opinions that informs HOW they mostly tend to
behave, summarised from triangulated data sources:
Um … my worldview determines how I experience life. I see a metaphor like um … there
are always waves, um … I compare life’s turbulences with the waves of the sea. During
hype of activities it is like the big waves, um … as a blind person I must overcome the
challenges like from big waves to smaller waves on the beach um … that is calmness
before the next um … big waves. The sea is full of different creatures and um … plants.
It makes me think of my own development in different um … areas. My endeavours must
be endless. Our lives have many opportunities um … it is up to me to work at every
opportunity and to work on my potential, um … the sea never stops; it is also, um … our
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endeavours never stop. I learn from others and um … I give to others. If a miracle
becomes um … available to return my sight, I will not consider that. I mean, for me, um
… I’ve missed so many things. I tell people this reason um … which many find it funny. I
say I know beautiful people um … in my life. I believe they are um … beautiful and I
don’t want to see them. Because maybe what I believe in um … might be something
different in reality. I just want to believe um … my own belief. Imagine if I see those
beautiful people, and I start seeing other more beautiful people, what would happen then
[laughing] … um … that is true! I need people to assist um … me. I ask people to
describe what they see and observe um … on my behalf and explain. Obviously um … I
would use um … imagination if needs be. I am not fond of sleep; there is a watch, um …
in my brain that does not synchronize with day and night um … as sighted people
experience that. When I need to get um … work done, I prefer to work on my own; it’s
best at night when other people rest.
P1, QSSI, CN
Maybe um … the worldview or model I’m working with is not focusing on what I cannot
do, but on what I can do. Because I’m not expecting to judge my environment based on
what I can’t see, I compensate by working with what I can recognise with my other
senses like tasting, hearing, touching and smelling. Um … I think to some extent I might
have psychologically compensated by telling myself that what I don’t see is not
important. Also that some of what I don’t see I would rather not see even if I had sight.
For example I don’t want to see a dead animal on the side of the road. I’m glad I can’t
see that. And as a result there are things that are probably beautiful that I miss out on.
However, I can hear the birds and I don’t focus on what I can’t see. It is as it is and I’ve
worked with what I can. I can only focus on the things that I can change and I need to
know what I can’t change. Um … but it doesn’t make me less curious. If I were to be
given the opportunity to see again, if there was an operation tomorrow I would take it to
see, but in the meantime there is not an operation. Just to think of it, such thought
doesn’t come without anxiety. The anxiety would be um … I think how much of what I’m
not able to do presently is really, really and truly related to my blindness and how much
of what I can’t do is really what I don’t want to do. Or that I wouldn’t be able to do even
with sight. Um … would I then feel inadequate because I was not able to do it even with
sight? So, it’s not without its own anxieties. Maybe visual things are not as I think it
should be. My blindness affects the way other people see me aesthetically and
cosmetically; I never know how others perceive me; they would not tell the truth just not
to hurt my feelings. I know blind people looks vacant; as if there is vacancy in our eyes,
even with facial expression, we look solemn. When I was young, my family was
embarrassed by my blindness. Living in a sighted world makes us frustrated by our
schooling condition that has suppressed our behaviour into normal social behaviour
without teaching us how to socialise. Um … our interpersonal communication obtained
many shades of grey. How much explaining is needed to be just oneself? An interesting
phenomenon that I can’t explain happens very often. When I walk into a room with
strangers, persons from other ethnic groups than myself immediately reads that I can’t
see. They pick up on something that is different about me. Blindness is um … a form of
diversity; we do have shared assumptions with sighted people. Although it remains a
subjective experience for every individual, all persons have uniqueness and
commonalities. Blind people rarely do “small talk”; they cut the crap and get on with the
interaction. Every decision also leads to unintended consequences. When I want to get
work done, I prefer to work on my own.
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P2, QSSR, CN
Sometimes strangers can be very intrusive, um … I recognise it but it doesn’t annoy me.
Um … if people ask a personal question like “how did you lose your sight”. Blind people
mostly don’t like that question, it is very personal. I can either deflect it; I don’t want to
disclose everything that’s very personal how I’ve lost my sight. Looking at this situation
from another angle um … maybe it’s an opportunity to be interesting to other people
[laughing]. Sometimes it leads to a collegial bond or a friendship. The fact that I’ve
respected their curiosity. Um … or I can use it as an opportunity to inform them about
blindness and how things normally work in my life. Um … I find it’s wise sometimes to
take the initiative and not wait for people to come forward to offer help or to do things for
me. Rather take the initiative and ask for what I want. I take the lead. Like if somebody
assists me at the airport and they’re not doing it very well, I show the right way. They can
learn. And, um … I combine that with a friendly disposition. In my experience, blind
people tend not to ask each other how they lost their sight. It’s very rare to find people
doing that. We do hold that blindness means extra expenses in life. Um … transport
would be one dimension. Um … I have to hire help and pay people to do certain things
for me. If I were a sighted person, I would probably be more into trying doing things
myself than paying others to do it. Shuttle services are very expensive. Blindness, um …
I’ve lived my life as a blind person. It’s my way of life, how I do things, the way I’m seen
by others and my family. I don’t think that would be an easy transition to see again. I
have once asked Ray Cerswell when he thinks blind people would be able to drive cars,
and he said round about 2030. Well, driverless cars are already on the road and um …
and I um … expect to drive one at some point.
I love working alone; it helps me to complete tasks more effectively and I’m persistent in
getting done what I set out doing in the first instance.
There is a scientific phenomenon that blind people’s biorhythms can be problematic. I
may struggle to synchronise my body clock, also called circadian rhythms unless I keep
to a strict and disciplined personal schedule.
I do not do “small talk”; I want and prefer structured experiences. I prefer the semistructured interview to be as structured and predictive as possible. I will elaborate with
detail. Another preference is that sighted listeners must not elaborate with more detail
than what my question deserves.
I’m trusting until proven wrong. That’s a saying I often use. Lots of people do it the other
way round. Um … they don’t trust somebody until they are given enough reason to really
trust. For me it’s the other way round. I trust until otherwise proven wrong. I don’t doubt
people until they disappoint me. I place a high value on trust, and in my professional and
private life, depend on other people. If they let me down I’m disappointed and sometimes
hurt as well. But one gets over it as well.
Amongst persons with disabilities, we have an unwritten code of conduct. For example,
one of the unwritten codes is not to stand up during a meeting when also attended by
persons in wheelchairs. Everybody else in the meeting then remains seated.
I find my busy schedule stressful and I do experience anxiety; I try to manage it well.
I sometimes dream that I can see and when waking up blind, it is very upsetting
emotionally; that is understandable.
I live on the competitive edge, with a very strong desire to complete tasks on par or
better than my sighted peers.
P3, QSSR, CN
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I definitely have to compensate psychologically for never seeing anything. Where I have
to compensate in my behaviour and how I process things, is with people I don’t know
and with people who have misperceptions about disabilities. I have to compensate
around people who have no idea about what to expect from a person with a disability. I
catch myself over-compensating to show my capability and that I’m able to do what
needs to be done and that I’m not clueless or brain dead because I’m blind. Um … even
people in my ExCo believe they know everything about persons with disabilities, but they
don’t know how to socially interact with me in the same room. They might address my
assistant instead of talking to me. That makes me feel like I need to start overcompensating. That is a result of me being unable of doing eye contact. That was one of
our coaching topics on how to communicate with my up-line, and I have started taking
charge of the situation. It might not be tactful and it will not be diplomatic, but it needs to
be done without putting them on their back feet or making them feel bad. I am going to
say “Hold on, hold on …. speak to me, do not speak to someone else on my behalf”.
Blind people do understand the lack of eye contact causes a big problem. Eye contact is
vital, body language is vital. I have to rely on sensing when they complete their
sentences not to fill in wording at the wrong places. It is a bit difficult to know when
people stop talking whether they are thinking about what next to say, or not. Otherwise,
we have this wide silence hanging in the air. If you allow people, they will carry on with a
good old monologue, only because I’m not filling in. It can cause awkward situations,
making me very much on edge when I’m in a meeting with someone who doesn’t
understand the cues or don’t get the cues, or I don’t pick up their cues. So I have to be
so alert to also look for the cues and what cues I give and what cues they give. I much
rather need to concentrate on the content of what I’m saying. Such situations make me
think more than I need to [laughing]. It’s very hard work!
Sometimes people don’t know how to greet me, but nowadays I take charge of it. If I
greet a sighted person, I will stand up and put my hand out in the direction of that
person’s voice and say, “Hello, pleased to meet you”. If two blind people need to meet,
we sort it out in our own way but it looks very funny to other people. The worst thing is if
sighted people put their hand out and I’m not taking their hand since I cannot see it. So
it’s the best if I stand up and put out my hand.
If I can get an opportunity to see I will definitely take it. I’m just thinking of the amount of
independence that will give me to be able to get into a car and drive myself. Certain
things I just need to do myself; I am longing for independence. If I can see I would be
much more empowered and I would be able to do much more than what I’m currently
doing. It’s unfortunate but my vision loss provides me with terrible limitations. I cannot
deny it. I can be as good as other people. But the fact is that I can be better than other
people if I could see. I have no doubt in my mind about it. You know why? I can see the
limitations that I currently have that are caused by my blindness. If I did not have this
limitation, I would be where that person is.
I have learnt to live with my lot so to speak. That is because my lot isn’t that bad. Ok. I
think if it was worse I would be more frustrated. It is frustrating because I know what my
brain can do and it is frustrating to that extent. But um … I have other possibilities based
on my competencies, I have potential and certain challenges, but it remains my
challenges and my limitation. For other people it might be illness, lack of money, and
other hardship.
In dealing with my anxiety: I look like a calm person. However, I’m always anxious. I
have been trying to manage anxiety for a long time; I am not as afraid anymore. I always
have to compensate since I don’t know how others will react on my speaking or
speeches. It is a known fact that many anxieties relate to blindness and visual
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impairment. If I could be less afraid, it will make me more self-confident, it will keep me
more relaxed, and I will be able to concentrate on the outcome rather than on the fear. If
a stranger needs to guide me I have to make sure the person knows there should not be
obstacles in the way. I need to teach them how to guide me, saying “Let me take your Rarm and I will follow you”. It is difficult if the guide is not perceptive.
I rely heavily and to a great degree on my intuition.
How I make my own signature is to use a credit card as a guide. I love this
independence in producing my own signature on documents.
P4, QSSR, CN
I don’t know to what extent I, um … what are things that I do to compensate for not being
able to see. It’s therefore a mystery to me how I compensate. I think there is a control
issue here, but it’s just my theory, since things I cannot see is very hard to control. I
suspect that I use power to structure my environment. I think that I’m most effective in
situations where I exercise power and other people have to conform with my
expectations because I don’t really think I know how to conform to other people’s
expectations. I have experienced other blind people who are happy and extremely
effective in their secure environments, but when they land amongst others in strange
environments, they may easily fall apart and act introverted and disoriented. When I saw
that happened I realised for the first time in my life what a potentially universal mess this
really is. Um … Ja, I think that’s about the most honest answer I’ve ever been able to
respond to this question.
To think about ever regaining my sight, no, no, I don’t think so. I cannot again put myself
into um … an environment that I don’t know what it would be like, how it will be and
whether it will be um … an over-stimulated environment. It might take me years to learn
how to function as a sighted person. I don’t think I actually have the um … courage to
even think about that.
When it comes to stress and anxiety, I do not share my stress with others at all; not
consciously at any rate. Being under pressure is very isolating, and if minor things “get
on my nerves” how could they be minor? Minor things do occasionally irritate me, but I
have worked very hard on that to be able to concentrate amongst noise and busy
surrounds. I do not think in visual terms and it seems that some sighted people never
notice that behaviour of mine. When it comes to relations, I accept that people will drop
me; I am not trusting towards people. I associate myself with many innovators.
Throughout my life, I have known many of them. I have even looked up to some authors,
composers and musicians, but most importantly, I have looked up to ordinary blind
people like myself who have taught me how to be blind.
Kindness must be one of the most fascinating characteristics in people. At various times
I have depended a lot on the kindness of others. Consequently, I have thought about it a
great deal. I can say that I have had much kindness shown to me and I think I know a
little bit about it by now. The fundamental characteristic of truly kind people is their lack
of sentimentality. They do kind things as if their kindness is no big deal and as if the
needs they meet in the process are no big deal. They do what they do because they
think it is necessary, not because they feel guilty or patronising or out of a need for selfjustification.
Sayings that I often and freely use might be “You are now completely wrong” and “I do
appreciate your concern, however it is not an issue…”
I find it very irritating when sighted people address someone accompanying me, instead
of talking directly to me. I know it is because of a lack of eye contact. From experience,
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there are limited sighted people who would just engage with a blind or visually impaired
person. In conversation with others, my way is to keep to short questions and shorter
answers. I refrain from using gestures however, I do concentrate on how I feel about
how others perceive and experience me. I am troubled by the fact that I do not recognise
people. It is like a fear for prejudice or being harmed by the fact of not being able to
recognise people. It seems like a fear that cannot be neutralised. I am better off knowing
about this lack of ability to recognise people and um … I actually concentrate on what is
happening around me.
If I allow myself, I could develop a form of paranoia about how bad it is to be blind. How
does one decide on pro-activity in order to look good, feel good and impress others? I
am not a circus ape. Where is the neutral ground? It is really not simple, however there
is nothing for me to do about it. Many people often used to think that I was cross due to
the lack of facial expression. I feel I have to behave in a particular manner since rituals
provide a form of emotional security. I feel most confident in structured, predictable
situations both at work and at home. Home tends to be more predictable but work is
neither always unpredictable. The more structured the environment, the more
comfortable I become. As in the interview as well; I am not comfortable with open-ended
questions.
Blindness; blind people don’t discuss their blindness with one another. It is a status
thing. Each blind person thinks s/he is unique and wishes not to admit the consequences
from struggling or suffering from being blind. It is also a boldness thing I think that for
blind people it is the last thing to admit when in trouble. A lot of status is attached to how
effective ‘one has made it in the sighted world’. I am worried about the lack of eye
contact; I do obsess about it. I might over-estimate the importance of eye contact.
However, I don’t think so. I need to reflect on this as a coaching topic in future. I need to
obtain an integrated idea of how to compensate for the lack of eye contact. It is hard to
accept my blindness disability. At quite a mature age in my life when I started to realise
to what extent people use their hands and gestures to communicate, it was a huge
shock to me. I do realise that different people would use different gestures for the same
meaning.
P5, QSSI, CN
An analysis of In personage as blind business leader, HOW am I being? identified the following
themes and patterns for interpretation:

Blindness coping and managing styles

Personal preferences, self-preservation or contempt

Anxiety, fear and pressure

Prospects of regaining sight: mythical perspective.
4.7.2.1 Blind participants’ coping and managing styles
Participant P1 described a personal worldview in the form of a metaphor, comparing life’s
turbulences with the waves of the sea. Hyped activities are like big waves while smaller waves
bring calmness. A blind person needs to overcome significant challenges and manage everyday
events. The waves of the sea never stop. Likewise, humans should always use every opportunity
to develop their potential.
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P2 described a worldview that revolved around actual accomplishments and achievements, with
lesser focus on what could not be done or accomplished, relying on the senses of smell, touch,
hearing and taste. She is aware that she uses psychological compensation to cope with blindness,
labelling the unseen as unimportant though with the emphasis on knowing the difference between
“need to know” and “want to know”. This attitude of P2 reflects emotional self-awareness, also by
stating that blind people look “vacant” as if with “no presence” in their eyes. Facial expression does
not change that vacant look in the eyes. P2 continued describing how the family was embarrassed
about her blindness as a child; adding the frustration caused by schooling conditions that
suppressed learners’ behaviour into “normal social behaviour” without teaching blind learners how
to socialise, not even in a “differently functioning way”. P2 commented on the fact that members
from different ethnic groups mostly realised P2’s blindness upon entering a room; however, not
people from P2’s own ethnic group. This confirms that human experience remains subjective and
that every person has uniqueness and commonalities with others.
P3 pointed out that strangers could sometimes act in an intrusive way by asking personal
questions like: “How did you lose your sight?” Not getting annoyed easily, P3 usually deflected
such questions or used them as an opportunity to inform and educate ignorant people about
blindness. P3 and P4 indicated how to manage awkwardness around blind persons and sighted
persons by taking the lead and initiating behaviour when greeting people, and also by showing
people the correct way to guide a blind person with a right-arm elbow or offering a right shoulder
for leading. P3 referred to extra expenses caused by blindness, like paying for transport, hiring
help and paying for extra services. P3 and P4 mentioned a strong preference for living on the
competitive edge with a very strong desire to complete tasks on par or better than sighted peers.
P4 noted how facing strangers lead to over-compensation in showing capability and competence
equal to sighted people. P4 may be inclined to act threat sensitive, believing in proving ill-informed
people wrong about their assumptions of blind persons. P4 and P5 confirmed levels of irritation
with sighted people who address someone else on behalf of them in their presence instead of
talking directly to them. Such behaviour by sighted people gets ascribed to the lack of eye contact.
P4 and P5 acknowledged the influence of lack of eye contact and the lack of body language during
social interaction with sighted persons. P4 described experiencing frustration due to the limitation
of blindness but she has learned to live with this challenge.
P5 cannot explain how to compensate for blindness except managing it through controlling the
environment, using personal power to influence situations. P5 said he was most effective in
situations where others needed to conform to his expectations, being unable to know how to
conform to other people’s expectations. This statement by P5 may confirm a form of manipulation
and intimidation, even though unconfirmed. P5 described other blind persons’ experience when
removed from a familiar environment to unfamiliar territory, causing disorientation and introverted
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behaviour by blind persons. In managing relations with others, P5 was of the opinion that people
would drop the relation, causing P5 not to trust others.
4.7.2.2. Participants’ preferences, self-preservation or contempt
P1 reported sleeping difficulties and no fondness of sleep as a result of experiencing ”a watch in
the brain” that does not synchronise with day and night. P3 confirmed this, referring to a struggle
with synchronising the “body clock”, unless keeping to a strict time schedule for going to bed and
getting up. Sack and Lewy (2001:189) pointed out:
As totally blind people cannot perceive the light-dark cycle (the major synchroniser of the
circadian pacemaker) their circadian rhythms often “free run” on a cycle slightly longer
than 24 h. When the free-running sleep propensity rhythm passes out of phase with the
desired time for sleep, night-time insomnia and daytime sleepiness result. It has recently
been shown that daily melatonin administration can entrain the circadian pacemaker,
thereby correcting this burdensome circadian sleep disorder.
Participants P1, P2, P3 and P4 indicated a preference for working alone to concentrate better and
working more effectively. P1 confirmed the preference for working at night when other people are
asleep.
P2, P3 and P5 confirmed contempt for “small talk” and a preference for dealing with objective facts
only. Such behaviour limits the risk of “information overload” resulting in factual derailment. P3
strongly prefers people in conversations to answer only a question without providing unnecessary
input. P3 and P5 preferred structured experiences, indicating that the Qualitative Semi-Structured
Interview (QSSI) had to be as predictive as possible regarding time management while not
allowing open-ended questions.
P3 stated that blind people mostly do not like answering questions about their blindness because it
is personal. In addition, P3 and P5 confirmed that blind people tend not to ask each other how they
have lost their sight. If such a discussion arises, it would be a rare conversation. P5 referred to the
competence of blind persons as a status symbol. Blind persons think they are unique; they do not
wish to admit struggling or suffering from being blind. Such descriptions should include a blind
person’s level of boldness; success “out there” reflected to what extent “a blind person has made it
in the sighted world”.
P3 described an unwritten code of conduct among persons with disabilities. An example is not to
stand up during a meeting also attended by persons in wheelchairs. Everybody remains seated at
the meeting table. P4 expressed a strong longing for independence and independent functioning,
referring to the limitations brought about by blindness. P2, P3, P4 and P5 were proud of their ability
to add their signatures to documents by either using a credit card as guide or another selfdeveloped technique. Such actions contribute to blind people being self-empowered and
functioning independently. P5 confirmed not ever thinking in visual terms; also, that sighted people
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seem not to take note of P5’s way of thinking in non-visual terms. P5 associated with many
innovators, having looked up to ordinary people who have taught the “ways of being blind” to P5.
P5 acknowledged the kindness of others, defining the fundamental characteristic of truly kind
people as their lack of sentimentality. They do kind things because they think it is necessary and
not for self-justification. P5 argued from experience that a limited number of sighted people would
just engage with a blind or visually impaired person.
4.7.2.3 Participants’ anxieties and fears
P2 was anxious about the possibility of regaining sight in future; weighing up the pros and cons on
both sides: being blind and being sighted. Feelings of anxiety also pertained to how much of what
P2 was not able to do could be related to blindness and how much to no desire to do so. Feelings
of inadequacy were also mentioned: If something is not doable by a blind person, is it also
unachievable by a sighted person? Both P1 and P2 reflected on the fact that visual things might
not be as they foresee them to be. P3 reported that busy schedules caused stress and anxiety. P3
mentioned another form of emotionally upsetting and anxious experience, namely dreaming about
being a sighted person, only to face the reality of being blind when waking up.
In dealing with anxiety, P4 and P5 claimed looking calm although always experiencing some level
of anxiety. The cause of the anxiety was linked to the perceptions of others about P4 and P5’s
performance, talking, making speeches and having “to give of self” in situations. This indicates a
potential need to develop “self-awareness” on the constructs of self-confidence and emotional selfawareness. P5 reported never sharing anxious emotions with others. P5 also confirmed how
isolating a pressurised working environment could be. P5 explained feeling troubled by an inability
to recognise people. It may sometimes become a fear of prejudice by others – a fear that seemed
resistant to neutralising. P5 became aware of other people perceiving him to always be cross due
to his lack of facial expressions.
4.7.2.4 Prospect of regaining sight: mythical perspective, or not
P1 indicated that if a miracle becomes available to return sight, it will not be considered, realising
that current reality might not be objective. He preferred to preserve his own perception of what
people and the world might look like. To instil current reality, P1 depends on descriptions and
explanations observed by others, including the use of his own imagination when appropriate.
P2 confirmed being a curious person, and showed a willingness to take an opportunity to
regain sight should this become medically possible.
P3 stated that blindness is a form of identity for self and others. He therefore doubted an easy
transition into a sighted world.
P4 indicated if ever an opportunity arose to regain sight, she would definitely take the
opportunity; describing the benefits of independent traveling.
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P5 declared unwillingness towards possible future opportunities for regaining sight due to the lack
of courage in contemplating such prospect.
The next section explores workplace lived experiences of blind business leaders.
4.8
WORKPLACE LIVED EXPERIENCES OF BLIND BUSINESS LEADERS
Stout-Rostron (2014:66) pointed out the following: “The value you take out of your coaching
sessions depends entirely on the thought and the energy that you put into it.” This research study
explored blind business leaders’ understanding and experience of coaching within the
organisational culture (thinking processes and emotional experiences) and the impact of coaching
on their behaviour. Business coaching may include dealing with topics about organisational
governance, the business culture, diversity and transformation. Business coaching informs
relationship management by exploring leadership competence, team behaviour and client service.
Most organisations pride themselves on their local and global influence as part of organisational
goalsetting. One fundamental business question, mostly susceptible to informed direction, is
establishing what might systemically be working well, less well or not at all, and may therefore be
in need of change. Business coaching serves as a thinking partner within an organisation for the
development of human potential in serving the organisation. This section considers the research
participants’ workplace lived experiences conjointly with the coaching phase of the research study.
4.8.1
Service orientation
Um … aspects of my work that I look forward to is supervising my team, um … and the
design and development of workplace programmes that respond to um … the need of
our country. I contribute to um … the development and growth of my organisation um …
directly for the benefit of clients, and um … it puts me on a platform where I can um …
interact with individuals as um … to be a liaison between clients and top management.
P1, QSSI
I look forward to a negotiated space of giving and taking at work. I look forward to mental
stimulation and um … to a sense of reward by getting a job done. My role in delivering a
service includes working with colleagues, meeting objectives, learning and developing
within myself and influencing processes getting work done on my desk. I find it most
rewarding to be of service to clients, colleagues and the organisation.
P2, QSSI
I know my competencies enhance the organisation’s service delivery. I’m managing a
system through interaction with people. Um … I’m always searching for innovation,
doing things in a new way or a different way, aiming for a better of best way to make a
difference. I know it is a cliché, however much of what I do makes a difference in the
working environment that eventually filters down to ultimate client service.
P3, QSSI
I do look forward to my working day for delivering on my service agreement with the
organisation and the things I look forward to most at work is to obtain set targets. But it’s
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about much more; it’s about accomplishing those set targets and to engage with different
departments. I have to manage many projects in parallel and um … the results influence
the organisation on many levels. Eventually the clients benefit from all the hard work by
my team and me. The outcomes are not visible to us whilst working on the projects but
that accounts for most people in organisations.
P4, QSSI, CN
Um … I look forward to everything at work. Um … I do a lot of academic work that is
very interesting. I enjoy both demands; the technical and academic side and the people
side. I manage my team and I enjoy the interpersonal contact with a very pleasant team.
I’m in the fortunate position that people need my guidance and the nature of that
guidance means that my leadership position is almost created by our professional
circumstances. I enjoy seeing people develop; there are things at work to look forward
to, knowing that the performance of my team positively influences the organisational
system as much as it influences the clients.
I think business people are the most gullible breed in the world and they are almost
childish in their adoption of new trends. They love to think they are keeping up with one
another by saying empty things like “industry has to change” but I think change is going
to happen and it will be profound and it will take us all by surprise.
I also think that trade unions are right if they say industry has to change. There is no
mutual respect and the results are not easy to guess. Therefore, with the best of
intentions to deliver the best of service, the business sector needs to change ahead of
forced change.
P5, QSSI, CN
All five participants confirmed a positive attitude towards their roles in their respective
organisations. Service delivery demands the ability to establish and maintain relationships with
internal and external clients on all levels. The quality of service delivery puts clients at ease,
promotes harmony and facilitates consensus through tactful handling of differences and potential
conflict. The organisation needs to create client-orientated strategies and systems.
The chain of demand for all the participants (P1 to P5) includes interaction with top management,
up-line and down-line management, team members and clients. A systems approach within an
organisation alerts employees on all job levels of their respective role responsibilities. In order to
meet set targets, participants need to realise the importance of working intelligently, optimising
opportunities to step into leadership roles by overseeing the development of human potential. P5
reported a personal reflection on how the business sector approaches change by either actively
embracing transformation or by postponing the activation of change for as long as possible.
4.8.2
Inspirational leadership
Actually um … during my time at school we never had something called career
guidance. So, it was out of my own curiosity, out of my own research um … and
influences by other um … people that led me to choose my profession. We have got the
Mentor-Mentee Programme at work. When my organisation launched it recently I only
found out um … during the first meeting through an announcement that I … was the
coordinator of the programme. I don’t know whether I should have cherished the
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announcement, but um … it came to me um … unexpected. It is a big um …
responsibility. I know um … that I’m equal to the task, I never expected such leadership
um … opportunity since I’m not that long with my organisation. I am um … effective and
efficient in what I do at work. It’s no secret, everybody um … sees the importance of
working as a team, having common goals and vision and helping um … each other and
motivate each other. But my group is um … lacking spontaneity.
People need to um … make an effort um … it takes courage to work together and
participate in group dynamics. I can benefit from um … reflecting on how to change
things from now on forwards to do things differently. The organisation um … cannot
benefit if our belief systems remain the same. Maybe um … I need coaching on how to
deal um … with colleagues who may suffer from um … professional jealousy, and
causing um … resistance to change. I need to find um … a way for them to become
inspired.
P1, QSSR
Um … experimenting with leadership principles already begins at home and at school.
Unfortunately, my school for the blind did not prepare me for taking up a leadership role
in the workplace. As a school leaver, I had very limited career options. The majority of
pupils were encouraged to become switchboard operators. In fact, they insisted that I
prepare switchboard operation training, which I did. I had no choice. That phase was
not empowering or supportive at all. I experienced the same attitude at school as the
average person from society, which is that blind people are limited.
Luckily, another avenue opened up, and allowed me to study and further my studies to
post graduate level, and to follow a professional career. In my career, I have been in
several managerial and leadership roles, which I thoroughly enjoy. As a leader, one is
expected to provide guidance, chair meetings, do presentations, that sort of thing. I
enjoy it when I’m facilitating a group of people’s attention onto a topic, or onto
objectives, goals or facilitating reflective conversations.
P2, QSSI
Upon leaving my school for the blind, there were six potential study courses and career
or occupations to follow. Other blind people have shown success in those domains:






Law
Physiotherapy
Social work
Piano tuning
Telephonist-switchboard operating
Teaching of special needs pupils
The aptitude tests then pointed me in the direction of what had worked for other blind
people, not pointing to my own potential. It was a rare thing for a blind pupil to strike out
into a new direction that other blind students had not explored before.
I was lucky to be able to study within my skillset and competence that led me to
leadership positions in the workplace. There is more choice today to school leavers and
there are many reasons for that with global change regarding demand and supply and
the business sector believing in the abilities of blind persons, much more than ever
before. In my work and in the community I often find myself in a leadership role, having
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to chair or lead a process. I feel complimented and challenged, um … I always see it as
a learning opportunity to give of my experienced learning and take from the learnings of
others.
P3, QSSI
Um … at school they did Career Counselling with us. I don’t believe you actually know
what you’re getting in when you decide to further your studies. University studies and all
the theory is actually very far removed from the practice of what needs to be done at
work. That was a way of preparing me for taking on a leadership role. I don’t think one
can ever, ever, be totally prepared until you’re actually thrown in the deep end having to
do the work.
To become a leader in one’s field, you need to have a picture in your mind. Even if it’s a
very idealistic picture of what you want to become, you establish goals, long term and
short term goals and one needs to plan on how to achieve those goals. It included many
challenges, but challenges bring opportunities and breakthroughs that you must be able
to grab when it comes your way, otherwise you’re going to miss it if you only focus on
limitations. One needs to take charge of your life. This is how one becomes a leader in
your field, knowing your subject and having an ability to facilitate others.
I am a leader in various NGOs, sitting as chairperson and executive member on different
boards for the advocacy and awareness raising of people with disabilities. I have
delivered papers at international conferences. I am building my reputation in my field
globally, but I am not a political figure. I do excel as a leader when I can drive projects; I
need a desk where I’m in charge and push it forward according to highest standards. I
want the 10/10 experience as a leader.
To convince others of my ideas, I give them a lot of detail, spelling out the pros and
cons. When they understand my pitch, they are more likely to accept it. As a leader I
have to make unpopular decisions as well. I am still happy with my decisions and don’t
allow others to side-track me on those issues.
P4, QSSI, CN
Um … my school did nothing for me at all. I, um … made my own decisions about what I
wanted to study after school. What I think, what I have to say in my school’s defence is
that they didn’t think what I wanted to study was a good idea, but they kept that from me.
They did not try to discourage me and they did not make alternative suggestions. My
career choice held the potential to become a specialist in my field, to be a leader and
also to become an expert leader. I think there are now more blind people who are
university graduates in this country than there have ever been. If those qualifications are
directed at becoming specialists and taking on leadership roles, I have hope. I consider
myself a follower rather than a leader. It’s as if I think of myself as someone who
absorbs the ideas of others and sometimes implement those ideas even better than their
originators.
There is no doubt that my personal preferences have a bearing on my leadership style,
organising patterns and risk tolerance. Before I can begin to think how others experience
my leadership role, I must be able to understand what my own preferences are and what
they are not. I need to be able to understand how others experience me as a leader.
One must ask the right questions, and within my leadership role, I have not been doing
that enough.
P5, QSSI, CN
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Inspirational leadership competence might show that a leader has proven potential and capability
to positively influence others in pursuing a specific course of action or vision. The inspiring
dimension indicates the change-oriented behaviours that allow the leader to consistently and
authentically inspire and motivate others to share the vision of the group and the organisation.
Inspirational leadership implies the display of transformational leadership qualities.
Participants P1, P2 and P5 embarked on tertiary studies after school without having received any
specific career guidance. Their choice of study depended on their own curiosity and own searches
for information. P3 and P4 have received career guidance at school, however, only in terms of
what careers seemed to have worked well for other blind individuals. Their own abilities, skills,
interests and opinions seemed irrelevant in the process. Career recommendations based on
hindsight are now considered as an inappropriate approach. How can blind pupils make informed
study and career choices based on the successes and failures of others gone before them? P5 is
of the opinion that currently (2015-2016) there are more blind people with tertiary qualifications
than ever before. This statement holds the promise that blind persons will be able to apply their
qualifications and leadership potential in a welcoming job sector. In this regard, the researcher
wishes not to claim that advanced career guidance will guarantee successful study and career
choices; however, the purpose of career guidance is to identify potential leadership strengths and
the extent of academic and personal development areas. Career guidance should also take into
account market-related demand for specific careers and the leadership opportunities within those
careers.
The narratives of all five participants showed that they excelled against many odds to become
leaders in their respective senior managerial roles. Their unique approach to leadership and team
facilitation identified them as inspirational leaders based on their dedication, commitment to hard
work and courage in using the opportunities bestowed on them.
4.8.3
Team working
We were developing a program recently. The person who was facilitating the process
was a renowned specialist in my discipline. Afterwards, um … he wrote an e-mail to top
management to say: “If myself (P1) was not part of the team, we wouldn’t have um …
gone thus far. Thanks to the person’s (P1) ideas and so on.” For me I found that um …
acknowledgement to be rewarding. It makes me feel that I’m treasured. Um … it makes
me feel that um … I contribute to individuals, the team and organisation.
P1, QSSI, CN
In the corporate sector, I find it most rewarding to make a difference to the organisation
itself, or my department or my projects. To deliver projects on time within budget um …
that tells something about the team effort. To me it is most rewarding to contribute
significantly to the lives of team members either through what the organisation does,
also through people in the workplace. Problem solving, learning new information,
processing that information into knowledge, those aspects build the team’s coherence
and concerted efforts. I do lead the team by example, um … through hard work,
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perseverance, curiosity, um … openness to experimenting with different outcomes,
openness to calculated risk-taking. I have to be patient with my group, knowing that I’m
going to be different like an oddity, functioning as a blind leader amongst a sighted group
of colleagues.
P2, QSSI
Currently, I’m in a strategy formulation team. When we sit down for meetings, every
person in the room is from a different culture, a different background, a different job and
it’s just a lovely mix. When I am chairing, we always end on time; I am very strict with
time management. I always look forward to team projects for learning from
knowledgeable and intelligent people that have experience in their fields and know
exactly where we ought not to go to deliver a successful project on time and within
budget. What I bring to team projects is the principle of learning through repetition of
crises situations. It has served many projects in good value.
Another aspect to mention is that a sighted chairperson can see everybody in a meeting;
as a blind chairperson, I need to manage intuitively through sensing observation by
drawing in people that refrain from participation. This means that I need to ‘read’ the
people in the room, listen to talkative persons’ agendas and I have to think and act
strategically to create team objectives, credible planning according to regular revisions of
the team or project plan. Another principle I relay to team members is to keep the
chairperson unsurprised, preferably at all times.
P3, QSSI, CN
Um … ja, we had to go on a training course which is for senior managers where they
teach us um … a lot of problem solving and other soft skills. We were divided into
smaller teams. And I picked up that a lot of things that other colleagues were struggling
with, I was able to work out. It became um … clear that my team counted me to be very
valuable to them. Ja, they needed me as much as they needed to assist me by reading
the exercises. They were more than happy to do so because they knew they could count
on my input. And … our team did very well in the end.
Also, I’ve organised a national event in my organisation as a team experience which was
particularly rewarding. It was great to see that everyone enjoyed their different roles and
everyone contributed to the success of the event. Everyone felt like a part of the
process. As I was the leader of the team, it made me quite happy that everyone else had
an enjoyable experience; moreover, that the event was a success and enjoyed by all.
When I agree with someone’s ideas in a meeting, I support it and also give facts and
information on why I think that idea will work; I give substantiation and motivation for my
way of thinking.
P4, QSSI, CN
I don’t think of myself as a team player, therefore I don’t usually think of things as team
experiences. I need to consider that I have solved very few problems on my own.
Working in isolation is impossible. I think the real issue is what advantages an inclusive
approach has over an exclusive approach. Conventional wisdom is that an inclusive
approach provides more perspectives and wisdom. I think inclusive approaches are the
norm. If they slow you down and make problems harder to solve because finding
consensus is more difficult, the price is worth paying. I do try to adjust my behaviour
according to the group I am with however I don’t always manage well.
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I think that there are little positives all the time. People helping people that you see,
people helping me, I have experienced. To say that I’m not a team player is really
another way of saying that I try not to get too concerned about the “team”. We’re going
through a very difficult period at work and there are all sorts of reasons for it. When
people are working under constant stress, they just lose control and take it out on other
people. But such periods also subside and people then manage themselves differently. I
think that our team has a lot of latent positivity that confirms the quality of the people in
the team.
We have team building exercises of Human Resources nature. Issues in the team are
stress and pressure, and the need for diversity training. We need to learn how to relax
with each other that should positively affect our work performance. I cannot say I have
ever resolved a single situation by “going by the book”. It used to be a form of
institutional behaviour that aimed at order not at justice.
P5, QSSI, CN
Participants P1, and P4 described team experiences when their specific input was invaluable to
their groups. Their intellectual contribution distinguished their teams from other teams. From then
onwards, they became sought-after team members. P2, P3 and P4 reported the importance of
delivering team projects on time and within budget, relaying such achievement to the quality of the
team’s work and characteristics of the team members.
P3 mentioned the advantage of adding a specific experience to a team’s problem-solving
approach, namely “the principle of learning through repetition of crisis situations”. This implies
avoiding what did not work before and building on successes from the past. P3 indicated a different
approach as a blind leader to chairing meetings or addressing groups: the need to “read” the
people in the room, to listen attentively and to cognitively process the content submitted by the
group in order to set up future goals and objectives. “Reading” others as a blind leader calls on the
use of the remaining senses and listening with “a third ear”. (Refer to Chapter 2, Section 2.4.6.1, in
which Rosen (1998:59) described a similar phenomenon: “While you’re listening to what a patient
is saying, with your third ear listen to why they are saying it.” As such, it offers a way to
communicate with others in extended surroundings by using oneself as a “third-ear tool”).
Participant P5 mentioned experiencing some degree of ambivalence in thinking of himself as “a
team player” while he also mentioned an element of struggle when trying to solve problems on his
own. P5 acknowledged the inclusive approach that provides for wider input, more perspectives and
wisdom by others. P5 seemed to have trouble with being flexible to adjust according to “their way”,
maintaining a strong individualistic approach and preference for having things done the “P5 way”.
P5’s level of self-assessment indicates advanced reflection on self-awareness that may, in part, be
stemming from the coaching phase during the research study. This is an unconfirmed assumption
made by the researcher.
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4.8.4
Workplace reasonable accommodation of blind business leaders
Some of my colleagues are not um … experienced in working with um … persons with
disabilities and they are not given um … the information on how to deal with blind
colleagues. I think um … lack of information um … and their interest um … might be the
culprit here. An example would be that um … there are colleagues who doubt my ability
and we were in a workshop. Some thought that because I’m blind I will not contribute.
Um … they were surprised that I was contributing and um … from then, onwards they
wanted me to be in their groups. Like for me to function effectively I need an assistant.
Some colleagues um … interpret that as I am trying to be special by having a PA. They
simply don’t um … understand the way I work to excel and be effective.
P1, QSSI
I would say, um … the average colleague does not have the time, patience, inclination
and interest in supporting a blind colleague. They actually try to do their own work. My
general experience is that I have not found colleagues that helpful in the past. I have to
be able to work independently and do my own thing. To rely on colleagues is almost
unfair and it can damage relationships. There are isolated cases where colleagues are
prepared to be helpful, but they are working within their own job profile and they very
seldom step out of that. Their background, culture, language, diversity, education and
more, influences the way employees “show up” at work. All legislation is in place
regarding the employment of persons with disabilities. It is up to the Human Resources
personnel and top management um … to implement strategies that best benefit the
organisation and the disabled employees.
P2, QSSI, CN
My career puts me in work environments where people embrace diversity and the
organisation gives me a sense of security and stability. Um … my impression is that um
… we are increasingly reverting to a polarised society. Um … I think Census 2011 tells
us that blind people on employment level, is very high and there are more of us in work
than the other disability groups. That has something to say about our education, our use
of technology and our attitude towards our responsibilities at work.
P3, QSSI
Um … ja, I think there’s a lot of ignorance. At first I could not get a job in the open
market due to my blindness; despite the Disability Act and being highly qualified. The
organisational sector still clings to a stereotyped model of disabled persons by asking:
“How can a blind person manage?” People are ignorant. I could be working in any
organisation if offered an opportunity.
Um … some colleagues are ok … um … it all depends on what kind of special needs
exposure people have received before. I can immediately see that. Some colleagues
interact ok with me, while others can’t. It’s um … once they get to know me a little bit and
all of that, I think they ease up a little. It’s more ignorance and misperception rather than
the fact that colleagues are totally averse to association or helping or whatever the case
may be. I do find that some colleagues are a bit over friendly sometimes, and I get
colleagues who don’t say anything at all.
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Some would greet me “Hello-eee, P4. How are you? Tra–la-la-la-la”, but they will not talk
to other colleagues on the same seniority level as me, like that. I then speak to them the
way they speak to me and let them believe that it’s ok [laughing]. I can speak to anyone;
I have no qualms about that.
In my organisation, no annual performance appraisal has been done; therefore,
everything I have done in my work performance goes without any acknowledgement. I
am responsible for Knowledge Management and Strategic Planning and I assist by
facilitating strategic planning workshops and meetings. Also, I assist by consulting and
negotiating with organisational stakeholders. It seems not to reflect anywhere, but I think
top management is aware of my work.
P4, QSSI, CN
I think some of my colleagues are not as accommodating of diversity as they could be,
but they do their best. I think my position is different. It presumes people’s issues and
sense of diversity down the food chain. I’m senior to most of my colleagues and
therefore I do not experience their um … their problems with me if they have any. I think
they keep that away from me if it exists at all. Um …, so I don’t have issues at work that
relate to the fact that I cannot see. I’m also very lucky with my up-line manager that
seems to have absolutely no issues with me at all; I think colleagues take their lead from
this person. If my up-line manager happens to be away and someone else needs to step
into that space, they all seem to be doing it quite comfortably.
P5, QSSI
Regarding reasonable accommodation of blind business leaders in the workplace, participants P1,
P2 and P4 have reported experiencing levels of ignorance about blindness and visual impairment
while working alongside sighted colleagues. P1 ascribed this to a lack of information or interest by
those ill-informed colleagues. P5 reported no bias towards blindness disability at work. P2 and P3
argued the ethical boundaries where employees need to comply with their service-level
agreements as first priority and if time allows, then reach out in support of colleagues with
disabilities. Every employee is responsible for independently delivering on work performance,
whether disabled or not.
P4 indicated having experienced a form of over-compensation by some colleagues in the way they
greeted her. She referred to the greeting as aggravating and unnatural behaviour. P4 mentioned
greeting back “in the same way” as if to “meet colleagues where they are” and not where P4
happened to be, figuratively speaking. Both sides then seemed to overcompensate,
communicating in an unnatural way. P4 had not undergone an annual performance appraisal since
taking up the senior managerial position that is counting in years and not in months. Therefore,
officially no records reflect P4’s work output, pro-active problem solving approach, initiative and
more. Until appropriately addressed by the organisation’s Human Resources department, P4 will
be in a disadvantaged position in terms of workplace acknowledgement.
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4.8.5
Universal disability models
My view is that um … sometimes we as disabled people, we abuse the affirmative
model. The social model is developed for inclusivity. Um, my view is that the medical
model to me is wrong. Um … because, um … it’s all about fixing the problem. Um, if
someone is blind um … in order to be acceptable you have to make him see. Um … he
who is hard of hearing or deaf, you have to make him hear. The moral model um … for
me, applies to everyone. We need to be a society of high morals. These apply to
everyone, so on that one um … I’m OK.
P1, QSSI
I am not inclined um … to throw the baby out with the bathwater. I truly believe there is a
place for each of the models, however context related. I support the social model
because it is based on the person’s lived experience and it holds the philosophy that you
are only disabled amongst persons without disabilities. For instance, I’m not disabled
when it’s just me and other blind people. However, one can neither generalise across
the disabilities. For if I’m with a deaf person, we are both disabled by one another’s
limitations. The medical model is more inclined towards occupational therapists,
psychotherapists, opticians, psychologists, whatever. Um … there is a place for all of
those specialised practitioners in the medical model. Where I object is when an OT
(Occupational Therapist) holds an attitude of knowing better about the disability than the
person presenting with the disability. That can devalue the experience of the disabled
person.
The schooling system used to buy into the medical model approach. Pupils were
hammered to remain as still as possible – we call it “blindism in people”. When one’s
sight is impaired, the body seems more still. It was a conditioning, a shameful thing to be
disabled in those days.
P2, QSSI
Um … yes, in my thinking I mainly engaged with the medical and social model. So we
moved from the medical model that emphasises impairment and addressing impairment,
treatment and rehabilitation, to the social model that says that um … it is societal
attitudes and the structure of society that disables us. Therefore, by creating a disabilityfriendly society, disabilities could be ameliorated. From my perspective, the social model
equals a rights model. It’s a view of disability in a context. A rights model is a matter of
rights to have access to information, good education, employment and all the rest.
P3, QSSI
Um … yes, the moral model is a charity-based model where volunteers felt that it was
morally right to help people with disabilities because they were less fortunate than them.
It’s very disempowering, almost like the person with disabilities wants handouts.
The medical model focuses on impairment, like if you need glasses to see better, you
obtain it through an optometrist as a function of the medical model. You still need your
glasses, the wheelchairs, crutches, all of that.
The social model alerted society to change completely in order to become an inclusive
society and it became the rights-based approach where disabled persons may exercise
their equal rights according to law. The social model does not only incorporate persons
with disability, it’s much wider. The medical model and the social model are inter-twined.
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The affirmative model could be called the entitlement model where disabled persons
believe they are so entitled to just getting everything on a silver platter without having to
work; or they present with the ‘please help me’ sort of attitude. That cannot work in South
Africa, and nowhere. It does not instil self-respect.
P4, QSSI
I think that this model building business is a form of denial. I think that um … being blind
is a fact, and I think that people who, who, construct social paradigms within which to
view and understand their blindness are really resorting to blame other people for their
problems, and I have no time for that whatsoever.
P5, QSSI
According to the SAHRC (2015:13), “The medical model of disability says people are disabled by
their impairments or differences. The social model of disability says that disability is caused by the
way society is organised.”
Participants P1, P2, P3 and P4 agreed with the aforementioned quotations. The medical model
and the social model serve opposite ends on the continuum of protection for people with
disabilities. According to the SAHRC (2015:12-13), over the past 30 years a more prominent
international awareness of human rights and human needs has caused a shift in emphasis from
the medical to the social model of disability. This shift has prepared the way to have disability
recognised internationally as a human rights debate that led to the endorsement of Article 1 of the
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD: 2006b) by the United Nations (UN).
Some out-dated and unfair labour practices of the medical model of disability are still globally
present. It causes disadvantages within the health and welfare domain by assuming that solutions
are needed to “cure or manage” a disability. P2 pointed out that blind and visually impaired school
pupils suffered through the medical model. Pupils needed to remain as still as possible, a condition
called “blindism” in people; school personnel “hammered” the pupils into this behaviour.
Sight impairment causes the body to be less expressive, inhibiting non-verbal communication, also
because of the institutionalised conditioning under the medical model approach. P4 referred to the
moral model stemming from state intervention and bestowing charity on persons with disabilities,
forcing most into disempowerment and dependence on non-disabled persons, or into begging. P1
referred to the moral model as a necessary model in society, based on the need for high morals in
society.
The social model of disability states that society “causes disability frameworks”. The manner in
which the physical and social environment influences societal attitudes excludes impairment or
difference. This model concentrates on strategies to remove these attitudinal obstacles or barriers.
P2 pointed to persons’ lived experiences as depicted by the social disability model, holding the
philosophy that one acquires the criteria of disability when among persons without disabilities. As
an example, two blind persons together remove the disability status of both. However, one blind
person in the presence of a deaf person retitles both as disabled by one another’s limitations.
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Society, therefore, needs more information on how to accommodate everybody, based on equal
rights.
Persons with disabilities developed the social model of disability because the traditional medical
model did not explain their personal experience of disability (refer to Chapter 1, Section 1.8:
Nothing about us, without us) (Charlton, 2000:16; Rowland, 2012). P3 and P4 referred to the social
model as a rights model, giving access to information, good education, employment and
independence.
P4 pointed out that the affirmative model does not instil self-worth and self-respect for persons with
disabilities. The affirmative model, also referred to as the “entitlement model” or “please-help-me”
model correlates with the previously known moral model. Participant P5 held the view that disability
models do not serve blind persons on any level of natural development.
The last section under “workplace lived experiences of blind business leaders”, analyses the
participants’ narrative responses on the use of Assistive Technology (AT) and devices.
4.8.6
Assistive Technology (AT) and devices
Gurubaran and Ramalingam (2014:342-343) explained that people today are much more
concerned about inventing new aid to help blind and visually impaired people to function
independently. Over and above computer-based AT, the authors offered more examples of existing
Assistive Technology (AT) and devices like GPS location information, RFID-based systems to aid
the blind in grocery shopping, Smart Canes to assist blind people in obstacle avoidance, devices
with ultrasonic sensors and ultra-sonic sound helping users to detect objects at a distance through
vibrations. The list of globally available devices for blind and visually impaired persons is growing:
I hold a positive attitude towards AT and devices, because um … these devices foster
inclusion. They foster productivity um … they foster involvement, however, the only
problem with us who are blind or visually impaired, assistive devices are not um …
produced locally. They are very … very … expensive. So we tend to lag behind other
colleagues, technology wise, because of um … affordability problem and the fact that the
majority of the devices are imported from other countries.
In my organisation, as an example, we um … have an impractical policy regarding AT for
blind and visually impaired employees. I need to submit three quotes from um … BEEE
companies and as mentioned, the devices need to be ordered from abroad because it is
not supplied in South Africa. If I um … submit a request, it is e-mailed from one um …
top manager to another. The governance makes things not to work well. They should be
more considering, but they say um … my request should be revised. Revisions might be
done, but they want the work to be done as in NOW. So, um … for the next financial
year I will be suffering. I am not satisfied. I need someone to persuade top management
because I need to know when to expect an answer. We have an Employment Equity and
Talent Management Committee, but I was told um … to remind top management again
of my request.
P1, QSSI, CN
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I am completely and 100% in favour of AT. It changed my life. It has given me access to
the world … um … a great leveller. It is hugely enabling, and in fact, not only for blind
and visually impaired persons. Speed-reading technology and recorded material has
evolved to such extent it has such a huge consumer base like persons with dyslexia,
autism and other learning difficulties, including illiterate persons globally. Levelling the
playing field with technology for blind and visually impaired people has potentially made
a difference to society as a whole that includes the elderly suffering from lower visual
ability. AT has made um … the world more accessible. The more users, the more it
becomes commercially affordable.
P2, QSSI
AT makes an enormous difference to us as blind people. It has changed our lives. It
gives us the ability to do things that we simply couldn’t do before. It is an essential part
of our independence and I embrace all the technology I can find and afford.
P3, QSSI
I think AT and devices are the most empowering um … thing for people with disabilities.
Without technology um … you will never be able to excel. Whatever you’re able to excel
on, you’ll do ten times more with technology. Sometimes you become so reliant on that
technology that you don’t sharpen or ensure that your other skills are maintained and to
a certain extent that could be a bad thing if neglected. Like for instances if you rely so
much on AT and JAWS** or assistive reading you don’t want to read Braille any more.
It’s another story in itself. It’s a balancing act. As a blind person I have to remind myself
to sit up against the chair with my shoulders backwards. Sometimes I get so focused on
what is being said electronically, that I forget about my posture. I’m most comfortable in
that position. When I’m looking at the screen, I am not like sighted people looking at
anything off course, I am actively LISTENING, mostly with my head down.
P4, QSSI
**JAWS (64-bit) is a computer screen reader program that allows blind and visually impaired users to read the screen
either with a text-to-speech output or by a Refreshable Braille display. It features talking installation, two multi-lingual
speech synthesisers, fully compatible with MAGic screen magnification software, and formatted basic training in text and
audio. Available: http://download.cnet.com/JAWS-64-Bit/3000-2056_4-75578648.html Accessed: 2015-12-27.
My response is that all technology is assistive. Whether it is an egg lifter, or um … bread
knife, a white cane, or a dog. I have never heard of technology that does not assist
people to do things that they could not otherwise do. I have no issues with technology.
P5, QSSI
Participant P5 argued that all technology serves an assistive role, enabling people to do things
never thought possible without technology. Out of interest, the researcher would classify a guide
dog (whilst working) with other working animals like horses, elephants, donkeys, snow dogs,
carrier-pigeon and oxen – in service of humans in some form or another. This example is an
expression of co-habitation between mankind and the animal world.
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All participants reported the benefits of AT and devices, with specific reference to improved
productivity at work, inclusive involvement indicating social awareness and relational management,
the benefits of speed reading as a time-saving tool, the multiplication factor of covering enormous
amounts of work in a different way and many more. P1 indicated the inclusive role of AT and
devices while reporting on the practical downside experienced by blind and visually impaired
persons who are based in South Africa due to high import costs of already expensive devices.
P2 referred to AT and devices as a “leveller medium”, enabling blind and visually impaired persons
to function much more independently than before. P2 also mentioned the benefits of AT and
devices to persons across the disability spectrum, including the aged and illiterate persons. P3 and
P4 were in full agreement on the positive contributions of AT and devices. P4 commented on the
importance of managing “a balancing act” in terms of using AT and devices as overuse could be
detrimental to people’s health. P4 pointed out the importance of maintaining a healthy posture
without slouching while listening to and concentrating on content produced on a computer screen.
Assistive devices have served mankind since the beginning of time. However, specialised AT and
devices for customary purposes like those used by blind and visually impaired persons could be
considered in a league of their own. Without the assistive technology used during the recording of
the semi-structured interviews, none of the transcriptions would have been possible; possibly
resulting in a compromised and sub-quality form of analysis and interpretation of participants’
valuable contributions to this research study. This example confirms the appropriate use of
technology in support of interpersonal communication, drawing on the constructs of open
communication, team working, interpersonal openness and innovation, compared to the lack of
such technology some years back. The next section explores participants’ interpersonal
communication.
4.9
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
A typical advertisement for a communications manager reflects core intrapersonal and
interpersonal communication competencies as requirement for Key Performance Areas (KPAs):
COMMUNICATIONS MANAGER – Example of job advertisement
Peromnes Grade 7
Raju (1998:112) refers to the Peromnes job evaluation methods as “a technique which seeks to promote the
objective of ‘fairness’ by evaluating one job against another to establish their relative worth.”
Key Performance Areas (KPAs)
• Communication research
• Facilitation of member seminars and shareholder functions (face-to-face communication)
• HR relationship maintenance and HR training
• Contextual counselling, coaching, mentoring and facilitation
• Internal and external professional written and aural communication
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• People management
• Overseeing of elections for members of the Board of Trustees
• Annual budgets and financial management
• Corporate governance
The purpose of including the above advertisement underlines an awareness of the influence of
interpersonal communication competencies on the workplace performance of every employee
(evidently among thousands of different job profiles). (Refer to Chapter 2, Table 2.2: Social
awareness competency cluster and Table 2.3: Relational management competency cluster.)
The focus in this research study was on the core interpersonal communication competencies,
clustered under social awareness and relational management, in relation to the potential role of
coaching to strengthen the interpersonal communication competencies of blind business leaders.
With reference to Chapter 1, one of the research questions in search of truthful findings was: “What
interpersonal communication strategies do blind participants employ when ‘sending and receiving’
information?” The rest of this section explores participants’ interpersonal communication
experiences based on the coaching outcomes during this research study.
4.9.1
Authentic communication
Authentic communication reflects as “all-inclusive interaction” between speaker(s) and listener(s)
using appropriate fluency and silences, verbal and non-verbal messages. All-inclusive interaction
provides for ethical conduct, personal perspectives, mannerisms and communication during crises;
therefore, referring to the “who” and the “how” during interactions.
4.9.1.1 Perceptions of research title
During the interview, participants offered an opinion on the first part of the research title, namely: A
beacon in the dark.
Um … blindness is perceived as um … um … darkness. For me, the first part of the title
means um … we are … putting um … measures in place to ensure that darkness um …
disappears by bringing in light. So I think … it is a good title.
P1, QSSI
It doesn’t resonate with me at all. However, taking note that we um … have the title from
a sighted perspective and also from a blindness perspective. Um … from a visual
perspective it sounds like a life raft or something that is shining light on a beacon in the
dark. Um … from a blindness perspective it is something in the line of hope I suppose.
Darkness for me is despair, or evil even. I get it now, um … it actually means shining a
light on a blind spot in one’s mind, or bringing in more enlightenment. Coaching should
be empowering in dealing with our blind spots and in that sense, um … it should be the
meaning for me then.
P2, QSSI
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I think it says it well. Although in the blind community we are um … very careful to
selectively use the metaphor of light. Sighted people don’t understand that blind people
don’t live in darkness; we live in a world devoid of light. It’s not the same thing. Um … it’s
a good title and I think it’s positive.
P3, QSSI
I think, um … in the light of all the challenges I face, I can say ja, … that coaching is a
vital part that could help me overcome some of the obstacles with some self-realisation
on how to handle things going forward. The title um … reminds me of that process.
P4, QSSI
I have no issue with it accept that I wondered what that was supposed to mean. So I’m
saying that I’m used to that type of terminology. I don’t think it is as appropriate as
people think it is, but it then may be perfectly a good reason for using it for ideology; I’m
not adverse to it.
P5, QSSI
Participants’ opinions on “A beacon in the dark” represented a normal distribution ranging from
common positives to hesitation about the title. Participants P1, P2 and P3 referred to the
perception by sighted people about blind persons living in darkness. All three participants
conditionally accepted the title in line with the purpose of coaching as an enlightened experience.
After reflection, P2 confirmed the need to deal with emotional blind spots, allowing coaching as the
medium to deal with that. P3 described the polarity perceptions about blindness from a blindness
perspective and from a sighted perspective; importantly clarifying the state of blindness as being
devoid of light, not as darkness.
The facts are that blindness equals “nothingness”. As an example: Say a sighted person attempts
to flap a wing like a bird. It is not possible due to the absence of a wing on one’s back, and the
presence of no wing which equals nothingness about having or not having a wing like a bird. P4
was comfortable with associating coaching with overcoming obstacles. P5 seemed unsure about
how to interpret the title, and chose to leave it to personal ideology or theory regarding the
difference between sighted perspectives and blind perspectives on a same subject. The
researcher’s interpretation of P5’s response corresponds with aspects of the moral disability
model. According to this model, persons with disabilities are victims of circumstance and in need of
handouts; being dependent on others for all and everything. The moral model is a disempowering
model based on charity. P2’s initial thinking about the meaning of the title appeared to be in the
same category.
4.9.1.2 Communication and perceptions
People form opinions of others based on countless impressions. It was significant to explore in
what way blind participants “read” the behaviour of others upon initial meetings or during everyday
contact with others:
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Um … for me um … I can always tell about a person if I hold one’s arm. Um … it tells me
everything, um … the height, the weight, if the person is anxious or not, the voice, the
gender, the age-group, the culture, um …, the compassion, the type of steps um … fast,
slow maybe something in the personality like confidence. Um … where I’m not sure, I
um … solicit an opinion from other people.
Then for others to understand my blindness, um … people that get to know me over the
phone, most of them don’t know that I’m blind. Um … the other day I was talking to a
lady and I said “By the way, I am blind”. The lady said, “Oh, I didn’t know. But when you
talk you don’t sound blind.” [laughing]. She said I don’t sound blind, [laughing]. I don’t
know how blind people sound. So, um … that was an interesting communication.
P1, QSSI
I um … probably form my opinions of people based on the content of the communication
and um ... the narratives of the conversation in terms of listening for a smile in the voice,
the speed with which they speak, the um … speed with which they think, the originality
of how they think, the creativeness with which they think. Um … the words that are
communicated, the sound of their voice, tonality, inclination and content. I cannot see
their body langue, but um … if they are fidgeting it becomes background noise and it
interferes with my listening. I normally make an assessment of someone um … on the
content and texture and quality of what is coming almost down from the brain and up
from the heart and out the mouth … um … that tells is all.
When meeting new people I introduce myself and, um … and as soon as I realise people
are uncomfortable, confused, hesitant or unsure about me, I will say, “Oh, by the way, I
can’t see, so don’t be confused if I don’t make eye contact because I can’t see”. I try to
remove that “confused noise” as soon as it looks like it’s going to interfere with the
conversation. Um … it’s not normally my opening remark, and sometimes it’s not
necessary, but mostly it is.
I find um … sometimes people tend to over-explain things and they don’t necessarily
know how much I’m actually able of perceiving. I will then say, “Yes, I’ve noticed that”, or
“Yes, I’m hearing that”.
P2, QSSI
Ok … right. Um … people convey a lot about themselves in their voices, tone, manner of
speaking, content off course, um … I sometimes tell a person, “Remember, you are your
voice, that’s more how I see you than your physicality”. I like to put people at ease. I’m a
blind person, so I’ve learned how to put people at ease and um … it depends whether
the person is going to do something with me or for me. A conversation um … over the
table is not the same things as when someone leads me down the passage, or across
the street. That’s a more intensive engagement than conversation around the table. Um
… I don’t hesitate to explain my needs or request help like, “Would you mind slicing the
meat for me?” This way I find um … people feel also included in my space, and um …
the communication becomes easier for them.
P3, QSSI
I form an opinion on the way people speak. Their tone, um … how they react. Um … I’m
actually a very good judge of character. I know. I’m able to determine how the people
present themselves on the “what” of the content.
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When meeting someone for the first time I don’t go ahead and say, “Hello, I’m blind”. Um
… but if for instance somebody like a waiter brings me a menu I just leave it or say, “I
don’t need one”. Most time I hope it’s a visible disability. Um … many times people don’t
notice, especially when I’m walking with someone. If they make eye contact with me um
… and I don’t, or if they smile at me and I don’t smile back, people realise that I can’t
see. So, it’s what people perceive as “normal” that makes me more acceptable to them.
P4, QSSI
I don’t know how I form an opinion of others, and that’s the answer. Um … because I
form an opinion quickly and I’m almost never wrong in my experience. People usually
turn out to be whom I think they are. Um … I … I’m not sure whether sighted people
form opinions any different from the basis on which I form my opinions. I think what
happens is that I very quickly associate what goes with a person and then I tend to
attach value to those things. Um … an example, I don’t know whether, if a sighted
person says to me that s/he spoke to my colleague and my colleague looked quite
depressed, whether my colleague really did look depressed or whether my colleague
sounded depressed and this person simply says that my colleague looked depressed.
I’m saying um … that there’s a lot of theorising happening um … about how people form
perceptions about other people which I’m not sure that I necessarily go with it.
I think um … sighted people over credit their eyes for what they know. There is a theory
out there that sighted people take in ninety percent of what they know through their
eyes. And, um … I thought that was fascinating because, on that basis it must mean that
I know only ten percent of what you know. I have reflected about this a lot and I don’t
know whether I’m right or whether I’m wrong, but I think that sighted people perceive
things just like blind people do and they just think they get it through their eyes.
It happens all the time um … that I meet new people and I don’t actually know how to
introduce my blindness. I think um … and I’ve long suspected that blind people would
actually do well to think about the fact that they make a massive impact on sighted
people um … not always of the positive kind. I suspect that blind people would benefit
immensely from knowing how sighted people experience them, because um … I don’t
think they know and I think they would be horrified if they knew.
Once during a conversation, another person said “I would rather be without legs than to
be without my eyes”. Personally, I have a particular mental image of a person without
legs. I rate such person as a far more tragic picture and I realised for the first time then,
that this person rated me like I rated someone without legs, and um … I just thought to
myself, “P5, you’re on the road of life and you know nothing yet”. So yes, we all struggle
with perceptions because of the way we communicate with ourselves, and with um …
others.
I see every human being with whom I interact as a potential source of both ideas and
inspiration for my own ideas. Sadly, it is easy to seem more creative than I really am if I
do not acknowledge the inspiration for what appears to be my ideas. I genuinely do not
know whether this makes me a humble person or a fraud or someone with insight, but I
strongly doubt that there is much creativity around. However, I am an original thinker.
There is an argument stating original thinking is creative thinking. I either never have or
always have creative ideas. I just do not tend to think of them in terms of creativity. This
is not to deny that there are people associated with change, but those people often
stand on the shoulders of un-acknowledged giants. I have always taken other people
seriously. I consider myself very much the product of the people I have met, have known
and have spent my time with them. Since I was at university, I have been very sensitive
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about whom I associate myself with; what their talents are, what they have to teach me,
and their value to me as growing person.
P5, QSSI, CN
Universally, people form diverse perceptions of other people. An array of factors influences a
person’s perception of another person or situation. If going only “by the book” it might be risky not
including personal insight, wisdom, sensing and intuition. Participants reflected on the physical
aspects guided by tactile communication. P1 relies on forming an opinion of another person
through sensory input. P1 also shared the story of a telephone conversation where a lady he had
never met before told him that his voice does not sound like the voice of a blind person. P1 was
reflecting on the comment. P2, P3, P4 and P5 referred to how “the messages” get sent by others,
without describing how those messages “get decoded” or processed on their side. They described
their assumptions and perceptions of other people based on whether the content was of an
intellectual nature, or not.
P2 referred to “listening for a smile in the voice”, acknowledging a sensory level of processing.
None of the other four participants referred to their listening skills. However, it may have been
implied. P5 argued about the way humans (sighted or blind) form perceptions of others as possibly
alike; possibly giving little credit to the role of sight in processing information differently than blind
people do. P5 suggested that blind people should find a way to obtain information about sighted
people’s perceptions of them; referring to the impact of blind people on sighted people, which hold
the risk of a traumatic experience. P5 believed in surrounding himself with talented people, those
bringing “solid investment” to his life. The polarity aspect of a negotiated space of receiving and
giving in a balanced way seemed less important. Nevertheless, this is an observation by the
researcher. The social behaviour of “me, myself and I” regarding blind persons’ social awareness
of the needs of sighted people have not been prominently addressed so far.
4.9.1.3 Proposed communication changes for sighted people
One of the interview questions referred to participants’ opinion of possible behaviour changes by
sighted persons during interpersonal communication:
Sighted individuals should um … speak directly to me and address me in person.
Because, let’s say I’m attending a seminar or a workshop at a conference and my
assistant accompanies me. What happens is that people would rather ask my assistant
about me, while in my presence … but not ask me personally. Why can’t they just talk
straight to me? Um … I then tell them the answer to that question and advise them not,
not, to be afraid of approaching me personally. As long as it’s … it’s something that has
to do with knowledge sharing. Fortunately, my assistant now knows what I expect. Um
… the assistant would tell them “P1 is here, you can talk to P1 for that information”.
Another aspect um … that I want to raise and I hope I’m not generalising. But, um …
certain people also think that being blind means you don’t hear properly. Instead, um …
of talking in a normal voice, they would be shouting or screaming. Um … look um … you
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and I are talking normally now and we’re not screaming or shouting and um … we can
hear each other well. But those who don’t know anything about blindness make um …
assumptions, and would be talking in a very loud voice. It’s not good. It was such an
embarrassing experience.
P1, QSSI
I think that one that I appreciate is when people greet me in a context that um … I would
not normally find them for example seeing a colleague in a restaurant or in a shopping
centre. Um … just to say “Hi P2, it’s so and so …” to tell me who they are. Because they
just assume that I know and sometimes or most of the times I would not know. Because
I know who people are in context but as soon as they are in a different environment
where I don’t expect them, they can’t understand how I didn’t recognise them. So my
response could sometimes look aloof or inappropriate within the first few seconds.
Sometimes I need to continue speaking to them to figure out whom um … they are, or
not speak to them where otherwise I would have. That name introduction is extremely
helpful.
To mention another thing: I can’t stand it when sighted people I haven’t seen um … for a
long time, think that they can come and stand behind me and start speaking to me and
think it’s a big joke if I don’t know who they are. It’s almost like a test. Also um … they
will come behind me and put their hands over my eyes and talk. I don’t know why they
put their hands over my eyes because they know that I’m blind and then ask “How did
you know that it’s me? Or how come didn’t you know it’s me? Oh look!” and they want to
show off to everybody that I recognised their voice or not. I … um … just find this to be
one of the most annoying things ever. And, then I have to be kind or laugh along …
ugggh! I do realise people can’t always help themselves [laughing]. You know, if you are
an idiot, you’re an idiot. I can’t change you.
P2, QSSI
I appreciate um … some people have got a way of … I pick up that they’re good
listeners. In other words they are prepared to give me their time without hurrying me. I
appreciate when people give me information that’s not obvious to me, because I can’t
see. When um … there’s something relevant to the conversation or something
happening around us, for example if the tea-lady enters, just a bit of audio description is
very helpful and appreciated. None of this is very major, just helpful.
P3, QSSI
I think, um … I think sighted people should not over-compensate and at the same time
they should not be more benign when communicated to. I think they should be cognisant
of certain things going right over my head if for instance they use only body language, or
point to things without audio description. Or because, um … they are then not inclusive
then. I think they need to be aware of that and also communicate in a way that my
blindness is not so glaringly obvious that makes me stand out from the rest who are
present. This will be of great help.
P4, QSSI
I wish to think that sighted individuals do their best, and I’m not going to say that I don’t
want them to talk about me as if I’m not there. Um … I think people do that in some
sense of desperation. I don’t think that it serves any purpose for me to express a
negative opinion about that. I find that generally people, when they become comfortable
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with me, um … don’t have issues talking to me. And I don’t see why people who are not
comfortable with me, should be singled out for um … disapproval simply because they
are not comfortable with me.
When it comes to debating, I used to enjoy debating others. I thought everyone was as
interested in the principle as I was. I have found there are different styles of debating
and not everyone enjoys a robust debate. It is stressful because there are still people
who prefer a robust debate. One needs to start with them on the right terms otherwise
they perceive you as being available for whatever they care to handout. I am absolutely
fascinated by the ways in which people do personalise debates while they claim
absolute objectivity. Maybe an open debate about debating could contribute in a way
sighted people manage such interpersonal communication with blind persons or other
sighted persons in the spirit of a debate, not a competition.
P5, QSSI, CN
Participants P1 and P5 mentioned the way sighted people tend to talk about them in their presence
without addressing them directly. Such experiences hold the potential for assuming a non-inclusive
conversation, devoid of an opportunity to engage in “open communication”. P1 commented on the
behaviour by sighted people to assume that blind people struggle with hearing, therefore shouting
during interpersonal communication, which causes embarrassment and humiliation on an
emotional level. P2 indicated the need for name introduction when meeting familiar people or
colleagues outside a normal context. P2 did not appreciate being approached from behind in a fun
way, being talked to or having her eyes covered from behind in order to relay some message about
her ability to recognise or not recognise a person in such circumstances. P2 seemed to find such
behaviour annoying, humiliating, unnecessary and devoid of humour. P3 and P4 mentioned audio
description by sighted people as very helpful, especially with finer detail that supports better
orientation. P4 suggested no over-compensation is needed by sighted persons during
conversations. Such behaviour may cause a blind person “to stand out” in a crowd, drawing
unwanted attention. P4 referred to sighted people’s level of sensitivity regarding the use of body
language or gestures, confirming the principle of useful information “going over my head”, leaving
P4 at loss regarding detailed information.
4.9.1.4 Communication and lying
One of the interview questions asked how participants could tell if someone was lying to them.
Participants answered according to their personal experience of human nature and their own moral
values, ethics and personal integrity in relation to the difference between the truth and non-truths.
They also alluded to the principle of how the presence of some properties does not imply the
absence of the opposite. According to McGlone and Knapp (2010, xiii), the rules for
communicating the truth to others are more complex than what absolute truth telling stipulates as
essential:
Children are taught to always tell the truth, journalists are obliged to report only the truth,
and court witnesses take a solemn oath to divulge “the truth, the whole truth, and
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nothing but the truth.” These imperatives may seem straightforward, but the notion of
absolute truth they presuppose is elusive. What we believe to be true can be based on
any of several shifting criteria (what we are told, what we feel, what we observe, what
follows from reasoning, etc.), and the degree of certainty we attach to these beliefs can
change with our circumstances. We also understand that the rules for communicating
truths to others are more complex than absolute truth telling imperatives stipulate.
If only I know the truth and the facts, then I can tell but if someone is lying to me. I mean,
we all tell whether something is true or not, by having the facts. So if I have facts to my
disposal I will know that the person is telling me the truth. But if I don’t have the facts I
won’t know. Even so, there are things that I can sense. Um … sometimes the statement
of someone is either contradictory or um … um … they’re not convincing. Sometimes
one can just know that this one is not telling the truth.
P1, QSSI
I can pick it up if someone is lying to me. Um … mostly it has to do with the consistency
of the content. Even if the content has not been consistent, nor quite logical, or it’s not
explained in a way that makes sense … it’s a gut feeling that comes from an analysis of
the communication. Um … and I sense something in the texture of the voice. I suppose it
might be on an unconscious level. When the facts don’t hang together or the story
doesn’t make sense, my intuition zooms in to the things that are not being said. Um …
it’s also an association of schema where I’m not able to join the dots … some things that
doesn’t quite match up.
P2, QSSI
Um … people can sometimes give it away in their awkwardness in a situation. Um …
when people are vague in their information there’s reason to be suspicious. An example
is when an applicant states “I engaged in engineering studies at such and such
university…” The question that needs answering is “Did you qualify?” So there’s
vagueness in information that needs to be questioned. Then sometimes, um … is the
story likely to be true? The likely test. If it sounds too good to be true it is too good to be
true.
P3, QSSI
Um … when someone become hesitant, um … ambiguity in what they tell me, saying
something that does not add up from what other people are telling me, from other
sources and from correspondence. Ja, that’s um … when I suspect someone might not
be truthful at that point in time.
P4, QSSI
Um … liars are … people are very bad at lying because the truth is usually far more
stable ground on which to operate and I was astonished to discover how easy it is to
crack open a lie. But I’ve also discovered that people lie for all sorts of reasons and that
they do not always lie to preserve that they are evil … um … and so I don’t really care
that much whether people are lying to me or not because they may be lying to me for
example so that they don’t hurt my feelings. Um … or they may be lying to me because
they don’t want to insult me and I … I’m not particularly focused in other words on
whether people are lying to me or not. I do notice it when what they say turns out to be
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incoherent or improbable but lying is not a big deal to me. Qualities that others might
value most about me, is that I hope it is that I take them seriously.
P5, QSSI, CN
Part of common knowledge is the recognition of the fact that most people avoid making proper eye
contact when they are telling lies. This aspect becomes irrelevant when engaging with a blind
person. Eye contact or the lack thereof by sighted persons is not the only indicator for measuring
the truth. According to P1, knowing the facts enables him to compare the “facts of the matter”. P1
and P2 referred to sensing when someone might not be telling the truth. P2 maintained that “a gut
feel” was a dependable barometer when checking consistency in stories, referring to the way P2’s
intuition worked on an unconscious level, listening to the absence of vital information. The
importance of equal weight attributed to the presence and the absence of essential content helped
P2 to assess the validity of the relayed information. P3 referred to “the likely test” as causing
awkwardness with the speaker, or being vague with facts. P4 described a tendency to verify
information, either via personal conversations with other informed people, or via correspondence in
case of uncertainty. P5 held the view that people are bad at lying. “Stable ground communication”
reinforced the truth. P5 found it easy to crack open lies. However, P5 seemed to leave lies with the
liars without being affected by the lies. P5’s main benchmark is that other people should know that
P5 takes them seriously. Knowing this might deter someone from lying for different reasons, even
to spare P5 from the truth about the effects of P5’s blindness on a sighted person.
4.9.1.5 Communication, blind spots and habits
Self-coaching as a self-helping process may be aspirational as a result of a coaching experience
with a business coach or management coach. Reflective practice may also inform one’s selfawareness and self-management, leading to forming changed habits. The saying of “the blind
leading the blind” may not be significant to any person (whether sighted or blind). However, when
self-coaching and reflection seem to become an endless loop, it may be worth changing the status
quo by contracting with another coach for a while.
With reference to Chapter 2, section 2.2.3 (Emotional blind spots among all people), literature
highlighted the complexity of seeing in oneself what others may be seeing. Therefore, the Johari
Window shows the benefits of personal insight, motivated change management, listening to and
hearing the input from others, seeing different sides of one self and realistically increasing the
levels of “open self”. One of the dimensions of the Johari Window pertains to the blind spots that
people keep and nurture as secrets without realising the possible detrimental effect of hiding
emotional aspects from oneself. Habitual blind spots may lead to self-deception and hampering
personal learning and development.
The role of the coach should be to empower the coachee to see those self-induced barriers or
blind spots that prevent the coachee from making personal changes and making a difference to the
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lives of self and others. Working with interpersonal communication constructs like empathy,
interpersonal openness, open communication and persuasiveness aims to develop the coachee’s
business presence in order to climb the career ladder. Blind spots turned into positive habits
remain an ideal personal investment for self-awareness and self-management, directly affecting
interpersonal relations.
During the interview, participants answered a question on possible habits that others have pointed
out to them in the past. It could include typical sayings, mannerisms or habits:
Um … for me um … um … the quote um … that you shouldn’t judge the book by its cover
means a lot. Um … I can tell that some people think that being blind make me also being
stupid. They think maybe I’m too dependent, maybe I’m very difficult, um … that I don’t
socialise, um … that I can’t be educated. Um … also that I can’t hold any prominent
position. Um … so … so … others are judging me by the cover of being blind … I call it
“the blindness cover”. So all I want people to know is that they should refrain from judging
books by their covers. Each um … book is unique and the contents are also different. With
mannerisms, unfortunately they have never told me. But I know um … most blind people
do have mannerisms. Some shake their heads. Um … some poke their eyes as a habit for
stimulation, um … some like touching things all the time. I need to find out about myself.
You as um … my coach can also tell me.
P1, QSSI
Um … during the coaching phase I became aware of a blind spot that I’m paying attention
to … um … it dawned on me that I tend to defend my intelligence, or feel the need to tell
sighted people that I have perceived things that they believe are only reserved for sighted
people. Um … I need to be less threat sensitive. Also, I’ve picked up that I have this um …
habit never to smile in putting others at ease. I want to change this habit and I now remind
myself to do that. I think um … it’s an issue for me that I am happy, but I don’t do much of
that subtle things to put a smile into my voice. It should um … be translated into action. I
only ever think of it after an event, thinking that I should’ve smiled. Um … it’s because I’m
in my head and I’m not aware. And that’s what it’s about. So if I’m to smile while I’m in
conversation it would be more of a process in my head and not based on another sensing
input that has been stimulated. Um … it should become more of a learned behaviour, like
a good um … habit. Ja.
P2, QSSI
Um … yes I often use sayings when it seems appropriate, like um … “Beware of people
who have all the answers”, and “listen to people who ask the right questions” …
[laughing]. I can think of another one now … “if you can’t explain something difficult in
simple words, you don’t understand that”… [laughing] … and the last one I have a habit of
saying “the moment you start irritating yourself, you’ve gone too far”. I have been made
aware by someone close to me um … that I tend to start fidgeting when I’m concentrating.
I may be fidgeting with a piece of paper, or um … the paper cover of a drinking straw …
and fold it up and open it again and um … keep on repeating the same action. I was not
um … aware of doing that, now I know and need to break that habit. I think it might be
disturbing to others, and they are not in my head where I’m sorting through lots of
information and experiences.
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P3, QSSI
Um … typical things that I say without thinking about it beforehand, Um … “it will be fine”
… [laughing] … “don’t worry, things have a way of working itself out”, and “everything
happens for a reason”. I have this bad habit of sloughing, coming from sitting for long
hours in front of the computer, listening to content and forgetting to um … watch my
posture. During the coaching we have touched on that and um … I have put some
reminders in place now to watch my posture, and associate that with like when I’m
drinking water and so on … It does not communicate self-confidence to others with a
posture like um … a question mark, but I have progressed already.
P4, QSSI
Um … [laughing] … I don’t know. Um … I haven’t the foggiest idea what to say about
things that I might say as a habit. I’m really sorry. I cannot answer that [smiling] as much
as I’d like to [laughing]. What I can say? When I was a child I used to flutter my hands
when I became excited and I did that even when I was having a fantasy and so um …
would in adult company suddenly start moving my hands like that …. [showing shaking
hands]. My mother was always very quick to stop me doing that. Um … but I think it took
some time before she managed to get it out of me. It was to me as if I couldn’t think if I
wasn’t moving my hands. And I could not think positive thoughts unless I could move my
hands. Adults stopped me doing it. Um …. that stopping, Ja … at the time it felt like I was
been limited, humiliated, even, but I think I actually understood that it was not a good idea.
But I was so pre-occupied by my own sense of being rebuked that I couldn’t find the
space in my head to accept that this was necessary. So um … I did know it, but my own
sense of even embarrassment became a hindrance in that process. It was not done with
any kindness at all … but it was a long process and it was a difficult process.
P5, QSSI, CN
All participants (P1-P5) found themselves in a musing mood before answering this question.
Participant P1 was serious about being on the receiving end of “The Blindness Cover”, saying, “I’m
judged by the cover of being blind”. P1 could not recall hearing about any personal mannerisms.
However, P1 reported on a tendency of blind people to shake their heads, poke their eye sockets
(for sensing stimulation), fidgeting and touching things. The researcher recognised this behaviour
as part of a blind person’s exploration to know more about textures, to compare objects, to
stimulate imagination and to train the brain neurologically to be able to recognise objects. P1 also
referred to people’s perception that blind people cannot be educated, or hold prominent positions.
P2 pointed out that she has a tendency to defend her intelligence in the same manner as P1. P2
mentioned the personal lack of emotional expression or facial expression. P2 seemed not inclined
to smiling, having made a decision during the coaching to “train the brain” in smiling as a learned
behaviour, making it a good habit.
P2, P3 and P4 have adopted habitual sayings others might find endearing. Those sayings came
from their upbringing and from purposely seeking out new quotes to share with others for the sake
of generating interesting conversations. P3 mentioned the habit of fidgeting while concentrating,
realising the need to break that habit which may affect others nearby. P4 noted the habit of
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sloughing because of spending hours in front of a computer screen, head down, not looking at the
screen, but listening to voice-overs and audio descriptions. Sloughing was a coaching topic,
addressing the health aspect of a neglected posture as well as making an impression of no selfconfidence to sighted people.
P5 mentioned fluttering the hands as a child, especially when excited or experiencing on a
cognitive and emotional level that “it was as if I couldn’t think if I wasn’t moving my hands.
Adults stopped me doing that. At the time, it felt humiliating because of a lack of kindness in the
process of educating me about an inappropriate mannerism; it was a long and difficult process of
breaking that habit.”
The above-mentioned habits, mannerisms and blind spots may indicate levels of internalised and
suppressed anxiety always present with blind persons. Habits may act as a compensating factor
for the loss of eyesight. Habits would fulfil some emotional or psychological need on a
subconscious level, proverbially speaking “in the place of having a soothing dummy”. However, this
remains open for debate. The researcher is convinced that habits act as surrogate mannerisms “in
the place of the loss of something else”, providing some form of emotional security.
4.9.1.6 Communication and crisis management
One of the questions prompted during the interview referred to participants’ communication
behaviour in times of crisis. Peltier (2010:183) asserted that, “Change often requires a dramatic
event or significant loss”. This is what the participants shared:
Um … for me, when I face a crisis situation um … I speak to my God. Um … because I
know the He will never desert me. Um … and I know that sometimes it might take a long
time for Him to respond; he would. I trust in God.
P1, QSSI
Um … it depends on the nature of the crisis or crises. If it’s a personal crisis I don’t want
anybody near me. For the most part I might want nobody. Then I would phone a family
member or a friend. If I’m in crises at work then it’s a big deal. Um … I would look to who
would be the best colleagues to help solve the problems. Or I … I don’t think I react on
impulse in crisis. I do go for a walk to think about what I need to do. So natural inclination
is not to reach out and communicate with someone immediately. My natural um …
inclination is to think first.
P2, QSSI
Um … I don’t communicate with someone. I want to be nearest to myself, because I stay
cool in a crisis. I think it’s my way of life to stay sensible. Other than myself I would like to
have someone that I trust and we have inter-dependence in the way um … that I’ll do the
same for that person. Relations develop over time without one spelling it out for yourself
or anyone else. I would like to have my family with me too, but they may get excitable.
P3, QSSI
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Um … sometimes I think that during a crisis I need to only fend for myself. And then
afterwards having people to be around. Um … but I think a close family member would
always be key. But um … I need to know what to do when I’m alone in a crisis; I need to
take charge of things and also communicate with someone that I trust, to support me in
solving the crisis.
P4, QSSI
Um … I think of a crisis always in terms of being alone and I prefer that. What I do like in a
crisis situation is to have a close family member near me because the person makes it
necessary for me to keep perspective, to be calm, to be positive. Um … I think such
person brings out the best in me in terms of how I respond to crises situations, and I mean
different crises situations. A crises in my own life, or be it a crises with others. Um … but I
would say that other than what I perceive to be the stabilising influence of this person on
me generally, um … I tend to feel that I deal best with a crisis on my own. I need to
communicate with myself before I’m able to communicate with others. The most important
aspect of interpersonal communication is prediction; things in life will be less intense for
me if crises could be more predictable, but then it won’t be called a crisis.
P5, QSSI
The common denominator among participants P2, P3, P4 and P5 is being alone when dealing with
a crisis. Firstly, they had to think about the crisis before activating “a call for help” from a trusted
person, preferably a close family member. Participants showed a strong preference for
independent functioning, trusting their own insight and sensibility above all. They preferred to be
quiet without talking or communicating in order to think clearly. According to them, the ideal is to
avoid the presence of others who may become excitable or worked up. P2 distinguished between a
personal crisis and a crisis at work. On a personal level, P2 preferred to keep a crisis private;
crises at work will activate P2 into searching and finding ideal people or colleagues to help solve
the problems or address the crises. Participant P1 reported dealing with any crisis on a spiritual
level. Overall, the participants preferred to avoid over-reaction, excitement, chaos and an
unmanageable situation during times of crisis. A deep-seated self-trust came to the fore without
any mentioning of emotional words like “fear”, “stress”, “anxieties”, “feeling lost” or “feeling
trapped”. Instead, they preferred to move their energy towards a typical Kolb (1984) cycle of
learning. A crisis becomes concrete experience: thinking about the crisis implies reflective
observation, weighing up possible solutions (e.g. for calling help) is abstract conceptualisation, and
dealing with the crisis to solve the problem is actively experimenting with ways to solve the
problem(s).
4.9.2
Verbal communication
DeVito (2013:107) noted that interpersonal communication consists of two major signal systems:
the verbal and the non-verbal. Verbal messages are “word messages”. The word “verbal” indicates
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words; verbal messages consist of both oral and written words. Verbal messages exclude laughter
and sound pauses like “um” and “aha”.
According to Melnik and Maurer (2004:31), knowledge is the most strategic resource in today’s
world, prompting effective knowledge sharing as imperative for business teams to succeed.
Effective communication involves both content and relationship dimensions. Direct verbal
communication
complements the quality of
complex knowledge
sharing.
Interpersonal
communication offers the prospect of richer content sharing because of the ability to transmit
multiple cues like physical presence, voice tonality and body language. Melnik and Maurer
(2004:31) stated that “… any communication, formal or informal, requires common knowledge in
order to adequately interpret messages communicated”.
During the interview, participants were asked about their preferred communication style for
interacting with sighted or blind persons:
Um … because to me, um … we use the same everyday language regardless whether
one is blind or not. An example is when I’m watching TV, I will say to another blind
person, “Look here”. I will not say, “Listen here, or touch here, or feel here”.
P1, QSSI
Um … yes I do communicate differently with blind or visually impaired persons than with
sighted people. Because I’m always aware; it depends if it’s one-on-one conversation or
in a larger group of people. The content of the conversation and rapport is developed
based on the nature of the surround sounds. Blind persons can communicate with one
another through audible cues or sounds that sighted people will not notice. The
communication principles are the same, like sighted people can hand gesture one
another and blind people can communicate in a crowded room with other blind people. It
is never obvious or noticeable to those not involved. There are a number of general cues
that I could share, like I might clear my throat, or knock my glass on the table, maybe 2
taps. Those communication cues are like unwritten codes that we as blind persons are
able of sensing from one another. We exchange messages in a very subtle way without
sighted people noticing it.
And you are asking me to teach you that? I don’t think you will easily learn it because as
a sighted person you will be distracted by all of the visual input that might discourage
you. You won’t notice the subtleness. It is important for blind people to have an
established rapport between themselves to communicate in this way. We are not supernatural! In general when I speak to a blind person I will speak differently to them than
with sighted people to some extent. Sighted people are much more tuned in to making
eye-contact and my body language. With a blind person body language and eye contact
is off course irrelevant.
P2, QSSI
Um … the topics of engagement might be influenced by the fact that we’re blind um …
we’re more likely to talk about blindness issues [laughing], but obviously not exclusively
blind issues. I would be sensitive to another blind person and for example put their
hands on something ‘to show’ them something. Um … one of our magazines at the
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moment includes tactile pictures in the magazine which I think is a tremendous
innovation and I’m keeping those content for showing it to other blind people. I will ask
them “Have you seen these pictures? They are rather nice”. It’s very thoughtful of that
organisation to publish that. So, no, I don’t think I engage differently with another blind
person, except that the topics of conversation might however be influenced by our
blindness.
P3, QSSI
Um … Yes, Yes, all blind people are different in their personality and temperament like
the rest of our diverse society. Certain people I don’t like, and other people I like. So
naturally the way, um … how much we communicate and what we discuss and how we
say it is dependent on how much we like the other person or not. Obviously if it’s
someone I don’t really particularly want to be around, um … then the whole interaction is
limited or strained, or I will be inhibited like with a sighted person. Sometimes I am
inhibited or even intimidated around other blind people whom I feel are more um …
confident about doing things or more established in their profession than I am. An
example might be when I am visiting prominent people locally or globally, my
communication is a bit on edge even if it’s a blind person. That part of being blind is not
the issue and I will not worry about making eye contact and I won’t worry about how I
look … those nuances are not there when in the company of another blind person.
P4, QSSI
Um … I do, I do communicate differently with blind or visually impaired persons than with
sighted persons. I feel about people who are blind or partially sighted a bit like I think
other people feel about their family. Um … and at the same time I have the same
difficulties with them like other people have with their families in as much as I find them
to be dishonest. I am … I think to a large extent dishonest with them because we don’t
share what we should share. I need to reflect much more on this. Maybe the absence of
true honesty does not imply the presence of dishonesty. One always keep in mind that
people have feelings. I think my communication is an extremely complicated business
and I … I price it very highly and I will never understand it.
P5, QSSI
The analysis of participants’ responses to the question whether they communicate differently with
other blind or visually impaired persons than with sighted people, resulted in a 3:2 ratio response:
P2, P4 and P5 believed they communicated differently with blind and visually impaired persons
than with sighted persons. P1 and P3 believed that they deal the same with blind and visually
impaired persons as they deal with sighted persons.
P2 referred to the context of communicating one-on-one and in groups; explaining the unwritten
codes of communication among blind persons that are not noticeable to sighted persons. P2 could
not foresee that a sighted person would easily pick up on those blindness cues based on visual
distractions impacting a sighted person’s literal “view of the world”. According to P2, factors
influencing the different ways of communication between blind persons and sighted persons are
the presence or absence of eye contact, as well as the “reading” of body language, or the lack
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thereof. P4 maintained that all people have different personalities and temperaments. The
frequency and content of conversations would depend on the mutual acceptance between or
among persons. However, recognising that other blind or visually impaired persons would not be
interested in P4’s body language or in making eye contact would elicit a different way of
communicating with them than with sighted individuals.
P5 confirmed communicating differently with other blind or visually impaired persons based on an
analogy. P5 considers other blind and visually impaired persons like family in the same way as
sighted people accept family. Referring to honest and dishonest communication, P5 experienced
similar challenges with blind and visually impaired persons as with sighted family. Blind people also
withhold true feelings in order “to spare another”. During the interview, P5 mentioned that blind
people do not talk about their blindness in order to save face and show “one can make it out there
in the sighted world” without sharing difficulties or making oneself looking vulnerable to others. P5
reported that interpersonal communication seemed an extremely complicated experience, probably
never to be fully understood.
P1 and P3 referred to the sameness of communicating with blind or visually impaired persons as
with sighted persons. They utilised the same lingua with blind persons, e.g. “Look here!”, “Look
there!” and “Do you see that?” P3 mentioned that conversation topics (content) might lean more
towards “blindness issues” when among other blind or visually impaired people that during
conversation with sighted persons.
An interpretation of the participants’ answers points to the importance of “having a voice” to
influence others in a sensitive way based on the social disability model. It is about exercising the
right to be heard on equal terms as sighted people. Blind persons may explore the boundaries of
engaging with others differently than sighted persons do in relation to conversational expectations
that need to be sensed rather than conveyed through body language. A sensible way to
communicate would be to engage with others in the same way as one prefers to be engaged with;
thus inclusively in an unconditionally accepted manner.
4.9.2.1 Oral communication
Vennapoosa (2014) referred to oral communication and written communication as the most
common and repeatedly expressive forms of communication. From early school years, learners get
to know “oral communication” as part of language development. It is the transfer of information
from “sender” to “receiver” by means of verbal and visual assistive aids. Holding many advantages,
oral communication also holds the potential to be easily misinterpreted or misunderstood. A
valuable rule remains to verify or clarify one’s understanding of the meanings of spoken words in
circumstances of doubt. In this study, five participants and the researcher have communicated
orally over a period of six months. The triangulation methodology for data management guided this
study during the coaching assessments, the coaching phase and the semi-structured interviews.
Qualitative data was added from the researcher’s behavioural notes, memos and reflective
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practice. The quotations below illustrate the meanings that the participants have attached to words
based on their everyday lived experiences:
Humour: Humour for me means, um … something funny or being funny. Um … and not
in a negative way. Funny in a positive way. For me it’s humorous. A person who can
make jokes, um … a person who can um … um … um … when … the atmosphere is
tense, is able to make it lighter and enjoyable.
Affection: Affection for me means being attached to someone um … on the basis of
love and emotions.
Accommodation: Um … accommodation for me means going out of one’s way to make
even the situation um … or the environment more acceptable. Um … to … to …
someone who has limitations or barriers. Um … to make that person feel um …,
acceptable and um … and … wanted. If I can put it that way. It means you … I make
everything possible to … to … to make someone’s life worth living. In the sense that you
provide support with transport, assistive devices, providing buildings that conform to
universal standards. To make me function as normally as possible with supported
infrastructure in place.
P1, QSSI
Humour: To me, humour means um … it could be laughter, to humour somebody for me
is to tolerate them rather than to engage with them. Humour can mean a sense of
humour, or to see the funny side of things.
Affection: Affection is warmth. To show affection is to show warmth. It can be touching
but not necessarily. It could be caring, and needs not to translate into touching. Thinking
of affection as good intention.
Accommodation: Physical accommodation would be to um … to accommodate would
be to “allow” and “provide” … it’s a difficult one. Because I can accommodate somebody
without including them. I can accommodate somebody without enabling them, without
empowering them, without allowing full participation. Real accommodation is like a finger
on a hand. It should work together with … but you can accommodate somebody at a
party and give them tea and snacks but leave them in the corner. That is not like a finger
on a hand. For me accommodation doesn’t extend to participation. It can accommodate
without empowering or enabling. It can be limiting … it can be not all inclusive. Ja … if I
accommodate somebody it might mean that I’m just indulging them.
P2, QSSI
Humour: Um … humour is more than the telling of jokes. Though a joke is always
welcome. Blind and disabled people often come up with something that’s amusing to
deal with. It’s a disarming thing that we have sometimes. Um … I like people to be witty
and clever; and humour can be instructive. Humour can have a side of pain as Eugene
Marais said: “’n Dubbel traan in elke glasie wyn.”
Affection: Um … this is a very important word. Um … to me affection is caring, an
affinity, it’s not the same as love, but it can build towards love, but um … I often sign off
E-mails with “affectionately yours”. But the word “affection” is special. Um … it conveys a
certain intimacy. It probably already entered the domain of friendship by the time I use
the word “affection”.
Accommodation: Well, reasonable accommodation is part of our philosophy in the
employment of people with disabilities. Um … it’s something we expect as of rights and
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which I would personally extend to colleagues as far as I can to meet their needs and
difficulties. Not necessary disabilities only. Um … so accommodation I think is my right,
it’s a courtesy, an element of humanity. It must be built into our culture. I’ve benefitted
from that and I’ve been disadvantaged for the lack of that.
P3, QSSI
Humour: Fun, the lighter side of things.
Affection: Endearment, love, kindness.
Accommodation: Guilt, to be able to understand somebody else’s needs and do
something proactive to make sure that they’re ok.
P4, QSSI
Humour: I know of someone that has recently discovered humour in a big way.
Sometimes very successfully and other times not so successfully. I also remember a
school report in which it was written about me: “His cheerful temperament sometimes
gets him into trouble.” Um … I think “humour” is a serious business and I think that
people often do things um … supposedly for humorous reasons that they should not be
doing. I recently said to a group of visually impaired people that they must learn to take
themselves seriously and one of the things that they must not do is not crack jokes at
their own expense because I think that blind people do that sometimes and I have
serious issues with that.
Affection: Everything I suppose. I think that it’s important. I think it really is what
everything is about. Um … what you feel for other people and maybe hope what that
other people feel for you.
Accommodation: Um … to accommodate has become a political word in the context of
disability. Um … it means to help the person with a disability to integrate into a particular
environment. But I tend to think of accommodate as um … in my own life as trying to
understand and trying to make allowances, trying to compromise, um … so to me it has
a far more personal meaning rather than a kind of political meaning.
P5, QSSI
Analysing the meanings of three words by five participants offered the researcher 15 perspectives.
Some of the participants attached the same meanings to the same words while others did not.
Humour: Apart from acknowledging the semantics of the word as intending fun, joy and
amusement by all participants, P2, P3 and P5 offered a less-obvious “association”. They
associated “humour” with the “modern-day Pierrot” (Infinity, 2009:n.p) where this character
represents a melancholy dreamer, hiding his pain from others, but for the single teardrop beneath
his eye.
Affection: All five participants associated “affection” with a positive emotional experience where
warmth, kindness, endearment and care may strengthen interpersonal relations by “giving and
taking” on equal terms.
Accommodation: “Reasonable” accommodation has become part of the disability philosophy. It
also holds a political connotation. Participants P1, P3 and P5 associated “accommodation” with
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“reasonable accommodation” in this respect. The social disability model informs the socioeconomic system where persons with disabilities may expect government to provide practical
support to persons with disabilities. Those needs may include special-needs amenities, AT and
devices, transport and travel support, employment and others.
4.9.2.2 Written communication
According to Vennapoosa (2014), side-by-side to oral communication, “written communication is
the oldest known form of communication”. Written communication contains any form of
documented communication, forwarded by a sender to a receiver.
During the course of this research study, participants utilised e-mail communication as well as
phone calls to stay in touch with the researcher. Likewise, the researcher utilised the same
technology for the same reason. It served as a back-to-back form of interpersonal communication.
The following e-mail messages sent to the researcher by the participants contain no specific
context or relation because of ethical considerations in the protection of the identities of the
participants:
“I never thought you were reading my work.”
P1, e-mail communication 2015.
“How interesting how character is moulded depth doesn't come cheap
glad to have mentioned ‘XX’ to you thanks so much for this”.
P2, e-mail communication 2015.
“Thanks for your offer to help source information.
I will bear that constantly in mind.”
P3, e-mail communication 2015.
“I looked through the attached proposal. It looks really good.
I can see that a lot of work has to be done with your research participants.”
P4, e-mail communication 2015.
“The greatest challenge during stress is our inability to choose one thought over
another.”
P5, e-mail communication 2015.
The above-mentioned short abstracts were chosen by the researcher at random. However, the
content written by each participant reveals positive engagement, acknowledgement of a working
partnership, gratefulness, insight, sensibility, philosophical reflection, pragmatism, informationseeking, self-awareness, empathy and interpersonal openness. The list continues.
4.9.3
Non-verbal communication
DeVito (2013:139) referred to non-verbal communication as “communication without words”. This
includes gestures, a smile or frown, widening your eyes, moving your chair closer to someone,
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touching another, raising the volume of your voice and staying silent. The essence of non-verbal
communication is “the sending and receiving” of messages without words (oral or written). Nešić
and Nešić (2012:56) discussed a general description of non-verbal communication as follows:
“Many cues of nonverbal communication, such as the perception of face identity and facial
expression, co-speech gestures, body language, and voice characteristics, are used for full
understanding of the message.” This research study aims to explore the potential influence of
coaching on blind business leaders. Hence, the literature review in Chapter 2, section 2.6, focuses
specifically on the experience of blind and visually impaired persons.
In the next section, research participants explain how they combine their body language with
verbal language, including a role-play demonstration on combined verbal and non-verbal
expression.
4.9.3.1 Body language
Um … it depends on the occasion. Um … but I do … I do as a blind person blend my
verbal language with my body language. But I don’t use a lot of gestures. There are
instances that I can, um … while speaking, I can as well use gestures, um … to … send
the message through, or to emphasise what I’m saying. Um … I can for instance while
talking to you, nod my head or shake my head when I agree or disagree. That is
possible. I’m not sure if I have added new body language or gestures during the
coaching. Some of these things, they just happen spontaneously. I don’t just decide now
to use body language. Um … sometimes it just happens spontaneously, so I might not
be sure whether I’ve added anything new. I will need to become more self-aware on this.
The researcher requested P1 to role-play, through bodily expression, an understanding of the
following words and directives:
Happiness: “Um … I think I always smile and I guess you’ve observed that. If I’m not
happy I don’t smile.”
Sadness: “For me, if I’m sad, I’m less talkative. I don’t show it facially, I just become less
talkative, um … that’s when I’m sad. But I could still smile and not talk a lot.”
Grieving: “Um … what brought me to tears, um … the fact that there are things that I
want to do, but because I can’t do that by myself, it sometimes brings me to tears. It
seems that blind people need Plan A up to Plan Z in case of emergencies [laughing].”
Fear: “I’m not sure on this one. It might be to become restless or nervous; also not
comfortable.”
Surprised: “Um … maybe by talking to someone to reassure you whether what you
have experienced is reality or not. Um … but when I’m surprised I normally share my
surprise with someone just to verify whether I’m right or wrong.”
Come here please: P1 gestured with arm and hand, waving researcher towards P1.
Describing a circle: P1 “drawing” a circle in the air using arm, hand and fingers.
Square: “Um … a square will be difficult. I’ll use both hands. I’ve never tried this one. I
think it’s very difficult.”
Keep going: “Um … I don’t know. How do I do this?”
Slow down: “Um … I will just say stop with my hands.”
What else happened? “I don’t know. How do I do this one?”
P1, QSSI
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Um … I think that I do actually blend my body language with my verbal language. I think
that when I’m excited it comes through in my voice. When I’m calm, I sit still. I think it all
matches up. I am aware of the fact that I don’t smile enough. And I don’t notice when
somebody else is smiling off course, so I might speak seriously or I might say something
in a way that would have landed easier if I was smiling when I said it. Even if what I was
saying, was not meant to be serious. Um … but I forget to smile while I’m talking or
delivering a speech. Because of the coaching, I’ve become much more conscious of that
lately.
The researcher requested P2 to role-play, through bodily expression, the meaning of the following
words and directives:
Happiness: “Ja … I smile and it also comes through in my voice. I need to smile more.”
Sadness: ‘” lower my head looking as if I’m only staring; I think my shoulders also drop.”
Grieving: “I don’t easily show it, but with heartache, the tears just come.”
Fear: “Um … I’m not sure. How do I show fear? I don’t know.”
Surprised: “Depending on whether it’s a good surprise or a bad surprise. With a good
surprise I will engage with people nearest to me, and look happy. If it’s a bad surprise I
will contain myself um … without making a big hoo-ha. This is a contextual thing.”
Come here please: P2 used fingers, hand and fore-arm, waving towards P2 in the
direction of the researcher.
Describing a circle: P2 drew a circle in the air using solid arm, pulse, hand as one
lever.
Square: P2 drew a four-sided figure in the air; also on the table.
Keep going: P2 used both hands, waving in the air in a direction away from P2’s body.
Slow down: P2 used Right arm and hand making a horizontal movement, left to right.
What else happened? P2 displayed a faint frown in the face, turning hands vertical
P2, QSSI
Um … I think that blind people exhibit less deliberate body language than most other
people. I don’t usually use my hands to gesture, only lifting my hand to say “Hi!”
Gestures have a specific intent, for a specific reason. I would like to increase my
vocabulary of gestures. However, I’m not interested in using facial expressions; I would
not know how sighted people interpret my facial expressions and they would not
necessarily tell me. Um … some of us deliberately learn gestures and use them. I do
that very little. I do, use it, but very little. Like when I enter through the security gate at
work, I’ll raise my hand just as a friendly gesture to acknowledge the security guards. I’m
more likely in a meeting to sit motionless; if not, I tend to fidget which is not a good idea.
The researcher requested from P3 to role-play, through bodily expression, the meaning of the
following words and directives:
Happiness: “Um, I’m smiling.”
Sadness: P3 seemed expressionless; looking blank.
Grieving: “I may not exhibit any emotion when amongst people; by myself the tears will
flow.”
Fear: “I don’t know how to show this emotion.”
Surprised: P3 opened both hands in a vertical position with raising eyebrows.
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Come here please: P3 used whole of Right arm, waving towards P3.
Describing a circle: P3 used both hands, drawing a circle in the air.
Square: P3 used both hands, drawing a square in the air.
Keep going: “I don’t know how to do that. You will have to show me.”
Slow down: P3 using both hands making a wavy movement horizontally in front of P3.
What else happened? P3 slightly lifted shoulders, opened palms of hands.
P3, QSSI, CN
Um … should I use words like “yes” or “no”, my body reaction aligns with my wording. I
will move my head either up and down for “yes”, or sideways for “no”. I would have been
adding new gestures lately. Let’s be clear, whatever gestures other people do in my
presence is wasted. It goes right over my head off course. There is no point in doing any
gestures in my presence. While I’m now talking to you, I’m using my hands here. I know
that people tend to talk with their hands. I don’t do that, but um … if I put my hand on my
chin when I’m thinking, it is a gesture. I’m so used to speaking mostly to sighted people,
that I forget gestures are a waste when I speak to blind people. But I have learned to live
in a sighted world and I’ve tried to assimilate and fit in. One thing that is a bit of a
problem is the spatial thing. Um … sometimes when I’m listening in a noisy place, I feel
that I need to lean forward whereas sighted people can sit back and still have eye
contact. I’m working on that a bit more. As one gets older, you gauge you know, you pick
up all these nuances that you’ve probably missed before. Some blind and visually
impaired people don’t know this spatial thing. They land on top of me. They are too close
and it’s not supposed to be that close. I don’t think they lack sensitivity, um … they are
not aware. They simply don’t see how other people engage.
The researcher requested from P4 to role-play, through bodily expression, the meaning of the
following words and directives:
Happiness: P4 was smiling.
Sadness: P4 presented with a straight face; expressionless.
Grieving: P4 was looking down with no emotional expression.
Fear: “No, I don’t have a way of showing that. Because I can easily hide my fear.”
Surprised: P4 said “wow” with body language that resembled relief.
Come here please: P4 waved both hands towards P4.
Describing a circle: P4 drew a circle in the air, using one hand.
Square: P4 said: “That’s a bit difficult.” However, P4 drew four sides in the air with a
finger.
Keep going: P4 kept both arms angular in font and using fingers only showing away.
Slow down: P4 said: “I don’t know how to show this one.” You’ll have to show me.
What else happened? P4 use exactly same gestures as for “Keep going!”
P4, QSSI
Um … I don’t think that I really, um … ever managed to get a clear understanding of
that. I’m well aware of the fact that there is body language and that people disclose
things through their body language. But I don’t particularly know much about mine. Um
… I know somebody once said to me, “You’re very tense at the moment”, and I said
“How do you know that?” And the person said, “Because your eyebrows keep going up.”
The moment the person said that I realised the person was absolutely right about that.
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Um … I feel a bit like a victim when body language gets thrown into the mix. Also I think
when people point it out to me, it makes me feel vulnerable in a way that I don’t
particularly like, because I have this feeling that I’m saying things without knowing that
I’m saying it, and that people can have an insight into me that I don’t have into them. Um
… and that concerns me but I … sometimes I think I deal with it by keeping very still,
particularly in meetings which are tense I tend to almost shut down physically. I like to
keep my hands on the table in front of me, flat, not to move them. Um … whether I
actually manage or only do that at the beginning of the meeting I cannot really say for
sure.
The researcher requested from P5 to role-play, through bodily expression, the meaning of the
following words and directives:
Happiness: “I’m smiling.”
Sadness: “I’m not sure about sadness. I think sadness happens more spontaneously
and I’m not sure that I can fake it.”
Grieving: “The same reasoning applies as with “sadness”.”
Fear: “I absolutely don’t know what fear looks like.”
Surprised: “I will only be looking up.”
Come here please: “I will gesture with my forefinger towards myself.”
Describing a circle: P5 using thumb and forefinger on one hand, forming a circle.
Square: “Um … interesting. I don’t think I’ve ever tried to make a square with two hands,
but I would put my fingers against one another and open my palms away and that would
make the square open on my side.”
Keep going: P5 moved hands away from own body.
Slow down: P5 said: “I would point down with one finger using one hand.”
What else happened? P5 lifted shoulders.
P5, QSSI
Participants P1, P3 and P4 showed a significant interest in blending verbal and non-verbal
language as part of everyday lived experience. Mentoring on the use of non-verbal language as
part of business coaching may increase participants’ gesture and expressive vocabulary. All
participants used as little as possible gestures, having verbally confirmed such behaviour.
Participants P1, P2 and P3 requested further coaching on the use of non-verbal language to
improve interpersonal communication with colleagues and on a personal level. P3 and P5 reported
resisting the use of facial expressions with the rationale of “giving away too much of myself”
without the visual feedback that sighted colleagues have. Such non-inclusive behaviour seems to
influence participants’ awareness of the extent of deprivation and loss associated with the inability
to receive communication strategies from sighted persons, except when compensating with their
existing senses. P4 indicated that some blind persons might be unaware of “personal space”. Such
behaviour invades P4’s personal space, causing discomfort. The way in which persons with
disabilities use space is a research field worth studying. Table 4.3 below summarises the results
from the coaching exercise on blending verbal and non-verbal language with typical everyday
interpersonal language used as examples.
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Table 4.3: Summary of research participants’ verbal and non-verbal expressions
Constructs and /
or instructions
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
Verbal or nonverbal
V
N-V
V
N-V
V
N-V
V
N-V
V
N-V
Happiness
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Sadness
NE
NE
C
C
NE
NE
NE
NE
IDN
NE
Grieving
C
NE
C
NE
C
NE
NE
NE
ICN
NE
Fear
IDN
NE
IDN
NE
IDN
NE
IDN
NE
IDN
NE
Surprised
C
NE
C
NE
C
C
C
C
C
NE
Come here please
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Describing circle
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Describing square
IDN
NE
C
C
C
C
IDN
IDN
IDN
IDN
Keep going
IDN
IDN
C
C
IDN
IDN
C
C
C
C
Slow down
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
NE
IDN
IDN
NE
NE
What else
happened?
IDN
IDN
C
C
C
C
NE
NE
C
C
Coding for verbal and non-verbal use:
Correct
:
C
No Expression
:
NE
“I don’t know”
:
IDN
Qualitative analysis of intra-group results:
Percentage ‘Correct’
: 53%
Percentage ‘No Expression’
: 29%
Percentage ‘I Don’t Know’
: 18%
Three most successful constructs / instructions
: Happiness, Come here please, Circle
Three least successful constructs / instructions
: Fear, Sadness, Grieving
At the beginning of the coaching phase, all participants were less inclined to use non-verbal
language than during the interview six months later. A variety of factors might have influenced their
changed behaviour. This is a qualitative study, reporting on subjective observations by the
researcher in combination with truthful first-person participant data communicated by the
participants based on a lengthy period of six months and during the interview.
4.9.3.2 Paralanguage
DeVito (2013:153) referred to paralanguage as the “vocal but nonverbal dimension of speech. It
has to do with the manner [the how] in which you say something rather than with what you say.”
Paralanguage involves the sound of laughing, yelling, moaning and whining like “um’”, “aha”, “shh”,
“uh-uh” and more. An important aspect of paralanguage is “the rate of speech” since speech rate
relates to persuasiveness. Fast talkers seem to have a more persuasive influence on people. The
interpersonal communication construct of “persuasiveness” measured the highest among the
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group of five participants within the preparation data and coaching assessment. The direct
narratives of the participants as quoted by the researcher in this study reveal a significant amount
of paralanguage used by the blind participants.
The next section explores participants’ experience with touch communication, also called tactile
communication or haptics.
4.9.3.3 Tactile communication
According to DeVito (2013:151), tactile communication might perhaps be the most primitive form of
communication, stemming from experiences in the womb and the way a baby explores its
surroundings and objects through touch. In this section, participants described their interactive
tactile communication with sighted people when guided from point A to point B.
Um … some would try to pull me, or grab me in such a way that it’s very … very … tight.
Some of these people are not doing it deliberately; it’s because they don’t know how to
guide blind people. But most of the time I tell them the right way of doing it. They’re even
afraid that maybe I will fall or might trip over things. Then I tell them the right way to do it
is not to hold so tight. With the majority of people, I teach them how to guide me.
P1, QSSI
Um … oh … that’s such a common thing. Um … if people offer me their elbow,
depending on the situation I might take their elbow or their arm. I might also say, “It’s
fine, I’ll just walk next to you. I’ll let you know if I need help.” When somebody grabs my
arm, I’ll say, “No, hold on, let me take your arm.” The correct way of guiding a blind or
visually impaired person is for me resting my left hand on your right shoulder, or my left
hand holding your right elbow. It’s a combination of the situation and the person how I
respond. There are occasions when people grab me and steer me and it does irritate me
but I don’t always voice it, in fact I often don’t voice it. I try to be gracious in the situation.
It’s almost not worth the effort. Recently, a lady grabbed my arm and dragged me to their
table in the restaurant and said, “Hi, everybody, this is P2”. I was extremely
uncomfortable. Then I thawed within 5 minutes. But I felt out of my comfort zone.
P2, QSSI, CN
Um … when I travel it’s quite common that people, even one’s I don’t know, will offer to
help me or guide me. If they do it the wrong way, I’ll explain there’s a better way to do it.
Afterwards I might receive a kiss on each cheek. There’s nothing suggestive about that,
just always unexpected.
P3, QSSI
Um … if people are pulling me, I remove their hand from my arm, and I take their arm
and I say, ‘Let’s do it this way”.
P4, QSSI
Um … it often happens. Often what I do is, I just stop and take the person by the wrist
and pull my arm out of their hand, and take their arm. And sometimes I just ignore it. It
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really depends on what sort of distance I think I’m going to be covering. But, I try to be
accommodating of the fact that people don’t always know what is the best way; strangely
enough, they very seldom ask for my opinion or guidance beforehand.
P5, QSSI
All participants reported the familiar experience of receiving “best intentions” from sighted persons
in an attempt to guide or support blind persons. Participants are used to taking control and
educating strangers on “the right way” to guide a blind person. These interpersonal encounters
hold the potential for conflict, should the blind person lack empathy for the ignorance of sighted
persons. Blind and visually impaired persons are differently abled, therefore planning needs to be
according to their specific needs. However, circumstances arise where they may have to depend
on support from strangers to get from point A to point B. Well-intended support from strangers
motivated by sympathy are not acceptable. According to both the social disability model and
inherent self-worth, blind and visually impaired persons may value empathy from fellow humans,
like every next person out there. Researcher observation showed the importance of a hygienic
environment to the participants as they use their fingers and hands as an extension of their sight
abilities through tactile communication.
The next section covers the use of time and participants’ preferences on how they orientate their
schedules and personal lives through communicating time.
4.9.3.4 Temporal communication
Bruneau (1985:279) contended that the notion of temporal communication (the study of
chronemics) concerns the nature of human temporality. People mostly seem to ignore the
complexities of temporary existence within the contexts of time and space in establishing time-line
orientation. During the interview, participants described their time orientation, time management
and the influence of yesterday, today and tomorrow on their relational communication. According to
DeVito (2013:164), time orientation is culture specific, whether “future orientated, or inclined to
allow the past to influence the present”. Some cultures are inclined to a formal timing system;
others nurture a polarity approach as they only know informal time. Persons with disabilities are
dependent on the time orientation of those assisting them, subjecting them to an inescapable
dependency on others.
Um … Ja … I’m very strict when it comes to time. Um … because then it helps me to
meet my deadlines and obligations. When I have to depend on others who um … maybe
act irresponsibly towards time management, it messes up my schedule. Um … so I have
to manage my time and I mostly have to manage those people I depend on. It’s not
always easy. If somebody arrives late within the thirty minute bracket, for me it’s
acceptable. But once it’s over that bracket it’s not acceptable.
P1, QSSI
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Um … my time management … I do use a Braille watch or I might check the time
verbally with somebody. If I need to be at an appointment at a certain time, I make sure
that I give myself enough time to arrive there on time. Um … I’m dependent on other
people’s time management, and it can become frustrating. I’m very pedantic about time.
If I were driving my own car, I would’ve been on time. It’s part of my ethics not to
inconvenience others by being late. If a person arrives five minutes late, it’s probably
fine.
I do plan to always arrive earlier for meetings so that I can control my environment by
knowing who walks in the door. As they walk in I hear their voices or I’m told who has
arrived. If I arrive late, walking into a full room, it’s a lot harder as a blind person to
orientate myself in a crowd. I make an association with who sits where around the
meeting table. It’s really all about my own orientation. My preference is that people go
around the table and just very quickly introduce themselves but I’m not always in the
situation where that is possible. If someone then talks, I might ask the person sitting next
to me, “Who was that?” if I didn’t recognise their voice.
P2, QSSI
Um … I’m very regimented about time. So I’ll plan my schedule for the day and for the
week and for the month and the year ahead. I try to keep to that. Um … it’s said that
blindness can disturb the body clock. (Refer to Chapter 4, section 4.7.2.2 on circadian
rhythms). When I travel for my work, I try to go to bed the usual time to limit the influence
of disturbing my body clock. I’m highly disciplined with regards to time management and
meeting my time-lines. I always budget to arrive early for meetings or appointments. My
case is to be on time and not ever to be late. It’s respectful. It’s a work ethic and a work
habit. And because I’m dependent on other people, unpredictable things can happen. I
have this rule in my life that I ask someone close, to ‘tell me what you see’. I don’t want
your opinion then, I want you to tell me what you see. I can have the opinion later. At
that specific moment in time I need to know what’s on the table, what’s the décor, the
environment, what food is laid out …um … the finer detail of the meeting. When I’ve
started something, I need to finish it off to completion. I can’t stand incompleteness,
leaving things “hanging in mid-air” without any outcome due to the fact that other people
did not live up to their promises of being on time.
P3, QSSI, CN
Um … I think it’s about prioritising, ja … and showing that I do give colleagues response
time to get back to me on work issues. The tricky part is sometimes to manage the
team’s time schedule and then manage my own schedule to match up with the “bigger
picture” I should say. It’s my responsibility to discern um … between what is urgent and
um … what’s important. It’s a straight-off to get all the ducks in a row to meet deadlines
and allow for preparation time. If somebody arrives late more than fifteen minutes
without communicating with me, or with the office, it’s unacceptable to me.
P4, QSSI
Um … I’m very conscious of time. Um … and I think that, that it is important for me to
use time as an orientation. I had to become more flexible about that. Um … wherever I
go not everybody takes time as seriously as I do. I’m trying my best to become a little bit
more relaxed about that, because I know that it is not necessarily a function of other
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people’s insensitivity. It may just be that managing time is not that important to them. I
manage that aspect of people with some difficulty, especially being dependent on other
people’s ways of dealing with time. Um … for me, arriving late is arriving late. Arriving on
time is potentially arriving late. I try not to set the same standards for other people, but
it’s a factor that directly affects my life.
P5, QSSI
All five participants agreed on the importance of using time as an orientation in terms of selfmanagement and the management of team schedules. Descriptions by participants, agreeing
independently, were: “I’m strict on time”, “I’m pedantic about time”, “I’m regimented about time”, I’m
highly disciplined regarding time management” and “I’m very conscious about time”. All participants
function on senior management level, requiring above average levels of accountability towards
their responsibilities. Teamwork depends on prioritising work in order to meet time-lines and
deadlines. Participants P2 and P3 stated the importance of time management as an ethical
obligation. Apart from using time for personal orientation, participants need to manage service
orientation through the performance of their teams.
Participants referred to their dependence on other people for successful work performance. The
people on whom they are dependent might let them down, being late or not arriving for a pick-up at
all; unleashing emotions of frustration, of being manipulated by how others’ prioritise or act less
responsibly. As business leaders, participants set an example to their teams and their organisation.
The researcher interpreted the importance of time management by the participants as an element
of controlling outcomes. The participants reported taking ownership of their responsibilities,
therefore having to control the “how”, “where” and “when” of making choices in order to reap from
positive consequences and successful outcomes.
The next section deals with the participants’ views on “silent communication” and how “silence” can
equal verbal and non-verbal communication.
4.9.3.5 Silent communication
Thomas Mann (2005:n.p) noted, “Speech is civilization itself. The word, even the most
contradictory word, preserves contact - it is silence which isolates.” According to DeVito
(2013:154), silence serves important communication functions, equal to words and gestures.
Silence provides time to think, to hurt others through preventing communication or to say nothing,
to achieve specific effects being in control of one’s own way of communicating, and to
communicate emotions like anxiety, defiance, affection, accommodation and humorous wittiness.
Um … silence for someone that is blind um … I’m not sure whether I’m alone or whether
people are just quiet. But for me if I enter a gathering or a meeting, and I find that it’s
very silent, I would ask whether there are people. And most of the time they do indicate
that they’re there. For me, I think and reflect well when it is silent. During the coaching I
needed more um … silent time to allow for the reflections, and many things became
clear to me about myself. Um … I think I’m more creative when it is silent. It is like
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communicating with myself in silence. Um … I know that noise disturbs me, but I have to
be um … flexible sometimes. I will tell people that I can as well read and concentrate in a
noisy place as long as they don’t talk to me directly, I don’t mind.
P1, QSSI
Um … silence doesn’t bother me at all. I don’t feel the need to fill the space. If somebody
wants to sit next to me very still and quiet without talking, it’s fine with me. I don’t mind. I
might initiate a conversation but I also might not. An example would be, um … if I’m in
the boardroom or a meeting room and somebody else enters the room without saying a
word, I might say something to hear their voice to know who has entered. Um … but I
don’t always do that. If I’m traveling by plane and somebody sitting next to me is quiet, I
don‘t have an issue with that at all. I think silence can be very comfortable; it doesn’t
have to be uncomfortable. That aspect might be a result of societal expectations, but I
know there’s a difference between a comfortable silence and an uncomfortable silence.
P2, QSSI
Um … it’s contextual. Um … it might be just a natural pause or silence. Um … I can tell if
somebody is putting a message across by being silent. Like in a meeting where
somebody suddenly stops participating. I have to wonder what’s going one. Have they
taken offence? Are they feeling drowsy? So I don’t read too much into silences, but they
can be telling at times.
P3, QSSI
If I’m with someone, silence is fine. Silence doesn’t always have to be filled. So,
sometimes silence means that people are only thinking.
P4, QSSI
Um … I’m not uncomfortable with silence. And I have learnt that silence is a very
powerful way of communicating because when people talk to me and I do not respond,
they often say more. Um … which doesn’t mean that I overstretch the silence, but it does
mean that if I wait that half a second before responding, sometimes I get all sorts of
unexpected surprises. Especially if a person catches a breath that sounds like they want
to talk, it’s a big mistake to say to that person ‘what were you going to say?’ If I just
remain silent, they will say it, because they have committed to saying it. And if I give
them the space, they will say it. Um … so one must never make the mistake of thinking
that a person who stops after they’ve taken a breath, um … should be encourage to talk.
One should simply wait and the person will continue talking. And so I think learning to
wait that extra beat, um … has immense value during interpersonal communication.
P5, QSSI
All participants commented on their comfort with silence. Participants P2, P4 and P5 felt no specific
need to fill the silent space. P5 described a sensible strategy in managing silences during
conversations. P5 allows other people extra time to become comfortable in giving more information
than originally planned; keeping to the principle of never encouraging people to talk, only allowing
them the space to converse what they had in mind, or more. P1 mentioned the value of silent
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reflection during the coaching phase. P1 entered into a form of meta-thinking or enhanced selfawareness without any form of noise pollution around. P1 mentioned producing creative thoughts
during silent periods. How do blind persons integrate silent communication with verbal and nonverbal communication? Based on the participants’ answers, the researcher interpreted a strategic
approach as sensible and wise; allowing silence, talking and body language to transform
meaningful interpersonal communication during a coaching journey.
4.10
SUMMARY
Chapter 4 provided an opportunity to analyse and interpret the qualitative research data captured
during the study period. The five blind business participants gracefully accepted the challenge of
exploring business and personal “territories” never visited before. Every participant acknowledged
the value of coaching as a self-empowering medium in bridging those unknown territories. The
research study allowed for comprehensive interpersonal communication between each participant
and the researcher, at times causing inconvenience to some participants due to the research
programme. The researcher wishes to acknowledge every participant’s enthusiasm, dedication and
commitment towards this study. The findings serve to answer the primary research question: What
is the potential role of coaching in assisting blind business participants with the development of
their interpersonal communication competence?
Chapter 5 presents the findings, follow-up research suggestions and recommendations on future
coaching programmes with blind and visually impaired business leaders.
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CHAPTER 5
FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
INTRODUCTION
This research study developed within a theoretical framework inclusive of blindness perspectives
and sighted perspectives. The research process informed the purpose of the study, enlightening a
qualitative co-exploration of five blind research participants as coachees with one sighted
researcher as coach. Over a period of six months of interactive, one-on-one engagements, every
role-player applied research ethics, commitment and enthusiasm in the spirit of “blind faith”.
The next section elaborates on the research findings.
5.2
SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS
The analysis and interpretation of the qualitative research data discussed in Chapter 4 eased into
answering the primary research question: What is the potential role of coaching in assisting blind
business participants with the development of their interpersonal communication competence?
Evidently, the results from this research study uncovered clear interpersonal communication
strategies among the group of participants:
i)
The value of coaching in assisting blind business participants with the development of their
interpersonal communication competence;
ii)
The value of coaching assessments and feedback interviews in determining the scope of
interpersonal communication needs;
iii)
The value of reflective practice in accelerating personal learning and professional
development during a coaching journey;
iv)
Blindness identity embedded in the need for unconditional acceptance by sighted persons
that fosters reassurance and emotional comfort, outweighing any past emotional trauma
associated with blindness;
v)
An inextinguishable need to know how sighted colleagues perceive their blind business
leaders in everyday work and life experiences;
vi)
Blindness identity effecting an invariable subconscious (or conscious) state of alertness,
hyper-vigilance and tension affecting social and relational success;
vii)
A need to broaden participants’ expressive and receptive non-verbal language skills;
viii)
A
need
to
include
intrapersonal
communication
competence
with
interpersonal
communication competence in this coaching research study;
ix)
The social model as preferred disability model for social, economic and political inclusion of
all.
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The participative researcher co-experienced multiple interactive engagements with each participant
over a period of six months. The participants’ social and relational competence influenced the
content and context of their daily interactions. The analysis and interpretation of data gathered by
the researcher through observation, coaching assessment, coaching sessions and the qualitative
semi-structured interview accentuated task-related anxieties and levels of stimulated anxieties
among participants. This finding describes an invariable state of alertness, hyper-vigilance and
tension by all participants, influencing their social and relational confidence. Performance anxiety
may or may not present the same behaviour as stimulus-related anxiety, since participants
confirmed the importance of “being in control” or “always looking bold and acting as if in control”
while hiding an internalised fear for what might happen in an unpredictable way. Participants
expressed a conscious awareness of performance anxiety (soliciting public speaking as an
important coaching topic) and patterns of physical tiredness that were not synonymous with workrelated pressure.
Findings from Bachar, Peri, Halamish and Shalev (1993:1251) indicated that, “Blindness is often
associated with hypervigilance and arousal … [blindness] deprives the individual of a sensory
modality that plays a central role in survival.” All participants revealed elements of an enhanced
state of sensory sensitivity in detecting potential danger. Their descriptions reminded of “radar
scanning” while listening to people’s expressions, the timbre of their voices, memorising
conversations and information for ongoing orientation and reference. Difficulties causing constant
uncertainty would be the interpretation of others’ non-verbal communication, including body
language and paralanguage, unforeseen changes in their familiar environments, and bracing
discomfort to a level of humiliation in identifying familiar persons within unexpected contexts.
The researcher suggested the presence of suppressed anxiety and a state of caution to an
inherent psychological compensation in managing emotional blind spots with blindness disability.
Future research in exploring the real cause(s) of blind persons’ invariable state of alertness,
hypervigilance and tension might be of significant value. A perceived value for the coaching body
of knowledge might be through extending coaching space as “an incubator” for self-coaching or
reflective practice by blind coachees. In answering one of the secondary research questions, this
may be an aspect of coaching that blind participants will find useful in strengthening their
interpersonal communication competence.
Participants expressed a need to expand their non-verbal language vocabulary as strategy for
improved interpersonal communication. This finding represents a popular coaching topic among
the participants. As an aspect of everyday lived experience, they could not always explain the
reason for encountering social and relational difficulties, other than erring on expressive and
receptive non-verbal language. All participants identified the lack of eye contact between sighted
people and blind people as an obvious reason for causing discomfort in sighted people. In addition,
their inability to read and interpret non-verbal language also caused challenges. An interesting
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element of this finding is that all male participants argued for as little as possible facial expression
and use of body language, preventing the co-communicator from gaining “an unfair advantage” by
accessing insight from the blind person’s behaviour. In the words of Participant P4: “I have learned
to never show”, also verbalised as: “I cannot allow you to read me if I cannot read you.” The female
participants mentioned the perceived inconvenience to sighted people because they are not able
“to connect” on an emotional level. Non-verbal language is evidently loaded with cultural
preferences, and people show up differently in the workplace based on cultural background,
diverse worldviews and varied perceptions; an aspect familiar to all working people universally.
Nonetheless, all participants expressed the need to improve on their expressive and receptive nonverbal language proficiency. The coaching space offered “a safe space” to experiment with roleplay behaviour and to practise haptic (tactile) skills.
The researcher as coach wishes to confirm stepping into a mentoring role while facilitating nonverbal language with the participants. A number of emotional expressions were standardised
among the group. The three most successful expressions were “Happiness”, “Come here, please”
and drawing a “Circle’”. The three least successful expressions were showing “Fear”, “Sadness”,
and “Grieving”. None of the participants was able to express any form of fear by using body
language. This may help to explain the previously discussed finding on how blind persons tend to
suppress anxiety, fear and uncertainty, whether habitual or sub-consciously.
The use of paralanguage (“um”, “aha”, laughing, sighing, groaning and more) delivered a counted
number of 737 “ums” across the group of participants during the interview. Of interest is that the
number of “ums” by the males were between 100 and 200; the number of “ums” by the females
were below 100. Silent communication is part of non-verbal communication. During the interview,
the females explicitly reported no need “to fill the space of silence”. The males neither reported any
discomfort with silence, confirming silence as a time for “creative thinking”. It is therefore safe to
interpret the use of “um” as a form of creative reflection while accessing receptive knowledge. The
disparity between the gender groups could in future be researched as a significant compensatory
form of socialising or relating with non-verbal language.
In Chapter 2, section 2.6.1 (“The silent language”) described a project in Denmark called
Communicative Body Language for Adults Born Blind (Strauss, 2000:130). Blind persons who
completed the course confirmed having a stronger personality and identity as a result. They were
able to support verbal statements and emotional expression with body signals. The contest is that
congenitally blind persons can learn a wide range of physical gestures, retain the lingua semantics
and apply these appropriately during conversations.
The researcher confirms this finding as another strategy followed by blind participants to “send and
receive” information.
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The findings framework contains and reflects the building blocks that enabled five unique
participants to become more adventurous, spontaneous and better rounded professionals on the
strength of their coaching experience.
Competencies
Figure 5.1: Findings framework
Source: Adapted by the researcher from Psytech International (Pty) Ltd.
During the interview, the title of this research study was subjected to the participants’ scrutiny to
gain insight into their perspectives on the meaning of the first part in the title “A beacon in the dark
– the perceived value of coaching visually impaired business leaders on interpersonal
communication competence.” Participants responded with five different perceptions on social
awareness and relational management but with a common agreement on utilising coaching as a
medium for change and development regarding the ten competencies (as reflected in Figure 5.1
above).
Participants reported that the coaching assessments and feedback interviews identified their
emotional competence (knowledge, skills and abilities) as well as their emotional blind spots. The
core value of coaching was captured through “choice”, “space” and “responsibility”; utilising the
opportunity embedded in “everything about me, with me”. The philosophy of the social disability
model is “Nothing about us, without us” (Charlton, 2000:16; Rowland, 2012), confirming equal
rights to all people across the social, economic and political spectrum.
129
Participants chose their own coaching goals and topics; they utilised the Braille translation and the
DAISY audio version of Leadership For All (Ungerer et al., 2013) for reflective practice. Upon the
completion of the qualitative semi-structured interview, all participants asked: “When next again?”
Chapter 4 offered a comprehensive and detailed analysis and interpretation of the confirmed value
of coaching visually impaired business leaders on their interpersonal communication competence.
A valid question is: What distinguishes coaching from other highly suitable forms of developmental
intervention for blind business participants? The answer lies in the multi-disciplinary nature of this
research study. The research design allowed for meeting the unique needs of differently abled,
highly qualified, appropriately experienced senior business managers who also happened to be
blind.
Table 5.1 provides a summary of additional findings from this research study:
Table 5.1: Additional findings
Intergroup inclusive findings
Interpersonal
communication
competencies
• Participants experienced the lack of empathy by an ill-informed society; they
Empathy
experience being addressed indirectly via another person;
• Participants displayed empathy towards this behaviour, based on “not knowing
of better” and take it upon themselves to educate people on how to guide them.
• Participant’s words: “I’m battling to understand how others perceive me.”
Interpersonal
• Participant’s words: “Being blind is central to who I am.”
openness
• Participants agreed on the need to broaden non-verbal communication skills.
• Participants agreed on the need for reasonable workplace accommodation by
having sufficient access to AT & devices to deliver on service level agreements.
Organisational
awareness
• Recommended need for in-house business and management coaching.
• Participants agreed on having to work “twice as hard as peer colleagues” to
Service orientation
achieve their qualifications and master their job levels.
• Participants agreed on following the social disability model as the rights model
in support of equal and inclusive rights for all people: social, economic, political;
• Time-management is priority number one! It serves as orientation guide.
• Based on the finding from the coaching assessment on interpersonal
communication competencies, persuasiveness ranked highest in value on the
intergroup rating scale. Persuasiveness as construct is firstly an emotional
function.
• “The most important aspect of interpersonal communication is predication.”
Persuasiveness
130
Table 5.1: Additional findings (continued)
Intergroup inclusive findings
Interpersonal
communication
competencies
• Participants tend to avoid conflict, preferring tact and diplomacy as mediating
Conflict
forms of communication; they are always dependent on others despite having
management
a specific temperament or certain personality traits;
• In situations filled with frustration or over-reaction, they do retaliate “for peace”.
• Participants were enthusiastic about their leadership roles but reported
the need for more self-confidence and less subjective self-evaluation.
Inspirational
leadership
• Participants identified the need for coaching on public speaking or group
addresses.
• Participants are driven towards improving the lives of persons with disabilities.
Change catalyst
• They engage in motivational talks, being mentors to those still learning “how to
be blind”; daring to be bold and different without being indifferent to self/others.
• Participants managed medium to large groups at work but mostly prefer
Team working
to work alone and independently with problem solving processes;
• Participants agreed on the value of team performance, brain-storming and collective ownership for project outcomes as basis for inclusive accountability.
• Based on the finding from the coaching assessment on interpersonal
communication competencies, open communication ranked lowest in value on
Open
communication
the intergroup rating scale. Open communication as construct is firstly a
cognitive function.
• The finding is that participants do not engage in “small talk”; they keep to the
point of discussion, avoiding an overload of irrelevant information.
5.3
GUIDELINES ON COACHING PROJECTS WITH BLIND BUSINESS LEADERS
Based on the analysis and interpretation of research data in Chapter 4, and the findings from those
interpretations, the guidelines below may contribute to a successful outcome of coaching projects
with blind coachees:

Describing a coaching session as “a coaching incubator” appeared to elicit a sense of safety
and confinement with the coachees offering a preferred structured environment for thinking,
reflecting, learning and experimenting.

Coaches should be sensitively aware of avoiding indirect communication with blind
coachees; an example could be “crossing the Rubicon”, which may cause uncertainty about
the intended meaning of the “message”.

A golden rule for coaching within an inclusive society is to verify and clarify understanding of
what has been said and heard, or communicated with the other person; this guideline adds
value to all coaching communication, not only with blind or visually impaired coachees.
131

Plan and organise Braille or audio translations of books and articles meant for long-term use,
and source embossed pictures that inform specific coaching topics.

Coaches may consider electronically recorded files in MP3 format of less than 15 minutes,
reading at normal reading speed. This can be sent via e-mail to the coachee to add value
and to make information available and easily accessible to the coachee.

All electronic communication should be in English, even if interpersonal communication might
be in another language; the Assistive Technology and devices are standardised for
processing and decoding information in English. Some blind coachees may have mastered
the decoding technique in another language but such action requires a double-decoding
cognitive-sensory process.

The coach must ensure that the coaching space is safe, clean, protected from noise pollution
and easily accessible, with bathroom facilities.

During a one-on-one session or conversation, the coach needs to ensure facing the blind
coachee at all times; should the coach be talking while walking and not facing the coachee
directly. Such action may put strain on the blind person’s auditory processing of the
communicated “message” due to the interference of background noise.

The coach can comfortably use everyday language with a blind coachee, like: “Look here!”,
“Can you see that?”, “Have you noticed this?” and “Watch this” .

The coach may consider taking a headlamp along to coaching sessions when the venue is
supplied by the coachee. If sessions take place after hours, the headlamp may come in
handy during load-shedding or in case of limited lighting in the room.
5.4
FURTHER RESEARCH
These following research topics hold the potential to further the body of knowledge on business
and management coaching:
i)
A research study on how blind business managers are perceived by their direct reports to
allow for transparency in the working relationship;
ii)
A research study on team coaching with blind or visually impaired business leaders to
compare preferred team roles, leadership styles, subordinate styles and influencing styles.
iii)
A research study exploring how team members perceive the leadership “cues” from blind
business managers to enhance collaborative working relations.
iv)
A research study on adjusting or converting sighted or mainstream job specifications based
on the problem-solving competence of blind employees while delivering equal performance
output;
v)
A research study on the perceived value of coaching blind or visually impaired business
leaders on their intrapersonal and interpersonal communication competence;
132
vi)
A research study on the perceived value of social media for blind or visually impaired
business leaders as business networking tool.
5.5
LIMITATIONS
This research study is partly the outcome of the support offered by five blind business participants
who selflessly committed their time and expertise towards this research. All participants were
based in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Caution is appropriate in the use of the findings in view
of the small sample that is not necessarily a representative sample of the South African blind
business leader community.
133
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APPENDIX A:
Letter of Approval – USB DESC Ethical Clearance
146
147
APPENDIX B:
Letter of Approval – Psytech SA (Pty) Ltd
148
APPENDIX C:
Letter of Approval – SA National Council for the Blind
149
APPENDIX D:
Research Participant - Invitation and Informed Consent
CONFIDENTIAL
Address: PO Box 610 Bellville 7535, Carl Cronje Drive Bellville 7530, Tel: +27(0)21 918 4111, Email: [email protected], Website: www.usb.ac.za
Dr Salome van Coller-Peter
[email protected]
Dr John Morrison
[email protected]
Dr Ruth Albertyn
Dr Babita Mathur-Helm
[email protected] [email protected]
Research Study of Carinna Krantz, MPhil Management Coaching Student,
University of Stellenbosch Business School, Student Number US 10655549-1977
STELLENBOSCH UNIVERSITY
Participant document
Invitation and Informed Consent to participate in Research Study

This document only contains narrative text in Word 97 – 2003 format.

The researcher and participant will co-sign this document during the
Chemistry Session.
Research Title: A beacon in the dark: perceived value of coaching visually impaired business
leaders on interpersonal communication competence.
This is a proposed research study with participants from the Blind and Visually Impaired
community.
You are invited to participate in this research study conducted by Carinna W. Krantz, MPhil in
Management Coaching, from the University of Stellenbosch Business School.
You are invited as a prospective participant for this study because of your comprehensive personal
and professional experience within the context of living with blindness and visual impairment.
150
1.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This qualitative research study intends to identify the perceived value of coaching on interpersonal
communication competence of Visually Impaired business leaders. This is in order to broaden the
evidence-based practice of coaching Visually Impaired business leaders towards the facilitation of
social awareness and relational management as constructs of interpersonal communication
competence.
2.
2.1
PROCEDURES
Research data collection phase
If you volunteer to participate in this study, we would ask you to partake in the research data
collection phase, scheduled as follows:
Pre-session
:
Completion of Self-report Questionnaire
Session 1
:
Chemistry session:
 Establishing rapport
 Verification of completed pre-session documentation
o Invitation and Informed Consent Form
o Business & Management Coaching Contract
o Participant Reflection Document
 Contracting and co-signing of research documents
 Establishing logistical arrangements
Session 2
:
15 FQ+Personality Questionnaire and Self-report Questionnaire
 Inter-active, verbal completion of Questionnaire
 Administered as a supportive coaching tool
Session 3
:
Feedback Interview:
 Conducted by the researcher as coach and HPCSA registered
psychological practitioner
 Focus and attention on participant’s interpersonal communication
strengths and development potential
Session 4
:
Coaching Session #1 – Checking in on specific coaching goals and
coaching topics
Session 5
:
Coaching Session #2
Session 6
:
Coaching Session #3 – “Pulse-checking” of progress towards set goals
Session 7
:
Coaching Session #4
Session 8
:
Coaching Session #5 – Checking out from coaching phase
Session 9
:
2.2
Interview:
 One-on-one and Inter-active session
 Qualitative Semi-Structured Interview (QSSI)
Research data analysis and interpretation phase
The researcher takes full responsibility for transforming the research data into measureable,
truthful and dependable research findings by means of manual coding of data for analysis and
interpretation. Research findings and informed recommendations will be shared with each
151
participant, the researcher’s academic supervisory board from the University of Stellenbosch
Business School, the executive board of the South African National Council for the Blind, as well
as with the executive board of Psytech South Africa.
2.3
Additional Information
●
Participants will receive the research administration documents in advance for timely
completion of the Consent Forms and Contract Agreement documents;
●
An individual session allows for 1.5 - 2 hours, one-on-one, face-to-face, inter-active
communication and verbal reading by the researcher. The exact number of hours is subject to
unforeseen and unavoidable or unpredictable circumstances;
●
Researcher is responsible for meeting the participant at a designated venue. Such
venue should be comfortable, private, protected from noise pollution, allowing for fresh air, drinking
water and sufficient ablution facilities;
●
Each individual participant consents to an audio recording during the qualitative semi-
structured interview for transcription purposes. Transcriptions remain locked-up in a safe for a
period of 10 years except for the time when being utilised during the process of data analysis and
interpretation;
●
Researcher may take notes during each inter-active session which will become part of
the data analysis, interpretation and reflection during the research study;
●
Researcher will act in the capacities of both researcher and management coach. Strict
boundaries are drawn between the two roles; each role capacity is serving a different purpose for
qualitative data collection.
3.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
The research design provides for standard, everyday lived experiences as perceived by most
business leaders from the Visually Impaired community. The sighted researcher is familiar with the
known worlds of Visually Impaired individuals. All projected reasonable or foreseeable risks,
emotional discomforts or physical inconveniences align with normal workplace experiences.
4.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
Very little if none scientific literature could be found on the influence and perceived value of
coaching Visually Impaired business leaders on their interpersonal communication competence.
Therefore, this study aims to contribute to the scientific body of knowledge in relation to a so-called
vulnerable group, functioning within the business community. The research design promotes an
opportunity for adding new knowledge to the discipline of Business and Management Coaching,
152
whilst research participants might benefit from the coaching facilitation through personal learning
and professional development.
5.
PAYMENT FOR PARTICIPATION
No financial remuneration counts for participants’ time and participation because this research
study is non-sponsored. All traveling costs, maintenance management and overhead expenses
incurred are for the account of the researcher self.
6.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Findings and recommendations that could potentially identify a particular participant will remain
confidential and could only be disclosed with the written permission of the participant or as required
by law. The use of a pseudonym for each individual participant maintains anonymity and
confidentiality. Participants’ identities do not reflect in the research findings through related
incidents, experiences, biographical information, neither through conflict of interest.
7.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
The participant may choose whether to be in this study, or not with the option to withdraw consent
at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. During the research period, the
participant may refuse to answer questions preferred not to answer and remain in the study. The
researcher may withdraw a participant from the study if circumstances arise which warrant doing
so.
8.
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
Questions or concerns about the research, is available from the following individuals:
Principal Researcher
:
Carinna Krantz
Tel (landline)
:
012 348 4320
Mobile
:
084 400 5787
Email
:
[email protected]
Supervisor
:
Dr John Morrison
Email
:
[email protected]
153
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT
The
above
information
was
read
and
described
to
me
(sign
name
&
surname)
……………………………….………………………………………….. by the researcher, Carínna
Krantz in English, and I, (sign name & surname) ………………………………………………………
am in command of English. I was given the opportunity to ask questions and these questions were
answered to my satisfaction. I, (sign name & surname) ……………………………………… hereby
consent voluntarily to participate in this research study. I have received a copy of this signed
document.
Name of Participant ____________________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________
SIGNATURE OF PARTICIPANT
DATE
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCHER
I declare that I read and explained the information given in this document to ……………………...
………………………………………… (participant) who was encouraged and given ample time to
ask me any questions. This conversation was conducted in English.
Name of Researcher ____________________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________
Signature of Researcher
Date
NOTICE OF CONFIDENTIALITY
The information contained in this document and all of its attachments are confidential and privileged.
154
APPENDIX E:
Business and Management Coaching Contract
Blind and Visually Impaired Participant Document
CONFIDENTIAL
Address: PO Box 610 Bellville 7535, Carl Cronje Drive Bellville 7530, Tel: +27(0)21 918 4111, Email: [email protected], Website: www.usb.ac.za
Dr Salome van Coller-Peter
[email protected]
Dr John Morrison
[email protected]
Dr Ruth Albertyn
Dr Babita Mathur-Helm
[email protected] [email protected]
Research Study of Carinna Krantz, MPhil Management Coaching Student,
University of Stellenbosch Business School, Student Number US 10655549-1977
Information

This document contains narrative text in Word 97 – 2003 format.

Please complete this document electronically at the designated spaces.

The researcher as coach as well as the participant as coachee will co-sign this
document during the Chemistry Session.
Both the coach and the research participant hereby enter into an Agreement with regard to the
confidential nature of personal and professional information revealed, discussed, assessed,
processed, verified, analysed, interpreted, liaised and reflected upon during a coaching journey.
Terms of Understanding
●
I understand that a coaching journey can be perceived and experienced as an
opportunity to embrace personal learning and professional development;
●
I do understand the benefits of completing the 15Factors (Plus) Personality Questionnaire
(15FQ+) as a dependable coaching tool as well as the Self-report Questionnaire;
●
I declare myself willing to receive feedback on the results from the Personality
Questionnaire by an HPCSA registered psychological practitioner for clarification of my
Inter-personal communication competence before commencing with the 5 times coaching
sessions;
●
I understand that all coaching documentation is Personal and Confidential and
treated accordingly;
155
●
I understand that the coaching conversations during the coaching journey are dual
responsibilities of both the researcher as coach and participant as coachee;
●
I understand that the coaching space allows me the freedom to express any concern
from my past and from the present that might impact on my career as a Business Leader;
●
I am eager to set new professional goals, to embrace alternative processes of problem
solving and to experiment with challenging action for the development of changed
perspectives and behaviour.
Enter YES or NO after the colon:
If NO to the above, please comment after the colon:
I hereby consent to enter into a coaching partnership with Carinna Krantz as the Coach and
Researcher during the period of data capturing for this Research Study. I am hereby informed of
the purpose and scope of the Research Assignment, and that Business and Management
Coaching is an integral component thereof. I understand that all coaching information,
documentation and my reflective notes will be treated as confidential and anonymous;
Enter YES or NO after the colon:
I grant Carinna Krantz, the Researcher as Coach permission to utilise, process and add all
observational field notes which might be generated during the coaching sessions to the research
data for analysis;
Enter YES or NO after the colon:
I am experiencing an illness, compromised situation, or disability at present which might affect or
impact on the coaching facilitation process;
Enter YES or NO after the colon:
If YES, please specify after the colon:
156
Please enter your details following after each colon.
NAME:
IDENTITY NUMBER:
MOBILE CONTACT NUMBER:
LANDLINE CONTACT NUMBER:
TODAY’S DATE:
SIGNATURE:
COACH (RESEARCHER):
REQUESTS:
NOTICE OF CONFIDENTIALITY
The information contained in this document and all of its attachments are confidential and privileged.
157
APPENDIX F:
Copyright Permission
Brailling of Leadership For All (Ungerer, Herholdt & Le Roux, 2013)
158
APPENDIX G:
Preparation Data: 15FQ+ Questionnaire, Participants P1-P5, Profiling
Figure G.1: Pre-coaching phase: Participants Inter-Personal Communication Competence (IPCC)
159
APPENDIX H:
Preparation Data: Inter-personal- and Intra-personal competencies
160
APPENDIX I:
Preparation Data: Qualitative Self-report Questionnaire – Findings
I.1
ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND FINDINGS ON SELF-REPORT QUESTIONNAIRE
Data analysis and interpretation presents findings that cross-referenced with the first research
objective in determining the scope of interpersonal communication needs. Social Awareness and
Relational Management constructs are in bold maroon. To add, participants’ data that presented
with Intra-personal communication (Self-awareness and Self-management) needs reflect in
bold blue. Participants completed the Self-report Questionnaire from an Intra-personal
perspective; therefore acknowledging an inherent subconscious influence as part of an everyday
lived experience.
Note: Including intra-personal communication competency needs reflected beyond the scope
and mandate for this study; however, acknowledging participants’ intra-personal communication
needs may accentuate and inform future research.
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire
Question 1: What might currently be your biggest professional & business challenge?
Researcher Analysis and interpretation
Participants’ Qualitative Data – narrative answers
P1 describes the limiting effects of
dependency and workplace
discriminatory rules towards blind
employees
“For me it’s not a professional challenge; a disability
P1
P2 highlights the importance of
providing job security, enhancing
emotional resilience
P2
P3 confirms the challenging nature of
start-up business ventures
P3
P4 describes the inaccessibility of the
job market for blind people. P4 is a
highly qualified professional with
discipline specific experience
P5 describes personal reflection on
quantifying leadership skills
P4
P5
restricts you from doing things you want to do in your own
time and in your own space. I have to rely on other for many
things. The policy at work regarding assistive devices is not
flexible. People don’t understand this…”
“To secure consecutive work contracts in combination with
attending to my ongoing studies. Also to work on not
doubting myself at times and then avoiding taking on tasks
for fear of failure.”
“To develop a new business venture into a viable business
and to engage in more active research regarding my
responsibilities.”
“I think employers in the open labour market are unaware or
misinformed as regards to the capabilities of blind and
visually impaired persons (BVIP’s). I’ve never been able to
secure employment by a private company and I think it is
largely due to the fact that private companies feel that a
blind person will be more of a burden than an asset to the
company.”
“My biggest challenge is that I have no way to assess the
effectiveness of my leadership skills.”
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Analysis and Interpretation
Participants 1-4 (P1, P2, P3 and P4) referred to organisational awareness and the principle of
reasonable accommodation. In spite of all participants employed on senior managerial level, they
experienced limited alternative options within their respective fields. In general, upon receiving
declines after job applications, feedback remains vague on the reasons for being unsuccessful,
thus on the receiving end of the lack of open communication. They mostly attributed missed
opportunities to the status of their disability and not on their job-related performance. Their
remarks also accounted for the majority of persons from the blind community. P1 referred to team
working accentuating a blind person’s dependency on sighted persons. Despite existing legal
requirements, employers continue discriminatory practices and exclusion of BVIP’s as part of
negative organisational awareness. P5 questions own leadership effectiveness as a
professional challenge. In cross-reference, P5 attained slightly above average leadership interest
(6/10) compared to the sample group, seemingly lacking accurate self-assessment. Refer to
Figure I.2 in Appendix I and Figure H.1 in Appendix H.
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire (Continued)
Question 2: What might motivate, energize and inspire you about your professional role?
P1 derives personal and professional
satisfaction from feeding cyclical
learning of others
P2 thrives on solving problems
through innovation and logical
thinking
P3 aims to improve others’ lives and
explore unknown territories
P4 is managing the development of a
first time disability toolkit within
workplace department
P5 derives personal and professional
satisfaction from managing a complex
intellectual demanding workload
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
“I get satisfaction when I know I make a huge difference in
people’s lives. Someone learning from my intervention will
develop, grow and help others to learn and develop. It
motives me every day.”
“I am inquisitive and intuitive by nature and I love to
generate new ideas in order to solve problems in a creative
way.”
“Making a difference, changing lives, working in diverse
environments and exploring new fields of knowledge.”
“Currently I’m contributing to the development of a services
model for persons with disabilities which does not exist
within this department as yet. This motives me to stay in the
role.”
“The professional and intellectual challenge in my work
position. This is very exciting for me and I find that the work
itself energizes me on a daily basis.”
Analysis and Interpretation
P1, P2, P3 and P4 operated as change catalysts, been open to change by acting innovative and
unconventional, willing to explore beyond known territory. Acting in a professional role gave them
access to transformational development of others whilst acting in a mentoring capacity. This
instilled different leadership styles that are mostly dependent on self-confidence and
trustworthiness. P3 aimed for establishing rapport with others through collaboration and dual
benefit. Refer to Figure H.1 in Appendix H for confirmation of P1’s above average preference for
162
interpersonal
openness.
P4
and
P5
were
committed
to
service
orientation
and
conscientiousness as reflected on the nature of managing intellectually complex and demanding
work projects that inspired and motivated their job performance. P2 drew inspiration and
motivation from an attitude of achievement orientation to solve problems.
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire (Continued)
Question 3: How willing are you to invest in your personal learning and professional
development
P1 is quite positive about investing in
continuous professional development
to become an expert on disability
matters, taking full accountability
towards responsibilities for that
P2 displays a teachable spirit and a
definite commitment towards
continuous self-development
P3 confirms a calling towards job role,
also displaying an entrepreneurial
competence in the business sector
P4 seems currently complacent in job,
however realizing the possible stifling
effects of complacency
P5 needs time to reflect upon a
commitment towards learning and
professional development
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
“I’m willing to invest a lot. One has to learn from other
people. I need time to learn to work towards that vision. For
me to be an acclaimed expert I have to make contributions
to the body of knowledge through attending seminars,
workshops, conferences – no one will do it for me.”
“I’m more than willing, having made studying a way of life for
many years. I do own my mistakes from the past therefore
learning daily from every opportunity, situation and person.”
“My work is very much my life and gives me joy and
satisfaction. I put no limit on my time commitment and am
ready to risk limited financial investment in new business
opportunities.”
“Not very willing because I think that I’m in a comfort zone,
by earning a decent salary.”
“I am intrigued by the prospect of investing in myself but I
have not given it any structured thought.”
Analysis and Interpretation:
In answering this question, participants were required to reveal their perspectives covering selfawareness, self-management (Intra-personal domain), social awareness and relational
management (Inter-personal domain).
P1, P2 and P3 were positively willing to invest in personal learning and professional development
by offering time and managing forward planning to realise a return on investment (ROI). Such
ROI would benefit both the participant and the organisation, reflecting an attitude towards service
orientation and organisational awareness. P4 and P5’s responses were non-committed, distant
and aloof, possibly indicating a need for facilitated emotional self-awareness; seemingly nonanticipative towards the benefits of investing additional time and energy towards service
orientation and adjusted organisational awareness. P2 and P3 confirmed a commitment
towards continuous professional development (CPD) taking ownership for positive levels of
organisational awareness and open communication. Refer to profile of P2 in Figure H.1,
Appendix H for dependable data correlation. P1’s answer indicated a commitment towards
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achievement orientation with an expressed vision of becoming a subject matter expert in future.
P3 emphasised persuasiveness as a positive contributor in business success.
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire (Continued)
Question 4: What might be you longer-term career vision
P1 wants to become an expert and
specialist on disability matters
P2 holds a flexible attitude towards an
in exhaustive list of work opportunities
P3 wishes to stay involved with varied
business ventures for as long as
possible and save money for old age
P4 is looking for a ‘win-win situation’
to have more flexible working hours
and apply workplace competencies
(knowledge, skill and abilities) on
global disability forums
P5 is content with professional career,
not ‘looking over the fence’ for
another opportunity right now
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
“I want to be an acclaimed expert in my field regarding
disability matters in South Africa and beyond the borders.”
“I am fairly adaptable and open to change. I will never stop
studying and wish to stay in work without ever retiring.”
“To continue with my diverse business involvements by
putting no limits on scope and size of challenges. I also
need to ensure financial security for later years.”
“I see myself as becoming a professional director on
national and international disability boards. This will enable
me to use my expertise and my time in a manner of my
choosing without the current hourly restrictions. I want more
flexibility in my schedule.”
“I think that I am very lucky to be at the job level I am. I
would have felt the same if I was able to see. I cannot say
that I am sure whether I would be interested to play at any
other level but I would not want to exclude that possibility.”
Analysis and Interpretation:
In answering this question, P1 repeated same answer to Question 3; as such, the finding remains
constant. For P2 and P3, innovative change, experiential learning and unconventional approaches
to progress remain a repetitive social construct as change catalysts. P4 values collaboration with
colleagues and clients through interpersonal openness. For P3 and P4, sharing information and
knowledge with colleagues and clients on a long-term basis included mentoring and coaching as a
form of open communication. P3 answered this question with a sense of forward planning,
wishing to realise many entrepreneurial opportunities in future. Also taking cognisance of service
orientation in producing work of a high standard; working without close supervision matches up
with the importance of organisational awareness. P2 confirmed a positive attitude towards varied
future job prospects, reflecting adaptability towards changed environments and everyday
challenges. P4’s longer-term career vision was to establish a global platform for representing
persons with disabilities amongst different forums. Realising such longer-term vision asked for a
commitment towards forward planning, adaptability and inspirational leadership. P5 reported
longer-term career planning on par with current career opportunity. Because of coping very well in
current job with high demand on accountability towards responsibilities, it might be advantageous
to P5 and employer to remain dependable, accepting and expedient, reflecting trustworthiness.
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Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire (Continued)
Question 5: What might you expect to get out of a coaching partnership at this point?
P1 states the possibility of a
constructivist approach (alternative
approach), utilizing coaching as a
means to explore different views
P2 wishes to utilize coaching for the
prioritising business strategies and
how to deal with unfinished projects
P3 wishes for facilitation in intrapersonal skills; also for mirroring and
quantifying business-related ventures
P4 states the intention to take
ownership for the coaching process,
to reflect on the present situation and
gain insight into future decisionmaking
P5 states unequivocally that the
coaching process should enhance
self-knowledge
“Maybe to perceive things in a different way.”
P1
P2
“I need to improve on how to structure my time and how to
complete certain projects that have been left unfinished…”
P3
“Insight into myself and an objective perspective on my
hopes and future business plans.”
P4
P5
“Hopefully it will help me to reflect and identify challenges,
opportunities; the strengths and weaknesses in myself and
my current work situation and hopefully a way forward to
communicate my career prospects.
“I will get to know myself better and I may learn to
understand other people better.”
Analysis and Interpretation:
All participants (P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5) identified the perceived value of coaching for facilitating
change on a personal and professional level; as change catalyst for the benefit of both the
employer and the participant. This finding confirms that all five participants were ready for entering
into a coaching partnership at the start of this research study. P3, P4 and P5 indicated the need for
intra-personal development with the focus on self-awareness and self-management competence.
Refer to profiles of P3 and P5 in Figure H.1, Appendix H, reflecting a need for facilitation on open
communication. This construct reflects a preference for socialising, expression, spontaneous
interaction and more. As indicated by P3 and P5 the need for development on open
communication should add to self-preservation on how to engage without awkwardness, without
being emotionally vulnerable or at risk. P1 confirmed an interest to collaborate with colleagues and
clients through interpersonal openness, being willing to consider others’ views, interests and
opinions. P1 believed that coaching could be instrumental in reconfiguring own perceptions. P2
expressed the need for coaching on the topic of forward planning, enhancing management of
future projects and completion of existing projects left ‘in mid-air’ due to a possible lack in selfdiscipline or motivation. Forward planning eases into enhanced organising, leading to activation
and delegation of responsibilities. Coaching all participants on inspirational leadership should
enhance organisational awareness in following organisational governance resulting in enhanced
work performance. P4 decided to utilise coaching as facilitation process for meeting demanding
165
work schedules. Such decision supported achievement orientation, serving the goal for traveling
globally in future.
Table I.1: Analysis and interpretation of Self-report Questionnaire (Continued)
Question 6: What might be the biggest obstacles you need to overcome to get your
career level to the next position?
P1 explains being at a disadvantaged
position at work, lacking the support
of fellow colleagues. P1 needs the
employer to adjust the business policy
regarding AT and devices in order to
thrive at work and deliver on job
requirements
P1
“If people I’m working with can change their attitude.
Sometimes progress and programs are hampered by
people’s attitude towards people with disabilities. Also if I
can have the relevant assistive technology and devices that
I need, I will thrive. As a disabled person, I need support. If
every staff member could give me their full support I know I
shall be more effective and efficient in what I’m doing.”
P2 reports a lack in communication
during recruitment processes being
unable to identify the real reason for
not securing a job after a job interview
P2
“When sourcing for work and not getting a job I have lately
been asking for the reason, be it my age, my gender, my
ethnicity or my disability as a blind person. I do not get clear
answers to that.”
P3 wants to address work priorities to
enhance time management; also the
need to deal with organisations’
political awareness and management
P3
“Time pressure and the BEEE priorities in the country.”
P4
“To gain self-confidence and confidence in the job market to
reach the point of having the self-confidence for negotiating
a better deal for myself. Also to bring more awareness about
disabilities to employers.”
P5
“My interpersonal competence, an ability to influence others
and the ability to listen to others, to understand the
difference amongst situations where any of those skills are
called for.”
P4 wants to improve on intra- and
interpersonal competence to
negotiate for a job in the open market;
also to sensitise employers on
disability needs
P5 confirms the need to communicate
as a leader by making an impact on
others, having listened well and to
discern on an appropriate response
Analysis and Interpretation:
P1 and P5 confirmed that obstacles existed within organisational ignorance and insensitivity
towards the needs of persons with disabilities. To overcome those hurdles, blind persons need to
act more decisive and with a sense of persuasiveness. ‘The wheel that squeaks will get oiled’ as
once mentioned by P1 during a coaching session for the benefit of improved service, producing
work of high standards. Inspirational leadership action might convince management on how to
procure assistive technology and assistive devices for BVIP’s. Those devices need ordering from
abroad, involving an organisation’s cultural intelligence towards the diverse needs of employees.
P5 confirmed inspirational leadership as a change catalyst towards making an impact on team
working. Refer to Figure H.1 in Appendix H for team working preference by P5. Neither P1 nor
P5 seemed inclined to use conflict management for reaching their goals. P2 reported
organisational agendas for lack of interpersonal openness in explaining reasons for not hiring
blind persons. P2 considered recruitment processes as a major obstacle for blind persons. P3 and
166
P4 reported negotiated leadership as an avenue for establishing open communication and
team working through the driving force of blind persons’ willingness to act as change catalysts
on behalf of all members of the blind community.
I.2
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS: SELF-REPORT QUESTIONNAIRE
Refer to Appendix H for below-mentioned tables and figures:
i Table H.1: Data Analysis: Self-report Interpersonal communication
ii Table H.2: Data Analysis: Self-report Intra-personal communication
iii Figure H.1: Qualitative distribution of participants’ interests (Interpersonal constructs)
iv Figure H.2: Qualitative distribution of participants’ interests (Intra-personal constructs)
Referred content in abovementioned Tables and Figures are of no significant quantitative statistical
value; however, the qualitative data underscores visual comparison. Group profile shapes an
opportunity for individual comparison based on self-perception. Social constructs are never right,
nor wrong; perceptions shift on a continuum between extreme polarities, demanded by contexts of
every-day lived experiences.
The low empathy score as social awareness construct indicates a lack of insight into others’
thoughts and feelings.
The high organisational awareness score as social awareness construct indicates motivation
towards an understanding of clients’ requirements and how best to meet that. To add, it indicates
taking other people at face value, however also paying attention to power relations and
undercurrents within teams, groups and the organisation.
The low conflict management score as relational management construct indicates the group’s
level of diplomacy and tact versus acting agreeable and with accommodation of others’ priorities.
The high change catalyst score as relational management construct indicates the likelihood
towards embracing new working methods, practises and procedures. New ideas might be
infectious in order to support innovation, pro-actively bringing about necessary organisational
change.
I.3
15FQ+ PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE AS COACHING INSTRUMENT
The Fifteen Factors Questionnaire Plus (15FQ+) is an assessment of personality and individual
differences. It is based on one of the most researched and respected models of personality,
identifying behaviour, preferences covering Cattell’s 16 personality constructs (Ackerman &
Heggestad, 1997:228) and the big five personality traits (McCrae and Costa: 1985). These provide
167
insight into how people typically think, feel and interact in ways that may be productive or counterproductive for an organisation.
In line with the work of Goleman (1996), emotional intelligence defines human competencies in two
domains; the personal and interpersonal. Utilising the 15FQ+ as coaching instrument in this
research study, enhanced self-perspective of participants in deciding on personal coaching goals
and topics related to interpersonal communication competence.
The first session, also referred to as the ‘chemistry session’ served as ‘get-to-know-one-another’
by discussing participants’ responses on the Self-report Questionnaire. In addition, co-signing of
official agreement and contract documents (in duplicate) received attention. Participants signed
their names by using a bankcard as ruler or the researcher’s index finger as pointer, or utilising an
ink stamp.
During the second session, the Fifteen Factors-Plus (15FQ+) Personality Questionnaire (Psytech:
2015) was administered inter-actively with the researcher reading the items and completing the
protocol in pen on behalf of the participant (see Appendix B). Psytech SA (Pty) Ltd sponsored the
processing of the data and released the assessment reports to the researcher. Assessment
reports are confidential. By law (Health Professions Act, Act 56 of 1974), only HPCSA registered
practitioners may conduct assessments utilising registered psychometric instruments for individual
feedback interviews to the participants.
Figure I.1: 15FQ+, Intra-group results on Interpersonal communication competence
The 15FQ+ used as a coaching instrument served the purpose of profiling participants’ interests,
preferences and opinions on their interpersonal communication competence including the
constructs of social awareness and relational management.
Compared to the profiled results from the Self-report Questionnaire, the results profile from the
15FQ+ are scientifically valid and reliable indicators of the participants’ interpersonal
communication awareness and management.
168
Social-awareness competencies enable participants to understand others’ motives, emotions and
behaviour. Further, to be open to others’ point of view and their unique perspectives resulting from
past lived-experiences. Lastly to be sensitive to interpersonal and organisational dynamics
(Psytech: 2015).
Relationship-management competencies enable participants to communicate effectively, relating
to others with diplomacy and tact whilst negotiating successfully to the benefit of both and all.
Universal workplace competencies include motivation of others and actively promoting
transformational change. To this end, paying attention to collaborated networking and sharing of
information. The mentioned theory of possibility implies nurturing an aptitude of personal learning
and professional development for ‘self’ and colleagues, through appropriate means of support like
coaching, mentoring, training, facilitation and teaching (Psytech: 2015).
Profiled assessment results reflected in Figures I.1 and I.2 suggest meeting the first research
objective by determining the scope of interpersonal communication needs with specific focus on
the constructs of social awareness and relational management. Confirmation of this finding
prepared the development of the research process towards the second objective during the
second phase, determining the perceived value of coaching to the five blind research participants
during the coaching phase.
I.4.
FINDINGS: 15FQ+ QUESTIONNAIRE - INDIVIDUAL COACHING POTENTIAL
Pre-coaching phase: Participant P1, receiving feedback on interpersonal communication
competence, determining goals and topics for coaching phase of the research process.
Figure I.2: Participant P1, 15FQ+ results on Interpersonal communication competence
169
Table I.2: Findings - Participant P1
Participant P1: Social Awareness: score of 6 on a scale 0 – 10; Slightly above average
Construct
Strengths
Development areas
Empathy
P1 promotes harmonious working
relationships
P1 may place personal needs of subordinates
above their work responsibilities
Interpersonal Openness
P1 may be a fairly good listener and
willing to hear others’ out
P1 may be too agreeable and accommodating
at expense of self and organisation
Organisational Awareness
P1 may be sensitive to social situations
as most other people (average)
P1 inclined to question others’ motives for
possible hidden agendas (sceptical)
Service Orientation
P1 may be average on meetings clients’
requests
P1 may be as motivated as most to
understand what clients require or ask for
Participant P1: Relationship-management scored 1 on a scale of 0 – 10; Far below average
Construct
Strengths
Development areas
Persuasiveness
P1 may be agreeable, avoiding to force
personal views onto others
P1 may be lacking social confidence meeting
new people; needs skills for public speaking
Conflict Management
P1 may be as diplomatic and tactful as
most; not seeking unduly conflict
P1 may retire too soon during negotiations
without assertion to reach goals
Inspirational Leadership
P1 may be traditional in leadership style
keeping to familiar methods
P1 seems less lively and participative than
most, preferring not to direct nor to delegate
Change Catalyst
P1 may be unlikely to enthusiastically
promote new practices and procedures
P1 may find it challenging to energise and
motivate others
Team Working
P1 may need substantial
encouragement to partake in team work
P1 may not be group orientated and my
participate in team work only for KPA’s
Open Communication
P1 incorporates teaching with
mentoring when dealing with direct
reports’ transformational development
P1 may be quite cynical about human nature,
inclined to doubt others’ motives and avoid
sharing information with colleagues
Pre-coaching phase: Participant P2, receiving feedback on interpersonal communication
competence, determining goals and topics for the coaching phase of the research process.
Figure I.3: Participant P2, 15FQ+ results on Interpersonal communication competence
170
Table I.3: Findings - Participant P2
Participant P2: Social Awareness: score of 6 on a scale 0 – 10; Slightly above average
Construct
Strengths
Development areas
Empathy
P2 may be warm and empathic; also
fairly assertive in balancing colleagues
personal needs against work demands
P2 may experience in-attention to the nuances
of a setting and may experience thoughts and
feelings of others ‘going over P2’s head’
Interpersonal Openness
P2 may be attentive to listening to
other’s views and opinions
P2 may be less agreeable and
accommodating of others’ moods and views
Organisational Awareness
P2 is trusting of others, taking them by
face value; may not question agendas
P2 may not be sensitive to subtleties of
situations, missing out on power relations
Service Orientation
P2 may be fairly intuitive by nature and
motivated to be realistic about clients
P2 may try to understand clients’ requirements
and how best to meet clients’ needs
Participant P2: Relationship-management scored 6 on a scale of 0 – 10; Slightly above average
Strengths
Development areas
Persuasiveness
P2 may be an effective public speaker,
taking ‘centre stage’ in meetings
P2’s colleagues may feel overpowered,
struggling to make their own voices heard
Conflict Management
P2 may strive for balanced negotiations
leading to ‘win-win’ situations
P2 may not always be diplomatic and tactful in
dealings with others’ agendas
Inspirational Leadership
P2 may be a lively and participative
leader, motivating others
P2 may try too hard to galvanise and energise
direct reports and colleagues
Change Catalyst
P2 is extremely open to new and
unconventional ideas
P2 may embrace new working procedures
without following through to conclusion
Team Working
P2 believes doing best work away from
distraction of other people
P2 may not be very group-orientated and may
not enjoy team work
Open Communication
P2 may not be inclined to doubt
people’s motives and may be open and
straightforward in dealings with others;
Also when developing others, preferring
mentoring or coaching as methods
P2 may tend to avoid teaching or training as
development methods, preferring not to
negotiate with direct reports or colleagues on
their preferred methods for development; it
may be stifling to colleagues and subordinates
Construct
Pre-coaching phase: Participant P3, receiving feedback on interpersonal communication
competence, determining goals and topics for the coaching phase of the research process.
Figure I.4: Participant P3, 15FQ+ results on Interpersonal communication competence
171
Table I.4: Findings – Participant P3
Participant P3: Social Awareness: score of 10 on a scale 0 – 10; Outstanding
Construct
Strengths
Development areas
Empathy
P3 may be quite concerned about the
welfare of others, acting empathic
P3 may become unduly sympathetic and
overly understanding of others’ challenges
Interpersonal Openness
P3 may be a good listener as a caring
and compassionate individual
P3 may be too agreeable and accommodating
of others’ views at the expense of own ideas
Organisational Awareness
P3 may be fairly sensitive to social
situations, paying attention to power
relationships in groups and organisation
P3 may be trusting, taking others at face value
without questioning motives that could be
perceived as naivety by colleagues
Service Orientation
P3 may be interested in understanding
clients’ needs, wants and goals
P3 may be emotionally affected by clients
acting unreasonable and in a rude way
Participant P3: Relationship-management scored 9 on a scale of 0 – 10; Excellent
Construct
Strengths
Development areas
Persuasiveness
P3 may be socially confident, enjoying
speaking to large groups of people
P3 may be reasonably agreeable, accepting
others’ dominating behaviour
Conflict Management
P3 may prioritise most important issues
to manage successful negotiations
P3 may be inclined to the overuse of tact and
diplomacy that others may abuse for own gain
Inspirational Leadership
P3 may be more of a consultative
leader, not going alone on decisions
P3 may be less lively and participative; unlikely
to energise and motivate others
Change Catalyst
P3 may embrace the principles of
change in an inclusive way
P3 may be inclined to consult too wide before
making decisions that hampers processes
Team Working
P3 may prefer to work on own terms
and in own space without networking
P3 may be less group orientated, missing out
on team-work for problem solving
P3 may avoid doubting others’ motives
and prefer to be open and
straightforward in dealings with others.
P3 may be caught off-guard by persons with
less pure integrity or approaching
communication with hidden agendas
Open Communication
Pre-coaching phase: Participant P4, receiving feedback on interpersonal communication
competence, determining goals and topics for the coaching phase of the research process.
Figure I.5: Participant P4, 15FQ+ results on Interpersonal communication competence
172
Table I.5: Findings – Participant P4
Participant P4: Social Awareness: score of 9 on a scale 0 – 10; Excellent
Construct
Strengths
Development areas
Empathy
P4 may be inclined to be an empathic
individual, caring for others’ feelings
P4 may be inclined to focus more on the
personal needs of colleagues than work needs
Interpersonal Openness
P4 may be reasonably agreeable and
accommodating
P4 may need to manage radical and
unconventional approaches by colleagues
Organisational Awareness
P4 may be keen to promote harmonious
working relationships.
P4 may be affected by power-play at work
especially when excluded from activities
Service Orientation
P4 may prioritise the needs of clients,
serving their best interest
P4 may hold the best interest of clients despite
some information ‘going over the head’
Participant P4: Relationship-management scored 10 on a scale of 0 – 10; Outstanding
Construct
Strengths
Development areas
Persuasiveness
P4 may be an agreeable person who
does not dominate conversations
P4 may portray social confidence despite
experiencing anxiety about public speaking
Conflict Management
P4 may be inclined to making ample
concessions in order to show respect
for the needs of colleagues
P4 may be lacking assertion causing
reluctance to raise issues with colleagues that
might cause disagreements
Inspirational Leadership
P4 may wish to be a business winner
leading subordinates the same way
P4 may experience hesitation in situations
amongst strangers and withhold input
Change Catalyst
P4 may be seen and experienced as a
confident communicator, convincing
others about the ‘good for change’
P4 may wish to establish huge projects
however lacking the practical wisdom to
enthuse organisational change
Team Working
P4 may be group-orientated ; building a
network of supportive colleagues
P4 may be inclined to easily share information
that gives them an advantage over P4.
Open Communication
P4 believes in transparent relations
where everybody communicates about
the goals and working process
P4 may prefer direct communication, however
needs to find a way to communicate this
preference to persons biased towards BVIP’s
Pre-coaching phase: Participant P5, receiving feedback on interpersonal communication
competence, determining goals and topics for the coaching phase of the research process.
Figure I.6: Participant P5, 15FQ+ results on Interpersonal communication competence
173
Table I.6: Findings – Participant P5
Participant P5: Social Awareness: score of 2 on a scale 0 – 10; Far below average
Construct
Strengths
Development areas
Empathy
P5 may be unlikely to say things that
might cause offence
P5 may be lacking in interpersonal warmth;
perceived as lacking empathy and concern
Interpersonal Openness
P5 may be agreeable to listen and hear
what others have to say
P5 may be perceived as lacking interpersonal
warmth, appearing mostly expressionless
Organisational Awareness
P5 may portray a disinterest in detail
orientation; thus no cluttering involved
P5 may need to express own inclusivity
amongst organisational culture
Service Orientation
P5 may be trusting, taking others at
face value; for the benefit of client P5 is
willing to transfer own knowledge
P5 may project a disinterest in client service
that may be due to interpersonal behaviour
Participant P5: Relationship-management scored 3 on a scale of 0 – 10; Below average
Construct
Strengths
Development areas
Persuasiveness
P5 may be reasonable agreeable
without attempting to enforce his
opinions onto others
P5 may be lacking social confidence, behaving
uncomfortable with strangers; also being less
inclined to environmental detail
Conflict Management
P5 may refrain from issues that might
cause discord or disagreement
P5 may be prone to social blunders, not
reflecting real and true competence
Inspirational Leadership
P5 may appear to act as directive
leader having firm views on how things
should be done at work
P5 may appear more traditional in views,
lacking participation, non-verbal expression
and enthusiasm
P5 may prefer to keep to ‘tried-andtested’ methods for avoiding risks
P5 may be inclined to show less liveliness,
lacking the ability to enthuse colleagues
Team Working
P5 may not be inclined to group work;
may produce best work when alone; P5
may easily share work knowledge
P5 may prefer teaching above mentoring or
coaching in team situation when information
needs to be relayed to the team
Open Communication
P5 may be pacing conversations before
talking to avoid rudeness and
interruption
P5 may be perceived as being rather
insensitive at times, due to directness and
talking straight to the point; avoiding small talk
Change Catalyst
I.5
PRE-COACHING PHASE ON 15FQ+: INTRA-GROUP PARTICIPANTS
Overall competency potential score estimates the five blind business participants’ tendency
to exhibit effective interpersonal communication competence.
Figure I.1: 15FQ+, Intra-group Profiling on Interpersonal Communication
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Table I.7: Findings - 15FQ+ Intra-group coaching potential
Participants P1-P5:
Intra-group interpersonal communication, BELOW AVERAGE median:
P1-5 may tend to be overly concerned not to upset others; when
Open Communication
expressing themselves, verbal and non-verbal communication are mostly
indirect, overly cautious, lacking spontaneity and withholding own opinions.
Participant P1-P5:
Intra-group interpersonal communication ON AVERAGE median:
P1-5 may build positive working relations with others through interpersonal
Interpersonal
Openness
sensitivity and empathy. They tend to build rapport and promote and
maintain harmonious relations due to being dependent on others.
P1-5 may attend to detail and produce work that is accurate and of high
Service Orientation
standard. They may set themselves very high standards to be detail
conscious, systematic, structured and orderly in their work. They may be
motivated and conscientious to see tasks through to the end.
P1-5 may tend to structure own workload and organise colleagues, teams,
Organisational
Awareness
up-line management and subordinates for contingencies. They need to
delegate responsibilities within trusting work relations for the benefit of the
organisation and adhering to key performance areas.
P1-5 may present with challenging behaviours amongst sighted counter-
Conflict
Management
parts weighing up striving for giving right answers versus less perfect
answers that may be more acceptable to others. Also having to handle
perceptions from others that might contradict own worldview and opinions.
The group may tend to avoid putting own wishes before those of others.
P1-5 displayed a common preference for working on their own, and away
Team Working
from distractions of other people. All participants found their workload
highly demanding, having to deal with stress levels that arise from work
pressure and busy schedules. All participants were keen on motivating
others through transformational mentorship and diversity projects.
Participant P1-P5:
Intra-group interpersonal communication ABOVE AVERAGE median:
P1-5 may be required to influence others or ‘sell’ principled ideas about
Change Catalyst
disability to mainstream society. Effective change may result from the type
of clients, the organisational culture and context. Some may take a radical
stance, presenting different ideas from the organisational culture. Of
importance is to present a process for change with knowledgeable
integrity.
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P1-5 may act empathic towards others with a concern to attend to the
Empathy
nuances of the setting they find themselves. They may display a fair
degree of insight into others’ thoughts and feelings (social awareness)
with an overall interest in people’s behaviour as well as how they
behave towards others. A pattern of behaviour is due to dependency on
others.
P1-5 may base their leadership style on the relevance to a variety of
Inspirational
Leadership
situations where there is a requirement to manage others. Effective
performance will depend on many factors including the organisational
culture and their sub-ordinate styles. It includes an authentic understanding
and effective management of others’ emotional reactions to change
occurring in the workplace.
P1-5 may tend to communicate in a persuasive manner, mostly enjoying
Persuasiveness
opportunities for public speaking. Their persona brings a strong social
presence into meetings and social gatherings. They may be expected to be
good at breaking down barriers amongst people, bringing individuals and
teams convincingly around to their specific point of view.
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APPENDIX J:
Qualitative Semi-Structured Interview Questionnaire
Developed and compiled by Carinna Krantz, US 10655549-1977
J.1
INTRODUCTION
Thank you so much for offering your time once again to complete the data capturing phase of this
research assignment. Before we proceed I wish to refer to the Consent Form signed by both of us
at the beginning of the research process. You may recall that you have given your consent for this
interview to be audio recorded to enable transcribing the data. Also, continuing to secure all
information as private and confidential like the past six months without exposing your identity
anywhere and in any way. Are we still on the same page in this regard? Thank you.
As scheduled, today’s interview should not exceed 2 hours. We will cover four sections: coaching
experience, blindness disability, workplace experience and lastly interpersonal communication as
the plumb line competence of this research assignment. These questions and answers will
certainly inform my understanding of your unique opinions and perspective on everything we
shared inter-actively over the past six months, including your reflection notes during the coaching
phase. We both know that making time available on your busy schedule has been a sacrifice as
well as your commitment towards your personal learning, professional development and adding
value to this research assignment.
There are a number of questions per section and you are within your right to decline answering
any question that may cause any discomfort. We will take a short body-break between the
sections; at the same time we string the recording into four sections rather than having one very
long recording that may increase a technical risk to the recording.
During the interview I will have to multi-task between asking semi-structured questions, probing
some more if warranted, attentive listening, focused concentration, note taking as I have been
doing since the start of our inter-active sessions and also keep an eye on the time allocation per
section.
Do you have any questions right now?
Thank you.
Let us proceed.
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J.1.1
COACHING EXPERIENCE
a)
What comes to mind upon hearing the words “Business & Management Coaching?”
Possible probes:
b)
o
How does coaching differ from counselling and therapy?
o
What might be the difference between coaching and mentoring?
How valid and reliable did you find the content of the Feedback interview?
Possible probes:
o
How useful did you find the distinction between your personal strengths and
development areas?
o
How did the feedback interview support you in choosing coaching topics and goals?
o
In your opinion, did the initial assessment contribute towards your coaching
journey?
c)
Have you ever been coached before this coaching journey with me as researcher?
Possible probes:
d)
o
Have you ever been coached by a sports coach?
o
Have you considered self-coaching?
o
Have you considered implementing coaching principles at work?
Have you experienced specific ‘eureka-moments‘, or ‘a-ha-moments’ during the
coaching?
Possible probes:
e)
o
Have you experienced those moments of insight as a confirmation of information?
o
What do you make of Stephen Covey’s WIG (Wildly Important Goals)?
Have you considered continuing with coaching on a re-contracted basis hereafter?
Possible probes:
f)
o
What would you like to change or do differently next time?
o
Have you experienced any form of resistance towards the coaching process?
o
If yes, how did resistance manifest with you?
o
If yes, in what way did coaching impact on your blindness identity?
o
If yes, in your opinion, could the same resistance manifest with sighted persons?
What kind of guidelines would you consider important for sighted coaches to take into
consideration when coaching blind or visually impaired persons?
Possible probes:
o
What metaphor could describe your recent coaching experience?
178
g)
o
How would you describe coaching with compassion?
o
In your opinion, how inquisitive should a sighted coach be without imposing?
How much to you value the Braille translation and DAISY Audio version of the book
“Leadership For All” (Ungerer, Herholdt & Le Roux, 2013) used in our coaching?
Possible probes:
h)
o
How did you enjoy the self-facilitation during the reflection exercises?
o
How did you experience accessing a self-help personal development book?
o
Which version did you prefer: the Braille translation or the DAISY Audio version?
What aspects from your coaching journey during this research do you predict may
withstand the test of time in your ongoing personal and professional development?
Possible probes: None
J.1.2
BLINDNESS DISABILITY
a)
How relevant is your blindness in defining who you are as a whole person: intellectually,
socially, emotionally, physically, economically and spiritually? You may choose how much
you prefer to answer.
Possible probes:
o
In your opinion, do you communicate differently with other blind or visually impaired
persons than with sighted persons?
o
What might be some unwritten rules of communication amongst persons with
diverse forms of disabilities?
b)
o
When might you use echolocation?
o
In your opinion, do you think that sighted persons can learn the art of echolocation?
In your opinion, what positives and/or negatives concerning the different disability models
influenced your life profoundly?
Possible probes:
c)
o
The Moral Model
o
The Medical Model
o
The Social Model
o
The Affirmative Model
How do you compensate psychologically for never seeing anything?
Possible probes:
o
How did you develop your imagination over the years?
179
d)
o
What might be a strong negative emotion you need to manage regularly?
o
What might be a strong positive emotion overriding some negative emotions?
o
How do you manage awkward moments or situations?
If there was a miracle cure available to return your sight, would you consider having a
future life with full vision?
Possible probes:
o
What are you missing the most not seeing, because of your blindness?
o
What type of everyday experiences do you allow ‘going over your head’ without
pursuing the content thereof?
e)
What is your attitude towards the use of Assistive Technology (AT) and Devices for an
example canes, guide-dogs, speech phones, Braille Readers and others?
Possible probes:
o
What Assistive Technology and Devices do you access the most and the least?
o
What Assistive Technology or Devices do you dream of having?
J.1.3
WORKPLACE EXPERIENCE
a)
What are the things you look forward to most at work?
Possible probes:
o
In what way is your work more than just a job opportunity?
o
To what extent do the things you look forward to at work resulted from your own
drive, conscientiousness and innovation?
o
Are the most satisfying work more intellectually-, emotionally-, socially- or physically
challenging to you?
b)
How user-friendly are your colleagues towards people from diverse cultures in sharing
every day work and life experiences?
Possible probes:
o
How much do your colleagues know about the Blind community?
o
How accommodating are your organisation and colleagues towards meeting your
special needs in order to do your work effectively?
o
Does your organisation utilise the protocol of a disability toolkit reflecting
SA legislation on Disability Rights?
o
Are you aware of a workplace Disability Rights monitoring system imposed by the
Human Rights Commission of SA?
180
c)
How did your School for the Blind prepare you for choosing an ideal career path or
appropriate study course after obtaining Matric?
Possible probes:
o
Whilst still a scholar, have you considered becoming an expert or specialist
professional in your future work or career?
o
What were your study options after school at the time when you matriculated?
o
How was your School for the Blind different from any next door mainstream school?
o
In your opinion, what educational shifts have occurred since your time at school and
current schooling for learners with special educational needs?
d)
o
How did you experience institutional discipline as opposed to parental discipline?
o
Who or what profoundly influenced you as a scholar or as a student?
What might you wish to tell the current senior learners (Grades 10-12) at your School for
the Blind?
Possible probes:
o
How may you describe the transition from being a scholar to becoming a student?
o
How does the principle of job demand and candidate offering influence a
prospective student’s study and career choice?
o
What might be the difference between having a job and following a career?
o
What life skills do blind and visually impaired students need in abundance
to become successful in the workplace?
o
In your opinion, what core workplace competencies might be more important to
blind and visually impaired students than to their sighted peers?
e)
o
How may you describe an ideal’ blind or visually impaired person-job-match’?
o
How may you describe an ideal person-job-match?
o
What might be your view on job shadowing for students?
What personality traits, unique to yourself currently enhance your job performance and
success in the workplace?
Possible probes:
o
How important is independent functioning in the workplace to you?
o
How do you strategise to work and function as independent as possible?
o
What personality traits do colleagues and other persons regularly acknowledge
in you?
o
How do colleagues and other persons refer to your emotional ‘blind spots’, thus
indicating possible development areas which they believe you may benefit from?
o
In your opinion, what might be taboo topics never to be discussed with colleagues
at work?
181
f)
Give an example of a time when you ‘turned a blind eye’ to what someone at work said or
done?
Possible probes:
o
What situations may convince you to disengage at work?
o
On what basis might you decide to ignore perceived intrusion or ill-sensitivity from
others?
o
How do you manage to preserve personal space at work?
o
How do you apply time management in balancing social interaction with colleagues
versus tending to your work responsibilities?
o
g)
How do you ask for help or support at work and who do you prefer to ask?
Describe a team experience you found particularly rewarding. What made such
experience rewarding in the context of your work?
Possible probes:
h)
o
What was your role in this particular team experience?
o
What aspects of behaviour might you consider changing next time round?
o
What have you learned about colleagues you never knew before?
What was your response when you have been made the centre of attention at work?
Possible probes:
o
How did you act or react in the situation?
o
What might be your response when you realise you are exceeding your own
expectation of yourself at work?
o
How do colleagues respond in general when you do something that may shock or
surprise them?
J.1.4
INTER-PERSONAL COMMUNCATION COMPETENCE
a)
The title of my research assignment is: ‘A Beacon in the dark: the perceived value of
coaching visually impaired business leaders on interpersonal communication
competence’. How do you relate to the first part in the title? (A Beacon in the dark)
Possible probes:
b)
o
What meaning does the first part elicit within you?
o
In your opinion, could the title have had the same meaning without the first part?
o
What suggestion may you have as a synonym for the research title as it is?
How do you form an opinion or an impression of another person based on body posture,
182
body size, skin texture, hairstyle, tattoos, jewellery, perfume, clothing, emotional
expression, tone of voice or other personal iniquities?
Possible probes:
o
What would make you ask for a description of aspects about a person?
o
How do you avoid receiving descriptive information only, stripped from the person
describing’s analysis or interpretation of what you asked to be described?
o
How do you verify your own impression and imagination with actual facts about a
person?
c)
How do you communicate your blindness disability to strangers or when meeting new
people?
Possible probes:
o
What might be the role of lack of eye contact when meeting someone
new in person?
d)
o
When would you consider educating a stranger on fact about blindness disability?
o
How do you communicate your blindness to strangers when talking over the phone?
o
How important is humour in preserving your self-worth against ill-informed people?
Do you buy into a ‘Consensus Culture’ with blind and visually impaired persons as a
communication strategy without sighted people’s knowledge or awareness?
Possible probes:
o
There is a saying that blind people don’t trust sighted people. What might be your
opinion on this saying or perception out in society?
o
What is your opinion on blind or visually impaired persons that behave like victims
of their disability whilst acting with a form of entitlement?
g)
What would be a typical quote or saying that you find endearing enough to use quite
regularly when communicating with yourself or others?
Possible probes:
o
How much of such saying might be habitual and ingrained in your subconscious?
o
How much of such saying is with intent to communicate your own voice in a neutral
way without the need for meaning making?
h)
How do you react when people let you down by only offering excuses rather than giving
valid reasons for the impact of their behaviour on you?
Possible probes:
o
How do you manage situations in which sighted people undervalue your
Intelligence, competence, talents and your unique personal strengths?
183
o
How often (in general) do you find yourself in the role of crises management due to
communication confusion with others or due to non-performance or low
performance by sighted colleagues or other people you depend upon?
o
i)
How do you persuade sighted people to live up to an agreement with you?
What do the following words mean to you: humour, affection, accommodation?
Possible probes:
o
How do you practice humour, affection and accommodation (depending on your
specific meaning of the word ‘accommodation’)?
o
How much do you value being on the receiving end of others’ humour, affection and
accommodation (yet again, depending on your specific meaning of the word
‘accommodation’)?
k)
How can you tell if someone is lying to you?
Possible probes:
l)
o
How strongly do you rely on your sensing of others’ authenticity or truthfulness?
o
How strongly do you rely on your intuition of others’ authenticity or truthfulness?
o
What might be your approach to verify information given by others as facts?
What do you make of ambiguous communication e.g. ‘soon, right away, early, late, in a
short while, a.s.a.p., in a couple of hours, anytime in future, forever, immediately,
estimated time’?
Possible probes:
o
When do you consider the meaning of words to be abstract versus just vague?
o
How important is it to you that people mean what they say and act accordingly?
o
How important is it to you to plan and organise your work schedule?
o
How flexible are you in dealing with unforeseen events that may compromise your
planning and schedule?
m)
When it comes to body language, how do you complement your verbal language with
bodily expression and bodily gestures?
Possible probes:
o
How much effort do you put into blending verbal and body language when
communicating in person?
o
Have you experimented with body language as a result of the coaching?
o
Have you added new gestures or bodily expression to your body language recently?
o
Have you been sensitised by others about certain mannerisms that sighted people
find distracting or deficit during interpersonal communication with you?
184
n)
When it comes to tactile communication, how do you manage touching rituals like
greetings, comforting another with a touching gesture, other than just using your voice?
Possible probes:
o
How do you manage the so-called layman’s ‘good intention’ when physically
steering you rather than guiding you?
o
What might be your experience of the violation of your personal space?
o
In general, how often do you need to educate sighted people about having your
own preference in physical manipulation?
o)
With reference to temporal communication: how does your time orientation help you
manage your own needs, your schedule and maintaining interpersonal relations?
Possible probes:
o
How strict and disciplined are you on your own time management?
o
How strict and disciplined are you on others’ time management?
o
How many minutes would you consider as ‘being late’ when others do not keep to a
specific time agreement?
o
What might be the effect of circadian rhythms on your sleeping pattern?
o
In situations where you might be chairing, leading, teaching or training, and people
arrive late, how do you inform such situation to bridge any discomfort?
o
In general, how sensitive are sighted people towards firstly introducing themselves
to you?
p)
Coming to emotional roleplay expression: Please only show and express the meanings of
the following words without any verbal communication:
Real Options:
q)
o
‘Happiness’
o
‘Determination’
o
‘Sadness’
o
‘Frustration’
o
‘Ange’
o
‘Fear’
o
‘Surprise’
o
‘Bewilderment’
In continuation from the previous question, please only use body language on the
following options:
o
‘OK’
o
‘Come here’
185
r)
o
‘Keep going’
o
‘Slow down’
o
‘What else?’
o
‘Show me a circle using only your hands’
o
‘Show me a square using only your hands’
Coming to communication systems: In general, what changes during interpersonal
communication with you would you appreciate from sighted individuals?
Possible probes:
o
In your opinion, do you think that sighted persons try to over-compensate in dealing
with blind or visually impaired persons?
o
In your view, what may be the cause of ‘awkwardness’ between blind and visually
impaired persons, and sighted persons?
o
What might be your reaction to receiving sympathy from sighted persons?
o
How do you respond when people ‘talk down to you’, or talk about you in
your presence as if you are not present?
s)
Let us listen to silent communication: What function does ‘silence’ hold for you?
Possible probes:
t)
o
How do you deal with and interpret silent messages from others?
o
May you tend to fill the silent space or enjoy the silent space?
o
What risks may accompany silences during conversations?
When facing a crises situation, who do you want to be nearest to you?
Probes: None
u)
We have reached the end of this interview. Would you like to add any closing thoughts
off your sleeve and from your heart?
Thank you very much. Your input has been loaded with wisdom and courage.
I do applaud you as a unique individual with limitless potential waiting to be discovered by
yourself.
Carinna Krantz, 084 400 5787, US 10655549-1977