ELG accessioned finds, Period discussion
Site codes: UP-GS83, UP-MF83, UP-HH89, UP-WW82, R-126, RMHF77
January 2007
Author: Nicola Powell
Museum of London Archaeology
© Museum of London Archaeology
Mortimer Wheeler House, 46 Eagle Wharf
Road, London N1 7ED
tel 0207 410 2200 fax 0207 410 2201 email
[email protected]
Neolithic (4000-2000BC)
The ring ditch or henge (S306) at Great Arnold’s Field produced a fragment of
sandstone saddle quern C<104>, the only registered find likely to be of a broad
Neolithic date as complete or fragmentary saddle querns are frequently found in
structured deposits of this date (Major, 2003). The ring ditch also contained fragments
of lava quern; C<105> and C<109> and a small amount of burnt clay C<113> that
may possibly be briquetage. As with the sandstone hone C<112> also recovered from
this feature, the lava quern is intrusive, probably being Roman in date. A central pit
associated with the ring ditch also contained intrusive lava quern C<107> and
C<110>, similarly fragmentary with worn grinding surfaces.
1
Early Bronze Age (c 2500-1700BC)
2
Middle Bronze Age
3
Late Bronze Age/Middle Iron Age (c 1000-100BC)
Hunts Hill produced the only likely Bronze Age find. Residual in a later field system
(S146), it consists of a piece of perforated clay slab A<241>. It has the remains of a
perforation and a straight edge. These enigmatic objects (it is not clear what they were
used for, however, an association with cooking has been suggested) are commonly
found on Late Bronze Age settlement sites in the southeast of England. This sole,
albeit residual piece, suggests settlement may not have been on a large scale at this
time. It may be that some of the unidentified pieces of burnt clay and ceramic finds
could be fragments of perforated clay slab, but nothing diagnostic was observed on
them.
The small rounded structure east of the roundhouse S114 (Hunts Hill)
produced a small fragment of ceramic weight A<255> with the remains of a single
perforation.
4
Early Iron Age (c 600-300BC)
A small roundhouse (B119) found at Hunts Hill produced two large pieces of later
Iron Age triangular ceramic weight A<212> and A<213>.
5
Middle Iron Age (c 300-100BC)
Evidence for this period came from Great Sunnings Farm, in the form of an almost
complete weight E<18> came from ditch S512, that formed part of a Middle Iron Age
enclosure. The upper fill of this enclosure ditch also produced a weight fragment
E<15>. An almost complete iron Age ceramic weight came from context [403.53],
however, it is not clear what date this represents.
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Late Iron Age/and the Roman occupation (c 100BC-AD 400)
One of the outer ditches, S202, that made up the Fort produced a beautiful one-piece
Nauheim derivative bow brooch B<39> (Fig *). It is La Téne III style, dating to the
1st century BC/AD, with dotted zig zag decoration along the top of the bow. A similar
but plain example B<116> came from context [771].
A common find, from Whitehall Wood, Moor Hall Farm and Hunts Hill in
particular, was complete or fragmentary weights. Although found on settlement sites
and so considered domestic in nature, it is not certain how the weights were used,
whether as loom weights or thatch weights or both. The largest and heaviest weights
found would seem too large for weaving purposes and so suited to a more robust
purpose such as weighing down thatch on a round house or other domestic structure.
The late Iron Age triangular form was the most common type collected from all the
sites except Great Arnold’s Field. Again, as with the perforated clay slab, it may be
that undiagnostic fragments are from weights, as over 200 ceramic objects and
fragments were accessioned from the study area. Examples of note come from Moor
Hall Farm, Great Sunnings Farm and Hunts Hill. A complete weight B<220> (Fig *),
consolidated from fragments, was recovered from the Fort (Open area 201) at Moor
Hall Farm. Triangular in shape, it has the characteristic perforations through each
corner.
An almost complete example E<18> (Fig *) came from Great Sunnings Farm
and Hunts Hill produced the largest number of weight fragments, including several
pieces from the waterholes or pits S134 and S135, the ditches S136 and the timberframed well (S137). All of these features are constituents of the field system and
enclosures dating to the broad Roman period, however, it does appear that these
features have earlier Iron Age origins, further suggested by the presence of a large
amount of Iron Age triangular weights.
The ditched enclosure S131 at Hunts Hill produced not only pyramidal and
triangular weight fragments A<203> and A<246>, but importantly a copper alloy coin
of Cunobelin A<158>. It is incomplete and in very poor condition. A complete
rectangular ceramic weight A<225> with a central hole came from part of the
foundation trench of a rectilinear post fast building (B139). Similar buildings B127
and B129 produced triangular weight fragments. Building 139 also produced a small
piece of the outer edge of a lava quern A<290>. It has a low outside kerb and heavily
worn grooved grinding surface.
The fragments of weight from Moor Hall Farm, except B<220> (see above)
can only really be given a broad prehistoric date, although it seems likely they are
from triangular weights and so Iron Age in date. Those from Great Sunnings Farm can
be more firmly assigned to the triangular form; however the contexts are not clear.
Manor Farm produced a small number of similar fragments, notably a corner piece
F<8> from the late Iron Age triangular form of weight, intrusive in Open Area 601,
along with a nummus of Constantine the Great, minted in Trier in AD 311 F<1>.
Other fragments of ceramic weights F<10> and F<9> likely to be Iron Age in date
were residual in contexts with broad later Roman dates (OA604 and OA605). Open
area 604 also produced small fragments of quern stone F<11> and F<14> and can be
only be given broad Roman dates.
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The well at Hunts Hill, S205, contained fragments of lava quern A<276> and
A<292>, with worn grinding surfaces and with the upper surfaces having a ‘pseudo’
kerb, formed by a concentric groove (Fig *).
A small rounded stone B<264> from Moor Hall Farm (context [143]) shows
no sign of working. However, stones were noted placed as special deposits in
prehistoric contexts at Hunts Hill Farm (Up-HH89) and stones and fossils found in
prehistoric contexts during the excavations that formed the West London Landscapes
Project, so it is not unreasonable to presume that this stone may have been used as an
amulet or retained as a curio. Similarly, a complete rounded small stone <276>, from
context [381] may have been used as a polishing stone or other tool, as it has two
flattened surfaces showing signs of wear.
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Roman c AD40-AD400
Several buildings belonging to this period produced finds of great interest.
Moor Hall Farm was particular rich in finds, including items of personal adornment.
Part of a trumpet brooch B<62> retains part of the spring and is decorated on the bow
with transverse moulded ribs (Fig *). Found in context [947], it dates from the late 1st
to early 2nd century AD. Building 206 contained a complete copper alloy bracelet or
armlet B<117>, decorated with multiple motifs, including transverse grooves and
lozenges (Fig *). It has retained the hook and remains of the eye for attachment. It
dates to the 4th century AD. Of a similar late Roman date and more domestic in
nature, is a glass sherd B<174> with remains of trail decoration. Very few pieces of
glass were recovered from stratified contexts, with one other piece of note, part of the
base from a square bottle B<277>, with moulded concentric circle decoration or
marking (Fig *).
The finds from Moor Hall Farm included the second largest group of querns.
Only rotary querns were present and were manufactured from lava, Millstone Grit and
in one case, in puddingstone. Building 206 produced a large piece of a puddingstone
quern (Fig *) from, residual in a later Roman feature (context [172]). It retains part of
the hopper and the grinding surface is very worn down. The puddingstone probably
came from Hertfordshire, one of the closest sources of this attractive and colourful
stone. All the querns appear to be kerbless and without the ‘pseudo-kerb’ of the Hunts
Hill Farm examples. This may be a feature of querns dating to the later Roman period
(Major 2003), including the large fragments of lava quern B<292> and B<295> from
Building 206. Both retain some of the much worn radial grooving on the grinding
surface and bi-directional grooving on the upper surface. Small pieces of rotary quern
F<11> and F<14> were collected from two contexts within Open Area 604 at Manor
Farm. The quern fragments F<14> are likely to be Roman in date. A small piece of
quern A<273>, also made of Hertfordshire puddingstone, came from Hunts Hill.
Also from Hunts Hill, a fragment of millstone grit from a quern A<283> came
from the waterhole or sump within the Roman filed system (S132). The upper surface
is pecked. A similar large fragment of millstone grit A<296> was recovered from the
same feature, with a worn grinding surface and faint concentric rings around the
outside edge (Fig *). The site produced several other pieces of quern manufactured
from Millstone grit A<294> and A<302> and it seems likely they would have a
similar Roman date.
A low outer kerb can be seen on the rotary quern from well S140 A<281>. The
grinding surface has bi-directional grooving (Fig *).
Including the above, there were generally few items of dress or personal
adornment from the study area. Of note is a complete large turquoise melon bead,
A<155>, made of glass or frit (Fig *). Recovered from the timber-lined well (S137), it
is a common find from Roman sites. Also part of the Roman field ditch and enclosure
system, S136 produced an incomplete barrel-shaped bead A<178> (Fig *). It is blue
in colour with white swirls and part of the large perforation can be seen. It appears to
conform to Guido’s Welwyn type, suggesting a Late Iron Age to early Roman date
(Fig *). The field system also produced part of the body of a Roman globular bottle
A<153>.
Structure 209 at Moor Hall Farm produced a late 1st to early 2nd century AD
coin. A silver denarius of Septimus Severus B<5>, it is dated AD 193–211. Five
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fragments of quern made from millstone grit B<250> came from a context within the
same group.
A large number of coins were recovered from Moor Hall Farm. Dating from
the 2nd to 4th century AD, they include denarii, nummii and some small fragments of
coins. Several coins were recovered from fills within the pit that defined Open Area
204; an irregular Gloria Exercitus copper alloy coin dated to around AD 336–341 and
a nummus of Constans dated AD 337–350 came from the middle fills. The upper fills
contained a silver denarius of Constantius II <10> dated AD 337–361 (Fig *). Open
Area 201 (the Fort) contained an as of Antoninius Pius <70>, dated AD 138–161. A
second copper alloy coin recovered B<71> is probably also an as. A ditch within
Structure 217 contained two copper alloy coins, including a coin from the House of
Valentinian I (AD 364–378) B<87> and a fragment of a coin of Carausius B<88>,
dated AD 286–293.
One of the ditches that made up the field system at Moor Hall Farm (Open Area 202)
included a complete inscribed spindle whorl B<21>, reworked from a Roman grey
ware potsherd. A fragment of spindle whorl B<281>, also fashioned from a potsherd,
came from context [1244]. It has the remains of a central perforation and a concentric
ring. Apart from the ceramic weights, the other notable ceramic find from this site is a
piece of a Venus figurine B<182>. It consists of the lower legs of the goddess, with
drapes to one side. It is 1st to 2nd century in date. Pipe clay votive figurines are a
frequent find on Roman sites, most usually in urban contexts.
Other finds from within the Fort (Open Area 201) at Moor Hall Farm include
what may be the remains of a socketed tool or ploughshare tip B<191>. This could be
given an Iron Age date. There were two other similar objects from the site B<190>
and B<196> and what appear to be two knives B<53> and B<75> although the date is
uncertain (not seen). The ironwork assemblage was dominated by nails, but all in very
poor condition, as were the hobnails from a Roman shoe B<81>.
Certainly Roman in date is a small piece from the rim of a glass flask or jar
B<31>.
A fragment of a ceramic spindle whorl <281>, recovered from context [1244]
can only be given a broad Roman date. It has been manufactured from a potsherd and
retains part of the central perforation, surround by an incised circle.
Great Sunnings Farm produced some interesting copper alloy objects,
including fragments from a mount or clasp E<3>, with a T-shaped head. It may have
formed part of a vessel or tankard. It came from a Roman-British ditch (S521). A
similar feature (S522) produced a handle with an oval section E<12>, which may
have come from a box or been part of some wooden furniture. A large piece of
ceramic weight E<16> was also recovered from this ditch. A complete spindle whorl
E<5> came from context [18]. A piece of Roman glass E<13> is intrusive in the
Middle Iron Age enclosure ditch S511. It appears to be part of the handle of a jug or
flask.
Items of dress or personal adornment are represented by part of the catchplate
of a two-piece Colchester brooch E<3>, also from ditch S522. It dates to the mid 1st
century AD. A single coin E<2>, dates to the same period (AD 41-45) and is intrusive
in an earlier feature (S505). This feature, dated by pottery to the Iron Age, produced a
single piece of ceramic slingshot E<1>.
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Later evidence: Anglo-Saxon, medieval and post medieval
A grave from the Saxon cemetery at Hunts Hill (S144) produced a beautiful cubic
white and red bead A<152>. Other evidence of Saxon settlement or activity on or near
Hunts Hill is shown by the presence of an incomplete biconcal loomweight A<229>,
intrusive in Open area 1.
Context [2723] within the early Norman Hall House contained a large piece of
lava quern A<266>. The date is unknown, but it is likely to be a residual Roman find,
however it could have been used and utilised at a later period.
A common find, usually from rural contexts, a globular crotal or rumbler bell
B<146> from Moor Hall Farm, shows a continuation in using the land for agricultural
purposes and animal husbandry. This type of bell was worn around the neck of a
domestic animal from the medieval and post medieval periods. A discarded glass
marble or alley B<279> was also recovered, along with an incomplete stone hone
B<263>, of Medieval date. An incomplete iron knife A<151> from Hunts Hill could
date from anytime from the Roman period and was recovered from the post medieval
field system (S146).
The top layers, including the subsoil [2], of Whitehall Wood, Upminster, Open
Area 400 and 406 contained residual material including three fragments of ceramic
weight D<4>. One fragment is a corner piece, probably from a triangular weight,
suggesting it is likely to be Iron Age in date. A fossil D<21> was also recovered and
is interesting, as it may have been kept as a curio or amulet and suggest ritual or
superstitious behaviour.
Seventeenth or eighteenth century in date is a ceramic wig curler A<2> from
Hunts Hill Open area 1. It is stamped with an incuse crowned ‘W B’, a stamp familiar
from archaeological sites, particularly in London.
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East London Gravels
Development of field systems and the agricultural landscape
The first farmers
Very little material culture in the form of registered finds comes from this early period
of use of the study area for settlement. Early settlement would have been transient and
so archaeological remains ephemeral in the landscape. Great Arnold’s Farm, Rainham
produced the sole non-ceramic or flint find. A fragment of sandstone saddle quern
was recovered from the ring ditch or henge probably constructed in a single phase in
the earlier Neolithic period (4000-3000BC). Complete or fragments of saddle quern
(the earliest type of grain processing tool) have been found in Neolithic structured
deposits as well as settlement sites throughout upland and lowland Britain, notably in
a pit at South Cadbury and in a causewayed enclosure at Husband’s Bolworth in
Leicestershire. A complete saddle quern and rubber stone were found at Worm’s
Head, Rossili in Wales.
Places of power
Ritual/religious activity
The Neolithic ring ditch at Great Arnold’s Farm would have been a focus for ritual
ceremony, rites of passage and religious activity, as well as probably for burial, over
several generations. The find of a piece of sandstone quern suggests a deliberate
placing of an everyday object into a sacred space, however, its context is not clear and
it may have become debris and part of the infill once the monument fell out of use.
The placing of ritual deposits was seen at Hunts Hill, where damaged pottery
was deliberately buried, some with a pebble, in pits and wells (Greenwood et al 2006,
29). Miscellaneous stones and pebbles recovered from the site, which could have been
utilised and curated, mirror those recovered as part of the West London Landscapes
project. A small rounded stone B<264> from one of the ditches of the fort at Moor
Hall Farm (context [143]) shows no sign of working, but is attractive and interesting,
so it is not unreasonable to presume that this stone may have been used as an amulet
or retained as a curio.
The fort at Moor Hall Farm (see below) also produced part of a Venus
figurine, dating to later activity at the fort (1st to 2nd century AD). This type of
pipeclay object was a common votive offering, taking the form of deities, animals and
birds and this context shows that by this time, ritual and religious practice had become
part of everyday life.
Cemeteries
Across the entire study area, there was little evidence of Anglo Saxon activity. At
Hunts Hill, a row of what may be eight graves was recorded. A complete white and
red glass cubic bead A<152> was recovered from one of these features. Tens of
thousands of beads have been recovered from graves dating to the Saxon period
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(Brugmann, 2004) and the presence of this beautiful bead does support the
interpretation and date of these features.
Military
Pebbles and small rounded stones can be utilised with no re-working as weapons and
slingshot. A roughly oval clay slingshot E<1> found at Great Sunnings Farm, is likely
to have served a military purpose, in that it was recovered from one of the defensive
enclosure ditches. However, slingshot served an offensive as well as domestic
purpose, such as in the hunting of game. Clay slingshot is found commonly on Iron
Age sites, often in vast quantities, notably on hillforts (Poole, Danebury)
The fort at Moor Hall Farm represents military activity and building in the area during
the late pre- and post conquest period (50 BC to AD150). Many of the finds, notably
dress accessories and personal adornment, reflect and support the date and early
Roman activity. As well as this category of finds, the artefacts also reflect a more
domestic and agricultural purpose. None of the small finds from the fort can be
assigned an offensive purpose, which does reflect the often more prosaic, everyday
aspect of life.
The upper fill of a pear-shaped pit within the fort contained an as of
Antoninius Pius B<70>, dated AD 138–161. A second copper alloy coin recovered
B<71> is probably also an as and of a similar date. One of the outer ditches of the fort
contained a one-piece Nauheim derivative bow brooch B<39>, dated to the first
century BC/AD. It is La Téne III type, with a flat bow, zig zag decoration and a
triangular solid catchplate (Fig *). The foot is missing and the pin complete. A similar
brooch B<116> may be from the same context [771], but as this is not clear, it is
considered unstratified (Fig *). Also from the same context, was a large penannular
copper alloy ring B<187>. It is squashed out of shape and may have been a finger
ring. Part of a trumpet brooch B<62> shows the continuation of use of the site into the
2nd century AD.
A heavily corroded object B<191> may be the remains of a ploughshare of
Iron Age form or a contemporary or later socketed tool. Other similar poorly
preserved iron objects came from the same context, as did the fragments of a ceramic
weight B<220>. It is of the Iron Age triangular form, with perforations through each
corner, and has been conserved and reconstructed (Fig *). Another if the ditches
produced pieces of similar triangular ceramic weight B<270> and B<274>.
Part of the base of a square bottle B<277> made of natural green blue glass
came from context [522]. The base is patterned in relief and retains part of two
concentric circles (Fig *).
Also reflecting the earlier phases of use of the site, a circular worked and
abraded stone was B<276> was probably utilised as a polishing stone or rubber.
Pattern and nature of settlements and farmsteads
The changing distribution of Prehistoric settlement
One of the earliest finds from settlement in the area is what may be a piece of saddle
quern from Great Arnold’s Field (Major 2003), suggesting an early prehistoric date.
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The nature of earlier prehistoric settlement is ephemeral and it is in the Bronze Age
and later prehistoric periods that settlement can be seen in the landscape, in an
increase of finds associated with archaeological features. Material culture of a
domestic nature, such as weights, querns and ceramic objects attests to this.
Interestingly, Hunts Hill only produced one identifiable piece of perforated clay slab,
a distinctly Late Bronze Age object common on settlement sites in the south east, at a
time when the pottery suggests a huge increase in occupation.
A large number of ceramic weights were recovered from the study area,
notable from Hunts Hill, signifying that small-scale industrial activity was being
carried out across the study area. Most are fragmentary but the majority are fragments
of the well-established type-fossil for the Iron Age. Some has been found to be
residual in later, mostly Roman features. If an earlier Roman feature, such as at Manor
Farm, where fragments were recovered from a feature of inderminate Roman period
(c. 40-400) it may be the Iron Age triangular form continued into the Roman
occupation. At Great Sunnings Farm, ceramic weights were recovered from features
dating to the Middle Iron Age as well as the post Iron Age enclosure and pre RomanoBritish field systems. One from Hunts Hill is rectangular with a central hole A<225>,
suggesting a later form, as it was found in a building dated to the Late Iron Age and
Roman occupation period or that it may be residual, as Bronze Age weights were sub
rectangular and pyramidal, with a single hole close to the apex. It could possibly be
related to the ‘Belgic’ bricks collected from the study area, and discussed elsewhere.
As stated above, the ceramic is fragmentary and often represented by very small
pieces. So it cannot be determined whether a piece from a post fast structure dated to
the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age at Hunts Hill is of the Bronze Age or Iron Age
form.
At Hunts Hill, ceramic weights are found in features dated to the early Iron
Age (c. 600-300BC) and Late Iron Age/Roman occupation features. Because of the
fragmentary nature of the ceramic weight from the study area, it is not certain how
fossilised the triangular form was during the Iron Age, whether there was any
variation and how long it continued.
Conventionally, these ceramic objects are called ‘loom weights’ however,
several of the weights recovered from the study area would have been too large and
heavy for use on an upright warp weighted loom. Weighting down thatch on
structures and buildings would require a more robust weight and it is also not
inconceivable these objects could have been used as kiln furniture. Of note is a single
find of part of a biconical Anglo Saxon loomweight A<229>, intrusive in Open Area
1, again from Hunts Hill. Spindlewhorls were found, including a complete example
from Great Sunnings Farm. Several manufactured from pot sherd were collected from
Moor Hall Farm and date to the later Roman use of the site.
Fragments of quern stone were a common find from the study area, with a
large number from Hunts Hill and Moor Hall Farm. Quern manufactured from lava,
Millstone Grit and a couple of finds of puddingstone were collected. Most are too
fragmentary to be dated. Unworked stone is a common find on prehistoric sites, such
as those that formed part of the West London Landscapes project. Naturally rounded
stones served a multitude of purposes, as polishing stones, rubbers used with a
saddlequern with smaller ones used as slingshot. It is surprising that only one such
object, a possible polishing stone B<276> from Moor Hall Farm, has been identified.
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This small rounded stone does appear to have been utilised and it has worn down to
form two flattened surfaces.
The heavily corroded objects iron objects from the fort may be Iron Age in
date and take the form of ploughshare tips or socketed tools, serving an agricultural or
manufacturing purpose.
New farmsteads for a Roman population
Where it has been possible to identify and date quern fragments, those from Moor
Hall Farm appear to be mostly Roman in date, with a large number dating to the 4th
century AD. All the querns from Hunts Hill were rotary querns, with the exception of
a possible saddle quern (see above) (Major 2003). The bulk are manufactured from
Niedermendig lava, with some of Millstone Grit from the Pennines, grit, probably of
Midland origin, and puddingstone, probably from the closest source in Hertfordshire
(ibid). Rather than exhibiting the standard Roman form of rotary quern with outer
kerb, the lava querns from Hunts Hill have a ‘pseudo’ kerb formed by a concentric
groove a few centimetres from the outside edge, where the inner edge of the kerb
would have been.
Little Roman glass was found and what was found was fragmentary. Notable
was a fragment of the rim from a flask or jar and a vessel sherd with remains of trail
decoration, both from Moor Hall Farm. What may be a piece from a flask or jug
handle was found at Great Sunnings Farm. At Hunts Hill, the tiny amount of glass
was intrusive in earlier features A<133> and two sherds from a globular bottle
A<153> recovered from a ditch forming part of the field system and enclosures S136.
The soil in the study area was particularly unfriendly to iron objects. Few iron
household objects were found and if recovered, were incomplete (A<151>).
The people
Expressing individuality, wealth and status would be important to a Roman
population. Moor Hall Farm produced a number of dress accessories and personal
adornment. Beautiful brooches were recovered from the Fort, dating from the late Iron
Age to later Roman period. Part of a beautiful large barrel-shaped bead A<178>, blue
with white swirls, was recovered from ditch S136 (Fig *) at Hunts Hill. This dates to
the late Iron Age/Roman occupation period and is probably of the Welwyn type
(Guido 1978). A large turquoise glass gadrooned or melon bead A<155> was
recovered from the timber-lined well S137. Dating to the later Roman period (4th
century AD) a complete copper alloy bracelet or armlet B<117> was recovered from
Building 206, part of the later Roman settlement at Moor Hall Farm. It has retained
the hook and remains of the eye used for fixing around the arm (Fig*). The only other
armlet recovered B<51> is made from two strips of copper alloy, twisted to form a
cable, and in very poor condition. Armlets from the Roman period frequently had
decoration or took serpentine form that signified a belief in the afterlife.
A large number of coins were recovered from Moor Hall Farm, dating from
the earliest Roman settlement on the site during the 1st century AD up to the 4th
century. Denominations include denarii of Septimus Severus and the 4th century
Emperor Constantius, a nummus of Constans (AD 337-350) and several as. Great
Sunnings Farm produced a single coin, a Claudian copy of AD 41-45, intrusive in an
early Iron Age context (Structure 505), found with the clay slingshot (E<1>). A single
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coin was also found at Manor Farm. It is a nummus of Constantine the Great minted
in Trier in AD 311, residual in a group that included Iron Age ceramic weight.
Little evidence of metalworking crucibles xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Bibliography
Brugmann, Birte 2004, Glass beads from Early Anglo-Saxon Graves. A study on the
provenance and chronology of glass beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves. Oxbow Books,
Oxford.
Guido, M, 1978
Major, H, 2003, Assessment of the quern stones, assessment Understanding the East
London Gravels
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