City University of Hong Kong
CAH2505 - Arts and Aesthetic Criticism
Writeup
Instructor​: Dr. Sylvia Lee
Chan Man Ki, Queenie
54597512
Lai Hing Yu, Fish
54713785
Tang Sum Yi, Cynthia
54396529
Wong Yau Yau, Yoyo
54409148
Yung Yuk Ying, Jennifer
54608426
1
1. Introduction
The chart above shows different significant events occurred and philosophies emerged
between the 18​th and 20​th centuries. In the Age of Enlightenment in 18​th century, Winckelmann
(1717-1768), Kant (1724-1804) and Hegel (1770-1831) were the most influential philosophers
during that period. The Industrial revolution in the 1780s and the French revolution that started
in 1789 both greatly influenced the society. The use of machinery slowly replaced manpower in
late 18​th century. As these movements proceeded, a sense of uneasiness was spreaded.
Everything became so formalized.
After that, in 19​th century, people began to challenge traditions and interrogated the
function as well as the value of art. Meanwhile, due to the emergence of romanticism, there were
other ways to express themselves and emotions were often heightened in their art pieces. For
example, Caspar David Friedrich ​did not paint only what he saw but what he felt. Besides, there
were two significant events in 20​th century, which were the First World War (1914 to 1918) and
the Second World War (1939 to 1945). After the Second World War, the movement of
postmodernism in 1960s that opposed the modernist ideologies led to the transformation of
people’s lifestyle and working style. Michel Foucault, which is a French historian and
philosopher, questioned everything before him and induced hostile debate in his lifetime. In the
following part, his background, ideas and work will be discussed.
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2.
Foucault’s background
Michel Foucault was born in 1926. He is a French historian and philosopher, he was
actually associated with the structuralist and post-structuralist movements. He had strong
influence not only on philosophy but also in a wide range of humanistic and social scientific
aspects. He wrote variety of work including literature, philosophy, history, sociology and politics
(​Gary​, ​2014).
Foucault’s thoughts were influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche and Hegel (Gaut and Lopes,
2013). Nietzsche, who is a ​philosophical naturalist, indeed affected Foucault’s idea most.
According to his thoughts, Nietzsche thinks that “Nothing is beautiful, except for man alone”
(Nietzsche, 2016), which is related to one's background and experience. Thus, he concluded that
what we think about the painting depends on how we look at the art piece by the artist.
The work ​“The Order of Things” published in 1966 by Foucault was challenged by many
people that readers should only focus on the content of the work rather than the historical
background, political or social states of the author. Due to the influence by Nietzsche, Foucault
argued that an artwork reflects the artist himself, the angle of the artwork is representing the
background and the experience of an individual artist. The others can know and appreciate the
author from their work. Hence, Foucault pointed out that author have big influence to the art
work.
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3.
Foucault’s comments on different artwork
3.1.
Comments on 1656’s Las Meninas by Diego Velázquez in 1966
Las Meninas, ​Diego Velázquez, 1656, Oil on canvas,
318 cm × 276 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid
In 1966, Foucault commented on a 1656’s masterpiece, ​Las Meninas by Diego
Velázquez, which represents the Classical outlook. On the first glance, the painting depicts the
life of the Spanish Royal Court.
Based on the geometric center of it and bright illumination from the right side of window,
King Philip IV’s daughter, Infanta Margarita Teresa may be the subjects. However, she is not the
only possible one since the painter blurs the boundary between the painting and reality.
Based on the line between the ceiling and wall, Jose Nieto, who is chamberlain of the
Queen and King, standing beside the door in the background may also be the possible subject. It
seems that spectators can in fact open the door and walk inside to appreciate the painting.
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Meanwhile, there is a mirror at the center of the back wall. It reflects the royal couple,
King Philip IV and Queen Marianna, who may also be the subject based on the line between the
light fixtures. Besides, they are also located at the center.
When we get a closer look, you will discover an easel on the left hand side. It implies that
Velázquez, who may be the subject is standing on the right side of the easel. It seems that he is
looking at the models, the King and Queen. Nonetheless, spectators can also be the model and
subject of this painting. They are situated in a blind point that we cannot guess what the painter
is working on. Foucault thinks that the painter represents all above elements in the painting but it
seems that there is not an exact or absolute subject.
Moreover, Foucault pointed out the obscure relationship between the visible and invisible
subjects and objects. In ​Las Meninas, the mirror is situated in a bright position at the back by the
painter and it is the only visual representation. However, none of the characters in this painting is
looking at it and the reflected King and Queen in mirror are indistinct.
On the other hand, Foucault indicated that the superimposition of gazes function exterior
to the painting are invisible. For example, When model is being painted, it is the gaze of model.
When spectators contemplate the painting, it is the gaze of spectators. When painter is
composing the picture in the hidden easel, it is the gaze of painter. However, they are represented
in the painting and corresponded to an ideal and real point.
Actually, in the reality, what is invisible in every gaze? From the gaze of painter, it is the
models who are being painted in the hidden easel. From the gaze of models, King and Queen, it
is their own portrait which they cannot see but reflected in the mirror. From the gaze of
spectators, it is the centre of scene that spectators place themselves in the painting by usurpation.
Foucault shows that all these gazes connect to a point, which let the spectators become the one
who are being observed meanwhile.
He further explained that all gazes are under destabilized positions, like subject can be
the object, spectators can be the model and vice versa infinitely. Painting is only a system of
representation constructed by painter, which allows spectators to fill in the empty place of
subject and have multiple-interpretation (Foucault 1970, 3-16).
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3.2.
Comments on Magritte’s painting in 1968
René Magritte, ​This is not a pipe, 1929, Oil on canvas,
63.5 cm × 93.98 cm, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California
Also, Foucault defined two western painting principles from the 15​th​ to 19​th​ centuries.
First, words and images were often put together, but one of them would always be
subordinated to the other. Second, when painted image resembled an object in the real world, it
often directs spectators to recognize the real object. Afterwards, in 1929, Magritte used the
words “This is not a pipe” in his painting to challenge the hierarchical principle. If spectators
first focus on the painted image, then they would judge the accuracy of words and vice versa.
Foucault then gave a speech to comment Magritte’s painting in 1968.
He argued that the word “this” in the painting is ambiguous. “This” could refer to both
image of the pipe, the sentence itself or the entire painting. Therefore, he noted that painting was
innately ambiguous, which allowed multiple interpretations, especially for paintings in the
twentieth-century (Wicks and Lopes 2007, 162).
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3.3.
Comments on Manet’s painting in 1971
Manet, ​Olympia, 1863, oil on canvas, Musee d’Orsay, Paris
Furthermore, in 1971, Foucault commented on Manet’s painting in a speech. Although
Manet’s paintings were published in 19​th century, he became active in 20​th century. He
introduced a painting method, “painting-object”. It means that the subject matter in a painting
does not necessarily represent an object, but only a “material stuff”, saying the treatment of
space, light and place of viewer. Foucault appreciates his idea. For example, his work ​Olympia in
1863. He gave a sense of flatness with no geometric configuration to spectators. As you can see ,
there are only two planes and there is a source of light from the place of observing. The lighting
demonstrates a sharp contrast between bright and dark in the foreground and background. It
seems that both spectators and Olympia can have direct eye contact. Indeed, the position of
spectators are exterior to the painting and invisible (Rapko 2011, para.1-3).
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3.4.
The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences
This book was published in 1966. Foucault defined discourse as a group of statements
with center topics from different authors and their works, in terms of natural history, analysis of
wealth and political economy, by utilizing some authors’ names to explain the archaeology of
human science. However, Foucault disregarded similar analysis of authors and their works so it
resulted crude employment of authors’ names. For example, Buffon from France in the 18​th
century and Charles Darwin from the UK in the 19​th century, who were being in different periods
and countries (Klages 2012, par.4).
Because of his inappropriate employment of authors’ names, he was criticised by others.
Thus, Foucault gave a speech,​ “What is an author?” for further explanation in 1969.
4. What is an Author?
“What is an Author?” is a speech given by Michel Foucault at the Collège de France on
22 February 1969. It aimed to discuss author function, which was contrary to the traditional
literary studies and the notions in ​“The Death of Author”. ​“The Death of Author” was written by
Barthes in 1968 which advocated the disconnection between writing and writers. Barthes
suggested that when reading a text, readers should interpret the texts by their own methods. Also
they should disregard the background of authors, such as the social, cultural and historical views,
or moral and religious beliefs (Barthes, 1967).
First and foremost, in the speech, foucault first mentioned about the principles of
contemporary writing that related to the author functions. To sum up, he illustrated the point that
texts are interplay of signs. He quoted from Beckett, ”What matter who’s speaking” to imply that
contemporary writing is no longer self expression of the author or communication from author to
readers, but rather it is about how the readers comprehend the language in the texts as signifier
without the intention to understand what the author signified.
However, in ​“What is an Author?”, Foucault mentioned that author should not be seen as
the centre of the texts (which means interpreting the texts with intentions to understand the
background of the author) or entirely be disregarded when interpreting the texts. Readers should,
however, see “author” as a function to interpret the texts.
Foucault then further explained the four features of author function in texts while his
ideas of author functions can also be applied in art.
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5.
Characteristics of Function of Authors
5.1.
Author function as object of “appropriation”
For the first feature of author function, author function can be performed as object of
appropriation. Using the painting ​Mona Lisa as an example, Foucault pointed out that, when
copyright had not been established, people’s derivative works inspired by or based on previous
art work were not illegal. Moreover, considering the derivative work status as property was not
common. Only when the writing or speech said something transgressive and broke rules, the
speech and writing would be assigned to real authors. Then the authors would be subjected to
penalty for what the speech or writing had said. In later time, after the system of ownership and
copyright rules were established, the text became a form of intellectual property that assigned to
the author and author’s name will be shown on their published work.
Leonardo da Vinci, ​Mona Lisa, 1503-06,
oil on panel, 77 cm × 53 cm (Musée du Louvre, Paris)
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L.H.O.O.Q. (1919). Marcel Duchamp
5.2.
Author function varies of time and text
Pills and a painting (by Nicolas Poussin shown below) can be used as an example for
explanation. There is a norm that people ignore who make the medicine because they will just
focus on the function of it. Conversely, people would like to know the painter of an art piece
because they want to know more about the painting. This situation just reflected the second
characteristic of author function that what Foucault had mentioned in ​“What is an Author” : it
will change in different time.
In the Middle Ages, the society highly emphasized on technological and ​agricultural
innovation ​(​Gurevich, 1992​). ​Therefore, ​Foucault pointed out that, people in the Middle Ages
would only regard the the scientific text with indicated author name as trustful work, and people
required author’s name as an indicator of truthfulness. ​As a result, the importance of indicating
the author name in literature text is less important.
However, in the 17​th and 18​th ​centuries, author function was totally different from Middle
Ages. There could be two reasons for that.
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The first reason is because the law of science remained unchanged. Theory in scientific
text just restated the fact, which was totally different from the literature text. Thus, the indication
of an author will be less important, and people started to pay more attention to the author in
literary work.
The second reason is the change of ideology. In the 17​th and 18​th centuries, the society
suffered from the negative impacts of French Revolution, many artists expressed their extreme
fear through paintings, therefore the art scene turned from Realism to Romanticism. Based on
Romanticism, it emphasised on individual feeling and expression in an artwork. So people
started to seek for author’s name in order to fully understand the implied meaning of that
particular art piece. At the same time, it also reflects that the presence of the author name that
will affect how others’ perception towards the artwork. When people get familiar with the
author’s background and experience, they may have bias or prejudice (Barzun, 1943).
Using the ​painting by Nicolas Poussin again, he is ​F​rench Baroque ​artist and the
features of his painting usually includes high clarity and the use of vivid colours (Friedlaender,
1964). He ​utilised the contrast of colours in order to express the anxiety of women in ancient
Rome who were being kidnapped. The spectator's perception will be totally different from the
first glance.
Nicolas Poussin, ​The Rape the Sabine Women, c. 1637-38,
oil on canvas, 159 X 206 cm (Musee du Louvre)
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5.3.
Construction of a rational entity
The third author-function is the construction of a rational entity. It basically talks about
how to distinguish a set of work that attributed to an individual artist. The conventional method
in defining an author during 18​th century basically followed the Christian tradition. According to
Saint Jerome, who was also known as the Doctor of the Church, suggested that there were four
criteria in maintaining the compatibility of authorship. First of all, it is the standard level of
quality. The texts or paintings that are inferior than the others should be eliminated. So that the
quality of the art pieces can be maintained. Second, it is to obliterate the contradicting conflicts
or ideas. Artists usually use their work to present their ideologies and thoughts. Therefore, the
ideas should be consistent. The third point would be the uniformity of style. Every artist has
different style. Even if the subject matter they draw in each painting is different, there are still
certain kinds of sign that reveal the identity of an artist. In this case, the ones that have varied
themes should be effaced. Last but not least, it is concerning the definite historical figure. This
means that the work that publish after the death of author should be ignored. The author now
becomes a historical figure merely.
People at that time followed Saint Jerome’s criteria and saw it as Christian tradition.
However, Foucault later questioned Saint Jerome for his idea. He thought that it is being
insufficient and complemented that an author could indeed have more than one author function.
Speaking of Pablo Picasso, we usually think of cubism as he was believed to be the
pioneer of cubism. Yet, the style of his paintings actually changed over time. In ​Les Demoiselles
d'Avignon and ​The Old Guitarist, the painting styles already differ from each other. ​The Old
Guitarist was painted during the “blue period”, which was from 1901 to 1904. At that time, a
friend of Picasso’s committed suicide and this greatly influenced Picasso’s painting style. He
then started to paint about the life of the poor as well as the outcasts of society and use them as
the subject matters of his work. As shown in the painting, Picasso depicted a fragile image of an
old man and adopted the use of monochrome. The colors used are mainly greyish and bluish. We
can see that Picasso also utilized shadows to demonstrate a 3-dimensional figure. Moreover,
there is only one viewpoint and the theme is mainly surrounding tragedy.
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Pablo Picasso, ​The Old Guitarist, 1903-04, oil on panel,
122.9 cm × 82.6 cm (Art Institute in Chicago)
On the other hand, in ​Les Demoiselles d'Avignon there is a rich use of colors compared to
The Old Guitarist. Moreover, Picasso used geometric forms like spheres, solids and cones. In
this painting, the subject matters are analyzed, broken into different parts and reassembled in a
more abstract form. Even though we can still tell that the figures are human bodies but their body
movements are hardly realistic. From this painting, it is not difficult to discover that the figures
are all flattened and in 2-dimensions. Another major difference between the two painting is that
there are several viewpoints in ​Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. Since in cubism painting, rather than
focusing on a fixed perspective, artists tended to break them up into multiples of viewpoints.
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Pablo Picasso,​ Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907, oil on canvas,
243.9 x 233.7 cm, Museum of Modern Art, New York
From the above examples, we can see that an individual artist can in fact has several
author-functions at the same time and this reinforces Foucault’s ideology.
5.4.
Plurality of Egos
For the fourth feature of author function, Foucault suggested that plurality of egos can be
performed within a text. In a text, there are more than one ego or entity of the author performed
in the text to demonstrate the author function. Other than the example of a mathematics treatise
given by Foucault in his speech, a fiction would be also a good example to illustrate his idea. In
the fiction, the one who writes the fiction and the narrator in the fiction are different and both of
them can be the ego of the author. This idea of author function can also be applied in art. In art,
the egos are usually but not limited to the individual, the author who contribute to the painting
style and the characters in the painting.
Again, using ​The Old Guitarist by Picasso as an example, there are different egos can be
performed in the painting.
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Pablo Picasso, ​The Old Guitarist, 1903-04, oil on panel,
122.9 cm × 82.6 cm (Art Institute in Chicago)
The first ego can be found is the subject of the painting, the old guitarist. In the painting,
the old, forlorn guitarist is barefoot, playing his guitar in the street with crooked and skinny
body, which gives the spectator a feeling of lonely and poor. The second ego would be Picasso
as the painter with his painting style. In the artwork, blue and black colours were applied as
major monochromatic colours to contribute a depressing and sorrowful atmosphere. While the
guitar was painted in yellowish brown which projected within the blue background and acted as
the focus in the painting. This possibly implied that the guitar is the only hope or the only
treasure the guitarist has(Druick 2003, 245). Besides, the body proportion of the guitarist was not
perfectly drawn but elongated in order to produce a weak and thin looking. Finally, the third one
would be the Picasso as an individual. According to the background of Picasso, he was under
great poverty during early 19​th century. Meanwhile, his friend Carlos Casagemas, committed
suicide. Subsequently, Picasso was depressed and eventually started his “blue period” and
painted ​The Old Guitarist.
Therefore, there are more than one entity in the painting demonstrating author functions
and they would affect how the spectator perceive the artwork.
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6. Authors with transdiscursive position and initiators of discursive practices
Foucault also talked about “author with transdiscursive position” and initiators of
discursive practices to describe authors that not only carry author functions in their own text, but
also influence following works from different authors.
Authors with transdiscursive position refers to authors that are pioneers or founders of
great theories. They are usually as old as civilisation in human society, such as Aristotle, the
ancient Greek philosopher. Their work greatly influenced the subsequent work yet their ideas can
be either supported or disapproved by other authors.
While for the “initiators of discursive practices”, they also provides new different related
discourses (ideas or concepts) that branches out within their own work. However, their ideas are
assumed to be true as “their work overshadows the discourse” (Foucault, 1969). Apart from
Freud and Marx, Paul Cézanne, the French artist, would also be an initiator since his use of
geometric forms and flat surface in representation greatly influenced Picasso and Georges
Braque, which also led to possibility in the emergence of Cubism.
7. Conclusion
In a nutshell, Foucault commented on three paintings about the subjectivity which
revealed his thoughts and the principles of art in the fifteenth to twentieth centuries. Later he
wrote a book called ​“The Order of Things” that subsequently contributed his ideas of author and
author fictions. And his ideas of four features of author functions can also be applied in art.
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8. References
Barzun, Jacques. ​Romanticism and the Modern Ego. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1943.
Brown, Alison Leigh. ​On Foucault: A Critical Introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2000.
Barker, Philip. ​Michel Foucault: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998.
Barthes, Roland. "The Death of Author." 1967.
Danaher, Geoff, Tony Schirato, and Jen Webb. ​Understanding Foucault. London: Sage
Publications, 2000.
Foucault, Michel. "Las Meninas." In ​The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human
Sciences, 3-16. US, New York: Vintage Books, 1970.
Foucault, Michel. "What Is an Author?." In ​The Art of Art History: A Critical Anthology, by
Donald Preziosi. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Fink-Eitel, Hinrich. ​Foucault: An Introduction. Philadelphia: Pennbridge Books, 1992.
Friedlaender, Walter, and Nicolas Poussin. ​Nicolas Poussin: A New Approach. New York, NY:
Abrams, 1966.
Friedrich Nietzsche. ​Twilight of the Idols. Acadia Ebook, 2016.
Gary, Gutting. "Michel Foucault." ​The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(Winter 2014
Edition). Edward N. Zalta, 5 Nov. 2014. Web. 27 Oct. 2016.
Gurevich, Aron I︠A︡kovlevich., and Jana Howlett. Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Horrocks, Chris, and Zoran Jevtic. ​Introducing Foucault. Trumpington: Icon, 1999.
Klages, Mary. 2012. "Klages on Foucault - University of Idaho." Accessed October 25, 2016.
http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~sflores/KlagesFoucault.html.
Lemert, Charles C., and Garth Gillan. ​Michel Foucault: Social Theory and Transgression. New
York: Columbia University Press, 1982.
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Picasso, Pablo, and David F. Setford. ​Pablo Picasso: A Vision. West Palm Beach: Norton
Gallery
of Art, 1994.
Rapko, John. 2011. "Enchantment and Malaise": Michel Foucault on Manet." Accessed October
25, 2016. http://www.artcritical.com/2011/07/31/foucault-on-manet/.
Robert, Wicks. "Foucault." In ​The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics, 159-69. 3rd ed.
Routledge, 2013.
Tanke, Joseph J. ​Foucault's Philosophy of Art: A Genealogy of Modernity. London: Continuum,
2009.
The Art Institute of Chicago: The Essential Guide. Edited by Douglas Druick. Chicago, IL: Art
Institute of Chicago, 2013. 245.
Wicks, Robert, and Lopes, Dominic Mclver. "Foucault." In ​The Routledge Companion to
Aesthetics, edited by Berys Gaut, 159-69. UK: Taylor & Francis Group, 2007.
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Peer Assessment Form
Peer Assessment – Group Project
Name ​Chan Man Ki Queenie​
ID # ​54597512
Name of all the
members including
yourself
What is the percentage of
contribution of each
member?
Note: percentage given to
all members should total
100%.
Reason
Chan Man Ki,
Queenie
20%
/
Lai Hing Yu, Fish
20%
Treat the project seriously ,do
research for the information and
discuss with groupmates
Tang Sum Yi,
Cynthia
20%
Treat the project seriously ,do
research for the information and
discuss with groupmates
Wong Yau Yau,
Yoyo
20%
Treat the project seriously ,do
research for the information and
discuss with groupmates
Yung Yuk Ying,
Jennifer
20%
Treat the project seriously ,do
research for the information and
discuss with groupmates
General comments:
Good team spirits
Try very hard to understand the article and treat it seriously, which showing our good
attitude
Quite good that we had simplified the concepts and explained it to our classmates
19
Peer Assessment – Group Project
Name: ​Lai Hing Yu, Fish
​
ID # ​54713785
Name of all the members
including yourself
What is the
Reason
percentage of
contribution of each
member? Note:
percentage given to
all members should
total 100%.
Lai Hing Yu, Fish
20%
/
Chan Man Ki, Queenie
20%
- Did very well in research
- Good team spirit
Yung Yuk Ying, Jennifer
20%
- Did very well in research
- Good team spirit
Tang Sum Yi, Cynthia
20%
- Did very well in research
- Good team spirit
Wong Yau Yau, Yoyo
20%
- Did very well in research
- Good team spirit
General comments:
Good teamwork!
Everyone put a lot of effort in this project!
20
Peer Assessment – Group Project
Name ​Tang Sum Yi Cynthia​ ID # ​54396529
Name of all the
members including
yourself
What is the percentage of
contribution of each
member? Note: percentage
given to all members should
total 100%.
Reason
Chan Man Ki,
Queenie
20%
Helped others to clarify the
concepts
Lai Hing Yu, Fish
20%
Helped others to clarify the
concepts
Tang Sum Yi,
Cynthia
20%
/
Wong Yau Yau,
Yoyo
20%
Helped others to clarify the
concepts
Yung Yuk Ying,
Jennifer
20%
Helped others to clarify the
concepts
General comments:
Everyone contributed and helped each other a lot in this project.
21
​Peer Assessment – Group Project
Name ​Yung Yuk Ying Jennifer​ ID # ​54608426
Name of all the
members including
yourself
What is the percentage of
contribution of each
member? Note: percentage
given to all members should
total 100%.
Reason
Chan Man Ki,
Queenie
20%
Try to communicate and do utmost
to finish every work together
Lai Hing Yu, Fish
20%
Try to communicate and do utmost
to finish every work together
Tang Sum Yi,
Cynthia
20%
Try to communicate and do utmost
to finish every work together
Wong Yau Yau,
Yoyo
20%
Try to communicate and do utmost
to finish every work together
Yung Yuk Ying,
Jennifer
20%
/
General comments:
Put every effort to understand the thoughts of Foucault
Great team spirit
Try to simplify the ideas of Foucault and assist every student to understand the article
22
Peer Assessment – Group Project
Name ​WONG Yau Yau, Yoyo ​ ​
What is the percentage
of contribution of each
Name of all the members member?
including yourself
Note: percentage given
to all members should
total 100%.
ID # ​ 54409148
Reason
Wong Yau Yau, Yoyo
20%
Lai Hing Yu, Fish
20%
Highly participated in discussion and
contributed to group presentation
Tang Sum Yi, Cynthia
20%
Highly participated in discussion and
cooperated well with group mates
Yung Yuk Ying, Jennifer
20%
Cooperated well with group mates and
highly contributed to group
presentation
Chan Man Ki, Queenie
20%
Highly participated in discussion and
contributed to group presentation
/
General comments:
All of our group mates highly participated in the discussion and shared their own
opinions on our presentation topic. Also we all cooperated well during the preparation of
the presentation.
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