AQA A Geography
Revision Guide
Unit 1 – Physical
Geography
The Restless Earth, Living
World and The Coastal Zone
Geography Exam Techniques – general hints and tips
In total you will take two exams in Geography. Each of them is worth 37.5% of your
final mark. The final 25% is your controlled assessment.
The Unit 1: Physical Geography exam will last 1 hour and 30 minutes and will
contain 6questions.
YOU WILL ONLY ANSWER THREE OF THESE QUESTIONS.
• In Section A, question 1 on Restless Earth
• In Section B, question 4 on Living World and 7 The Coastal Zone
Within each question there will be a series of smaller question. These will range in
marks from 1 to 8. You will write your answers into the exam booklet. The paper will
be marked out of 75.
Read the questions carefully
Every year, lots of candidates lose lots of marks because they misread the question,
or answered the question they hoped the examiner would ask rather than the one
that has been set. Don't let this be you!
Try underlining the exam command words to remind yourself of exactly what the
examiner wants you to do.
Use the available resources
It costs the exam board a lot of money to produce maps, photographs and diagrams
for the exams. They do it for a reason! Make sure that you use them to help you
show what a good geographer you are. Look at the resources carefully and use the
information from them in your answers
Use your own background knowledge
The examiner will often ask you to write about places you have studied. You must
write about real places - make sure you name and locate them (say where they are).
If you can't remember the examples we have studied in lessons, then use your
common sense... somewhere you've seen on TV, read about or visited on holidays.
Still no ideas? Then make it up! It's far better to write something than to leave a
question blank. No answer definitely means no marks. A well-made-up answer could
get some marks (if it is believable!) and mean the difference between a lower and a
higher grade.
If you are completely stuck...
Leave the question blank and come back to it later. But make sure that you do come
back to it! Still unsure? Check the keywords in the question and write everything you
can remember about them – you might get some marks for it. No answer definitely
means no marks, so never leave a question blank!
How are the different types of question marked?
There are two different types of questions in terms of the way your exam is marked:
• Questions worth 1-3 marks are marked per correct point, so the more correct points
you make the higher your mark will be.
• Questions worth 4-8 marks will require longer answers!
These answers are marked according to the 'level of response' that you give to the
question. The examiner must first decide which level your answer falls into and then
award you a mark within this level. If you do not meet the requirements of the higher
level, the examiner cannot award you those marks. The higher your level, the higher
your mark will be.
Level 1: Basic
Knowledge of basic information
Simple understanding
Few links; limited detail; uses a limited range of specialist terms
Limited evidence of sentence structure
Frequent spelling, punctuation and grammatical errors
Level 2: Clear
Knowledge of accurate information
Clear understanding
Answers have some linkages; occasional detail/exemplar; uses some specialist
terms where appropriate
Clear evidence of sentence structure
Some spelling, punctuation and grammatical errors
Level 3: Detailed
Knowledge of accurate information appropriately contextualised and/or at correct
scale Detailed understanding, supported by relevant evidence and exemplars
Well organised, demonstrating detailed linkages and the interrelationships between
factors Range of ideas in logical form; uses a range of specialist terms where
appropriate. Well-structured response with effective use of sentences
Few spelling, punctuation and grammatical errors
Exam command words
Study = look very carefully at the resource - this is not a question that you have to
answer but an instruction that needs to be followed before you answer the following
questions. It is known as the stem part of the question.
Complete = this might be filling in a table, finishing off a graph using data you have
been given, choosing words from a list to fill in the missing gaps in a paragraph or
circling the correct answer from a range of options. Make sure that you circle or tick
the correct number of items!
Name = just give the name - there is no need to write anything else e.g. Name the
Oceans marked on the map at A and B. Just write 'Pacific Ocean and Atlantic
Ocean' (or whatever they are!) not 'The ocean named on the map at A is the Pacific
Ocean and the ocean named on the map at B is the Atlantic Ocean'.
Label = this kind of question often asks you to add a name, description or
explanation to a text-box on a photograph or diagram.
Describe = say what you see (without giving reasons) - are there any patterns or
trends? If you are describing a graph, make sure that you include figures in your
answer.
Describe the location = say where something is - try to include distance and
direction from other places e.g. Describe the location of Southampton. Southampton
is a city in Hampshire, on the south-coast of England. It is 25km north-west of
Portsmouth and 40 km north-east of Bournemouth.
Describe the distribution = say how something is spread out over space e.g.
Describe the distribution of tropical storms. Tropical storms occur in warm oceans
between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, for example in the Bay of Bengal, the
Arafuna Sea the Arabian Sea and the Caribbean Sea.
Suggest the cause = give reasons for why something happened e.g. Suggest the
cause of the earthquake in California. The Pacific Plate and North American Plate
are moving past each other at a conservative margin. As they move, they snag and
tension builds. A sudden movement sends out shock waves, which causes an
earthquake.
Explain / Give reasons / Suggest reasons = give reasons for why something
happens and include all the specific detail as to why they lead to it happening; useful
words to use in an 'explain' question include: therefore, so, because, as a result of,
consequently, this means that.
Give effects / Suggest impacts = this type of question asks you to look into the
future and write about the consequences of something happening.
Use examples = you must use real-life examples to gain full marks! You have
studied a wide variety of examples in lessons. You can use your own general
knowledge too. Make sure you give specific detail and you include the name and
location!
Identify evidence / Use map evidence = this means that you must include
information taken from the resources that you have been provided with. Don't forget
to interpret the evidence that you give! E.g. Use map evidence to suggest why the
area is vulnerable to coastal flooding. The land is very flat and wet so if the sea
broke through large areas would be flooded. I can tell that the land is flat because
the only contour line shown on the map extract is at 10 metres. The land in squares
4126 and 4127 is 'Hempstead Marshes'. Great Moss Fen is in 4225 and 4226.
Marshes and Fens are flat.
Compare = describe the similarities and differences between things - words that will
force you into a comparison are 'whereas' and 'in comparison to' 'alternatively' and
'on the other hand'; words ending in '- er' are also useful (eg. taller, richer, stronger);
words such as 'less than' and 'more than' are also useful.
Annotate = this means add labels to a diagram, photograph or map. Annotate
questions will also ask you to do something else e.g. describe or explain. This
additional command word tells you what type of statements to write in your
annotations. When explaining, you will need to give detailed reasons. E.g. annotate
the photograph to explain some of the possible impacts on the natural environment
of a large-scale tourist development in the area.
The Restless Earth
Key Terms
Crust: The outer layer of the earth
Plate: A section of the earth’s crust
Plate margin; The boundary where two plates move
Mantle: The dense, mostly solid layer of the earth between the outer core and the
crust
Convection currents: The circular currents of heat in the mantle
Destructive plate margin: A plate margin where two plates are moving towards
each other resulting in one plate sinking beneath the other
Constructive plate margin: A plate margin where two plates are moving apart
Continental plate: A tectonic plate made of low density continental rock that will not
sink under another plate
Oceanic plate: A tectonic plate made up of dense iron-rich rock that forms the
ocean floor
Subduction: When oceanic crust sinks under continental crust at a destructive
margin
Collision: When two plates of continental crust meet ‘head on’ and buckle
Volcano: An opening in the earth’s crust through which molten lava, ash and gases
are ejected
Conservative plate margin: A plate margin where two plates are sliding alongside
each other
Earthquake: A sudden and often violent shift in the rocks forming the earth’s crust,
which is felt at the surface
Fold mountains: Large mountain ranges where rock layers have been crumpled as
they have been forced together
Ocean trenches: Deep sections of the ocean, usually where an oceanic plate is
sinking below a continental plate.
Composite volcano: A steep-sided volcano that is made up of a variety of
materials, such as lava and ash
Shield volcano: A broad volcano that is mostly made up of lava
Subsistence: Farming to provide food and other resources for the farmer’s own
family
Terraces: Steps cut into hillsides to create areas of flat land
Irrigation: Artificial watering of the land
Hydroelectric power: The use of flowing water to turn turbines to generate
electricity
Natural hazard: An event over which people have little control, which threatens
people’s lives and possessions. This is different from a natural event as volcanoes
can erupt without being a hazard.
Primary effects: The immediate effects of the eruption, caused directly by it
Secondary effects: The after effects that occur as an indirect effect of the eruption
on a longer timescale
Aid: Money, food, training and technology given by richer countries to poorer ones,
either to help with an emergency or for long-term development
Immediate responses: How people react during a disaster and straight afterwards
Long-term responses: Later reactions that happen in the weeks, months and years
after the event
Lahar: mudflows resulting from ash mixing with melting ice or water – a secondary
effect of a volcano
Hazard maps: A map that shows areas that are at risk from hazards such as
earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, floods and tsunamis
Supervolcano: A mega colossal volcano that erupts at least 1,000km of material
Caldera: The depression of the supervolcano marking the collapsed magma
chamber
Geothermal: Water that is heated beneath the ground, which comes to the surface
in a variety of ways
Geyser: A geothermal feature in water which erupts into the air under pressure
Hot spot: A section of the earth’s crust where plumes of magma rise, weakening the
crust. These are away from plate boundaries.
Focus: The point in the earth’s crust where the earthquake begins
Richter scale: A scale ranging from 0 to 10 used for measuring earthquakes, based
on scientific recordings of the amount of movement
Epicentre: The point at the earth’s surface directly above the focus
Shockwaves: Seismic waves generated by an earthquake that pass through the
earth’s crust
Mercalli scale: A means of measuring earthquakes by describing and comparing
the damage done, on a scale of I to XII
The 3 Ps: The collective term for prediction, preparation and protection
Prediction: Attempts to forecast an event – where and when it will happen – based
on current knowledge
Protection: Constructing buildings so that they are safe to live in and will not
collapse
Preparation: Organising activities and drills so that people know what to do if an
earthquake happens.
Tsunami: A special type of wave where an event, often an earthquake, moves the
entire depth of the water above it
1. Why is the earth’s crust unstable?
Crust
 The outer layer of the earth
 Thin
 Split into plates
Mantle
 Dense
 Mostly solid layer of the earth
Core
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Centre of the earth
Made up of two layers – outer and inner core
Inner core is solid
Outer core is molten
Convection currents
These are circular currents of heat in the mantle. They
determine the direction of plate movement.
In some areas the plates are moving together and in
some places apart from each other.
Heat from the core rises to the mantle which drives
the movement of the plates.
Types of crust
Oceanic Crust
 Newer, most less than 200 million
years old
 Denser
 Can sinks
 Can be renewed and destroyed
 Basalt is an example of oceanic rock
Continental Crust
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Older, most over 1500 million years old
Less dense
Cannot sink
Cannot be renewed or destroyed
Granite is an example rock
Location of tectonic plates, plate margins, earthquakes and volcanoes
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Volcanoes and earthquakes all occur at plate margins
Earthquakes occur at all plate boundaries – Conservative, Destructive and
Constructive
Volcanoes tend to occur when oceanic and continental plates are moving
towards each other (destructive) and where two oceanic plates are moving
apart (constructive). “Pacific ring of fire”.
Exam tip: In the exam make sure you can give specific types of plate margins
as mentioned above and the overall pattern. It would also be a good idea to
include names of plates.
2. Types of plate margin
Exam tip – make sure that you can draw and annotate diagrams of each plate
margin
Destructive plate margins
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 Convection currents in the mantle
cause the plates to move together.
 If one plate is made from oceanic
crust and the other continental crust,
the denser oceanic crust sinks
underneath the lighter continental
crust. This is called subduction. When
this process is taking place,
earthquakes occur due to the friction.
Great pressure is applied and the oceanic crust is destroyed as it melts to
form magma.
Volcanoes occur on these plate margins as the hot liquid rock rises from the
mantle to create violent eruptions (composite volcano)
If two continental plates meet each other, they collide rather than one sinking
under the other. This is called a collision boundary and is another type of
destructive margin.
Constructive plate margins
 This is when plates move apart
 Usually happens under the ocean
 As the oceanic plates pull away
from each other, cracks form
between the plates where there is no
solid crust
 Magma forces its way into the
cracks and makes its way to the
surface to form volcanoes
 New land is formed as the plates
move away from each other
Conservative plate margins
 The plates are sliding
past each other
 They are moving in
similar (though not the
same) direction at slightly
different angles and speeds
 As one plate is moving
faster than the other and in
a slightly different direction,
they get stuck
 Eventually the build-up
of the pressure causes the
plates to be released.
 This release if of
pressure causes an
earthquake
 At a conservative margin, crust is neither being made or destroyed
 With no source of magma, there are no volcanoes
3. Landforms found at plate boundaries
Exam tip: You
need to be able
to describe the
distribution of
Fold Mountains
and ocean
trenches
1. If both landforms are found in the same areas then they have been
formed in areas of subduction (destructive plate margin).
2. If Fold Mountains occur by themselves, then they have been formed by a
collision plate margin.
Fold Mountains
Young fold mountains (formed in the last 65 million years) are the highest areas in
the world
They include mountain ranges such as the Himalayas, the Alps, the Rockies and the
Andes.
Exam tip: You will need to be able to
provide an annotated diagram of the
formation of Fold Mountains
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 Rivers erode material from the lands
surface and transport it to sea.
 Sediment is deposited on the ocean floor
 Layers build up over time forming
sedimentary rock due to compression. (the
weight of the layers of the sediment make the
layers underneath harder)
 Plates move together, at a destructive or
a collision plate margin.
 Rocks scrunch together as a result,
forming Fold Mountains, with anticlines and
synclines. (Where the rocks are folded
upwards, they are called anticlines. Where
the rocks are folded downwards, they are
called synclines. Severely folded and faulted rocks are called nappes)
Fold Mountains can also form at subduction zones where the continental crust
scrunches as it meets the oceanic crust. Here also, the oceanic crust dives
below the continental crust. At this point, the sea is very deep and it is here
that there are ocean trenches.
Ocean trenches
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Form on a destructive plate boundary
The heavier oceanic plate subducts beneath the lighter continental plate
forming a trench.
Composite volcanoes
 Composite volcanoes are made up of
alternating layers of lava and ash (other
volcanoes just consist of lava).
 They are usually found at destructive plate
margins
 The eruptions from these volcanoes may be a
pyroclastic flow rather than a lava flow.
 A pyroclastic flow is a mixture of hot steam,
ash, rock and dust.
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A pyroclastic flow can roll down the sides of a volcano at very high speeds
and with temperatures of over 400°C.
Eruptions are infrequent but often violent
They have steep sides and a narrow base
They may have secondary cones (see diagram)
Shield volcanoes
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Shield volcanoes are usually found at constructive plate margins
They are low, with gently sloping sides.
They have a wide base.
They are formed by eruptions of thin, runny lava with little ash.
Eruptions tend to be frequent but relatively gentle.
4. How do people use an area of Fold Mountains?
Case study: The Andes
Key facts: The Andes are a range of young fold mountains formed 65 million years
ago. It is the longest range of Fold Mountains in the world at 7,000km. They are
300km in width and have an average height of 4,000km.
Farming
 Despite the high altitudes the Andes are used for farming
 In Bolivia, many subsistence farmers grow a variety of crops on the steep
slopes – potatoes a main source of food
 The use of terraces creates areas of flat land – advantages include retaining
water in an area that receives little, limit the downward movement of soil as
the soil is only thin.
 Most crops are gown in lower valleys and a
patchwork effect can be seen showing the variety
of crops. Some cash crops such as soybeans,
rice and cotton are grown.
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Llamas are found in the Andes – pack animals
carrying materials for irrigation and buildings into
inaccessible and inhospitable areas
Machu Picchu was built in this way
Llamas can carry over 25% of their body weight
(125-200kg)
Mining industry relied on them as a form of
transport
Today they are still needed – males for transportation and females for milk,
meat and wool
Mining
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Range of important minerals in the Andes
Rank in the top 10 for tin (Peru and Bolivia), silver (Peru and Chile), nickel
(Colombia) and gold (Peru).
The Yanacocha gold mine in Peru is the largest in the world – joint between
Peru (49%) and USA (51%) – open pit where gold bearing rock is loosened
everyday by dynamite blasts – the rock is then sprayed with cyanide and the
gold extracted – this can cause water contamination.
Nearby town of Cajamarca has grown from 30,000 to 300,000 in 2010 –
brings jobs but also problems such as lack of services and increased crime
rate.
Hydroelectric power (HEP)
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Steep slopes and narrow valleys are great for HEP
They can easily be dammed and the steep slopes encourages the rapid flow
of water needed
The melting snow in spring increases the supply of water – variation of water
supply throughout the year is a disadvantage
In 2009 the El Platanal HEP power plant began to generate electricity - $200
million and second largest in Peru.
Tourism
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Many natural attractions in the Andes – mountain peaks, volcanoes, glaciers
and lakes
Some tourist attractions show how people settled in these inhospitable areas
– Machu Picchu and Inca Trail.
Inca Trail - a mix of scenery – Inca ruins, mountain scenery, forest and jungle.
250 species of orchid, numerous species of birds, one of 23 UNESCO
heritage sites.
Closed every February for conservation work to be undertaken
5. How do volcanoes affect people?
Case study: Montserrat
The location and causes of the Montserrat Eruption
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Montserrat is a small island in the Caribbean.
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There is a volcanic area located in the south of the island on Soufriere Hills
called Chances Peak.
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Montserrat lies on a destructive plate boundary. As the two plates merge
the oceanic plate is forced down or subducted under the continental
plate. As it is forced down pressure increases which triggers earthquakes
and at the same time heat produced by friction melts the descending
crust to form molten magma. The hot magma tries to rise to the surface
and when it succeeds will form a volcano such as the one in Montserrat.
Timeline of the eruption
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Before 1995 it had been dormant for over 300 years.
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In 1995 the volcano began to give off warning signs of an eruption (small
earthquakes and eruptions of dust and ash).
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Once Chances Peak had woken up it then remained active for five years.
The most intense eruptions occurred in 1997.
The Primary Effects of the Eruption
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2/3 of the island was covered in ash
50% of the population were evacuated to the north of the island to live in
makeshift shelters
11,000 people were evacuated in 1995 to the north of Montserrat as well as to
neighbouring islands and the UK.
Despite the evacuations, 19 people were killed by the eruptions as a small
group of people chose to stay behind to watch over their crops.
23 people died in 1997
Plymouth – the capital became a ghost town
Floods as valleys were blocked with ash
The airport and port were closed
Farmland was destroyed
Forest fires caused by pyroclastic flows
Many schools and hospitals were destroyed
 The graphic shows the
progress of the eruption
and its impact on the
island.
The secondary effects of the eruption
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Most of the southern was destroyed so people have had to endure harsh
conditions in the north
Port and airport remain closed so people still find it difficult to travel
Tourist industry is still struggling as only a few cruise ships will come but to
look at the volcano
Over half the population left the island and have not returned
Short-term responses and results
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Evacuation – money was given to people to help them move to other countries
Abandonment of the capital city.
Riots occurred as people were complaining that the British were not doing
enough
The British government gave money for compensation and redevelopment - £41
million
Unemployment rose due to the collapse of the tourist industry.
Long-term responses and results
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An exclusion zone was set up in the volcanic region.
A volcanic observatory was built to monitor the volcano – The MVO (Monserrat
Volcano Observatory)
New roads and a new airport were built.
Services in the north of the island were expanded.
The presence of the volcano resulted in a growth in tourism.
Volcanic activity has calmed down in recent years and people have begun to
return to the island.
A risk assessment was completed to show the locals where was safe in the future
Monitoring and predicting volcanoes
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Usually provide warning signs of an eruption
An increase in earthquake activity is a sign that magma is rising beneath the
surface – earthquakes are recorded by seismometers that are placed in the
ground
Tiltmeters can be placed on the ground to measure slight changes in the tilt of
the ground caused by rising magma
GPS (global positioning systems) use satellite technology to measure very
slight changes of the shape of a volcano, of as little as 1mm
Laser beams can also be used to measure the distance between two fixed
points on a volcano – if a volcano swells the distance between the two points
will get smaller
Digital cameras – placed on the rim of the crater to record small eruptions
Gases emitted from a volcano, such as sulphur dioxide can change in
concentration.
Hazard maps are constructed to help plan for evacuation – they will use
historic records of ash falls, pyroclastic flows, lava flows and lahars.
6. Supervolcano
Characteristics of a supervolcano
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Much bigger scale than volcanoes
They emit at least 1,000km of material
They do not look like a volcano
They are large depressions called calderas, often marked by a rim of higher
land around the edges
Yellowstone supervolcano
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There is evidence that the magma beneath Yellowstone is shifting
The caldera beneath Lake Yellowstone lake is bulging
The ground has risen by 70cm in some places
The magma chamber beneath Yellowstone is believed to be 80km long, 40km
wide and 8km deep
It is not known whether the magma is on top of other materials that would be
needed for an eruption
An eruption is likely to destroy 10,000km of land, kill 87,000 people, 15cm of
ash would cover buildings within 1000km and 1 in 3 people affected would die
The ash would affect transport, electricity, water and farming
Lahars are a probability
The UK would receive ash 5 days later
Global climates would change, crops would fail and many people would die
7. What are earthquakes and why do they occur?
Characteristics of an earthquake
 The focus of an earthquake is the
place where earthquakes begin – deep in
the earth’s crust
 Deep-focus earthquakes cause less
damage and are felt less than shallow
ones
 The point on the ground is called the
epicentre. This is the point directly above
the focus and where it can be felt.
 From this point there are shockwaves (seismic waves). These cause the ground
to shake that is responsible for much of the damage.
Measuring earthquakes
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Seismographs record the shaking by pen identifying the movement on a
piece of paper – it produces a line graph called a seismogram
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The Richter scale measures the strength of an earthquake – there is no
upper limit. It is logarithmic which means that every time the scale increases
by 1 it is 10 x more powerful.
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The Mercalli scale measures the effects of an earthquake. It uses a scale
from I to XII.
Where and why do earthquakes occur?
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Destructive margins – the pressure resulting from the sinking of the
subducting plate and its melting can trigger strong earthquakes as this
pressure is released
Constructive margins – here earthquakes tend to be less severe. The friction
and pressure caused by the plates moving apart is less intense than at
destructive plate margins
Conservative margins – where the plates slide past each other, the plates
tend to stick for periods of time. This causes pressure to build up. The release
of the pressure results in powerful earthquakes
Case study of an earthquake in a developed country
Kobe earthquake, Japan
Cause of the earthquake
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5.46am on 17th January, the Philippines plate shifted uneasily beneath the
Eurasian plate along the Nojima fault line that runs beneath Kobe.
The collision of the plate led to an earthquake measuring 7.2 on the Richter
scale, with tremors lasting 20 seconds.
The effects of the Kobe earthquake
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6,434 died in the earthquake
Injured over 40,000
300,000 made homeless
Gas mains ruptured, water pipes fractured, sections of elevated roads
collapsed and railway lines buckled
Two million homes went without power and one million people had to cope
without water for 10 days
Fires engulfed parts of the city – especially to the west of the port with lots of
wooden structures – due to damage of roads and water supplies it was almost
impossible to put the fires out
People huddled in blankets on the streets and in tented shelters in the parks –
fearful to return home to the damage
The damage caused $220 billion and the economy suffered
Companies such as Panasonic closed temporarily
Responses to the earthquake
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Friends and neighbours searched through the rubble for survivors – joined by
emergency services when access was possible
Hospitals struggled to cope with the injured, treating people and operating in
corridors
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Major retailers such as 7-eleven helped to provide essentials and Motorola
maintained telephone connections free of charge
Railways were 80% operational within a month
Took longer to restore the road network – most operational by July although it
was not until September 1996 that the Hanshin Expressway was open again.
A year later the port was 80% operational but much of the container shipping
business had been lost
Buildings and structures that had survived had been built to a 1981 code –
those that had collapsed where built to 1960s requirements
Changes were made to the way buildings were made – further apart to stop
the domino effect. High rise buildings had to have steel frames, rubber blocks
were put under buildings to absorb shocks and concrete frames were
reinforced with steel to make them stronger.
A case study of an earthquake in a developing country
Haiti earthquake, Caribbean, 2010
Causes of the earthquake
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At 16:53 on 12th January 2010 the island of Haiti was struck by a powerful 7.0
magnitude earthquake.
The epicentre of the earthquake was just 15km SW of the capital, Port-auPrince.
Caused by the build-up of stress along the conservative plate margin marking
the boundary between the North American plate and the Caribbean plate.
Following the main earthquake there were several minor tremors measuring
upto 5.0 on the Richter scale.
The effects of the Haiti earthquake
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230,000 people were killed
2 million people were affected by the earthquake and 1.5 million made
homeless
180,000 homes were destroyed
Homeless were accommodated in over 1,100 squalid camps with limited
services such as water and sanitation – many stayed here for well over a year
Cholera claimed the lives of several hundred people – mainly children
Storms and flooding caused further hardship in the camps
19 million cubic metres of rubble were created from the earthquake
5,000 schools were damaged or destroyed
Services such as water, electricity, sanitation and communications were badly
disrupted or destroyed
The total cost was $11.5 billion over a period of 5-10 years
Why did Haiti suffer so much?
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Poor country- unprepared and could not cope
Before the earthquake most people survived on $2 a day
80% of people who lived in Port-au-Prince lived in poorly constructed
buildings
Earthquake very close to the capital and had a shallow focus – very severe
ground shaking
Port destroyed and airport damaged –hard to bring in emergency aid
Lack of a stable government – chaotic search and rescue
Lack of doctors, medical supplies and hospitals – many people died from their
injuries
Responses to the Haiti earthquake
Short term
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Search and rescue – specially trained medics used sniffer dogs and high
tech heat sensitive equipment were flown into the country to help local
people
Aid – food, water, medical supplies and temporary shelters was brought into
the country from the USA and Dominican Republic
The United Nations and USA provided security to maintain law and order and
ensure that aid was distributed fairly.
The UK’s disasters emergency committee (DEC) raised over £100 million –
used to support 1.2 million people by providing emergency shelter, medical
care, clean drinking water and sanitation.
Longer-term responses
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¾ of the damaged buildings were inspected and repaired
200,000 people have received cash or food for public work – such as clearing
rubble
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Several thousand people have decided to move away from Port-au-Prince to
stay with family – some have emigrated to other countries
The World Bank pledged $100m to support reconstruction and recovery
programmes in Haiti.
Prediction, protection and preparation (The 3 P’s)
Prediction – involves trying to identify when an earthquake will happen. It is easier
however, to say where they are going to happen rather than when. Animal behaviour
has been used but people are very wary of using this method. China used this
method once and an earthquake occurred three days later – 150,000 would have
died if they hadn’t of evacuated.
Protection – building to an appropriate standard and using designs to withstand
movement is the main way of ensuring protection.
Preparation – this involves hospitals, emergency services and inhabitants practising
for a major disaster, including having drills in public buildings and a code of practice
so that people know what to do to reduce the effects of increase their chance of
survival.
8. Why is a tsunami hazardous?
How are tsunamis form
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Usually triggered by small earthquakes
The crust shifting is the primary effect
A secondary effect of this is the displacement of water above the moving crust
A tsunami may be 200km in length and 1m high
Speeds of 800kph, approaching the coast almost unnoticed.
As they get nearer to land, they slow, reduce in length and gain in height
Case study of a tsunami
The Boxing Day tsunami, 2004
Location and causes of the tsunami
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On 26 December 2004 a tsunami occurred in the Indian Ocean.
It was the result of the Indio-Australian Plate subducting below the Eurasian
Plate.
It was caused by an earthquake measuring more than magnitude 9.
The earthquake caused the seafloor to uplift, displacing the seawater above.
In open ocean the tsunami measured less than 1 metre high.
The tsunami travelled at speeds up to 800km per hour.
When the Tsunami reached the shores, the height of the wave increased to
15 metres in some areas.
Effects of the tsunami
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A quarter of a million people died
Two million people were made homeless
People were swept away in the waters, which arrived rapidly and with little
warning
Thirteen countries were affected, the worst being Indonesia
Indonesia was hit by the tsunami first – 45 minutes later the tsunami reached
Thailand
Mangrove swamps helped to act as a barrier to reduce the energy of the
water in some areas
Responses to the Tsunami
Short term
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Most individuals ran for their lives. They climbed buildings, hills and trees.
Some people froze, they walked to the sea side and watched the wave
approach and could not escape
Short-term aid, such as water purification tablets, temporary housing and
medical supplies were given from international countries
Islands reliant on tourism and fishing, such as the Maldives, had to rebuild
their industries
India sent naval ships to help with the rescue effort
Action aid raised £13 million and immediately sent food aid.
Long term
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An early warning system between countries surrounding the Indian Ocean
has been set up.
Many people have re-established buildings and businesses in the affected
regions – many people migrated
Countries such as the UK sent dog teams and forensic experts and
equipment to help identify bodies and clean up after the Tsunami
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Action aid offered Psychological counselling, paid for housing, paid for boats
with motors for fishing, rebuilt schools and community centres.
The Living World
Key Terms
Ecosystem: The living and non-living parts of an environment and the
interrelationships that exist between them.
Biomes: Global-scale ecosystems
Adaptations: The ways that plants evolve to cope with environmental conditions
such as lots of rainfall
Producers: Organisms that get their energy from a primary source such as the sun
Consumer: Organisms that get their energy by eating other organisms
Food chain: A line of linkages between producers and consumers
Food web: A diagram that shows all the linkages between producers and
consumers in an ecosystem
Scavengers: Organisms that consume dead animals or plants
Decomposers: Organisms such as bacteria that break down plant and animal
material
Nutrient cycling: The recycling of nutrients between living organisms and the
environment
Temperate deciduous forest: Forests made up of broad leaved trees such as oak
that drop their leaves in the autumn
Stratification: Layering of forests, seen particularly in temperate deciduous forests
and tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforests: The natural vegetation found in the tropics, well suited to the
high temperatures and heavy rainfall of these latitudes
Leaching: The dissolving and removal of nutrients from the soil, often in tropical
rainforests because of the heavy rainfall
Arid: Dry conditions typically associated with deserts
Hot deserts: Deserts have a rainfall of less than 250mm per year. Hot deserts are
generally found between 30N and 30S.
Pollarding: Cutting off trees at about shoulder height to encourage new growth
Sustainable management: A form of management that ensures that developments
are long lasting and non-harmful to the environment.
Primary (virgin) rainforest: Rainforest that represents the natural vegetation in the
region unaffected by the actions of people
Deforestation: The cutting down and removal of forest
Clear felling: Absolute clearance of all trees from an area
Selective logging: The cutting down of selected trees, leaving the tress intact.
Transmigration: A population policy that aims to move people from densely
populated areas to sparsely populated areas and provide them with opportunities to
improve the quality of their lives.
Slash and burn: A form of subsistence farming in tropical rainforests where some
trees are felled and land is cleared by burning before being replanted.
Selective management system: A form of sustainable forestry management
adopted in Malaysia.
Conservation: The thoughtful use of resources; managing the landscape in order to
protect ecosystems and cultural features
Ecotourism: Tourism that focusses on protecting the environment and the local way
of life. Also known as green tourism.
Debt relief: Many poorer countries are in debt, having borrowed money from richer
countries to support their economic development. There is strong international
pressure for the developed countries to clear these debts – this is debt relief.
Debt: Money owed to others, to a bank or to a global organisation such as the World
Bank.
Carbon sink: Forests are carbon sinks because trees absorb carbon-dioxide from
the atmosphere. They help to address the problem of global carbon emissions.
Non-governmental organisation (NGO): An organisation that collects money and
distributes it to needy causes. E.g. Oxfam, ActionAid and WaterAid.
Subsistence farming: farming to produce food for the farmer and his/her family only
Hunter/gatherers: People who carry out a basic form of subsistence farming by
hunting animals and gathering fruit and nuts
Commercial farming: A type of farming where crops and/or livestock are sold to
make a profit
Salinisation: The deposition of solid salts on the ground surface following the
evaporation of water. Also an increase in the concentration of salts in the soil,
reducing fertility.
Retirement migration: Migration to an area for retirement
1. What is an ecosystem?
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A natural system that is made up of plants (flora) and animals (fauna) and the
natural environment in which they live
There are complex relationships between the living and non-living
components
Non-living components include the climate, soil, water and light
They can be found at different scales – local ecosystem can be a pond or a
hedge, a global scale can be a tropical rainforest or deciduous woodland
(biomes)
An example of an ecosystem – The freshwater pond ecosystem
Producers and consumers – organisms can be either producers or consumers.
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Producers convert energy from the environment (sunlight) into sugars
(glucose)
The most obvious producers are plants, which convert energy from the sun by
the process of photosynthesis
Consumers obtain their energy from the sugars made by producers.
Grass is a good example of a producer and a snail a consumer because it
eats the plants
Food chain – this shows the links between producers and consumers.
Food web – this shows the connections between producers and consumers in a
more detailed way
Scavengers and decomposers – when living elements (plants and animals) of an
ecosystem die, scavengers and decomposers break them down and effectively
recycle their nutrients.
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Scavengers eat dead animals and plants. A rat tailed maggot is a good
example of a freshwater pond scavenger.
Flies and earthworms are examples of scavengers found on land
Decomposers are usually bacteria and fungi – they break down the remaining
plant and animal material, often returning the nutrients to the soil.
Nutrient cycle – nutrients are foods that are used by plants or animals to grow, such
as nitrogen, potash and potassium.
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There are two main sources of nutrients – rainwater washes chemicals out of
the atmosphere and weathered rock releases nutrients into the soil.
When plants or animals die the scavengers and decomposers recycle the
nutrients, making them available for the growth of plants and animals.
The impact of change on the freshwater pond ecosystem
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Natural factors – environmental change (flood, fire, drought)
Human factors – drainage, reclamation. Fish stocking
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These factors can change the diversity and numbers of the components of the
ecosystem.
If predatory fish are introduced into the ecosystems they will eat more of the
smaller fish and small animals such as frogs.
This will affect the numbers of these creatures and in turn affect the amount of
food available further up the food chain.
The animals below though will increase.
2. What are the characteristics of global ecosystems?
The distribution of global ecosystems
The biome in the UK is temperate deciduous forest. This is due to the climate and
soils that exist in the area. This does not mean that the whole of the area is forest,
however, if the UK was left for 100 years or so it would start to revert back to its
natural deciduous woodland.
Temperate deciduous forest
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Found across NW Europe, eastern North America and parts of East Asia.
Moderate climate – rainfall distributed evenly throughout the year, summers
are warm but not too dry, winters are cool but not too cold.
There is a long rowing season lasting to up 7 months
The graph shows a climate graph for deciduous woodland
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Soils are rich and fertile
Weathering is active, providing plenty of nutrients, and the annual leaf fall
provides organic matter to enrich the soil further.
The common soil is brown earth
Characteristics
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Trees include oak, beech, birch and ash
Stratification (layering)
o Canopy (umbrella) – oak and ash of about 40m tall
o Sub canopy – saplings and smaller trees such as hazel (15-20m)
o Herb layer / shrub layer – Brambles, bracken, bluebells and ivy
o Ground layer – Damp and dark – great for moss to grow
Adaptations
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Shed their leaves in autumn (deciduous) – response to reduction in light and
heat, which enables them to conserve water
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Typically broad leaved – great potential for water loss through the holes
(stomata) on the underside of their leaves
Leaf fall might be earlier if there has been a shortage of water in late spring
and summer
Bluebells flower in early spring before the canopy has fully developed as it
allows light through to the shrub layer
Tropical rainforests
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Found in between the topics of cancer and capricorn, from central to south
America, through central parts of Africa, in south-east Asia, and into the
northern part of Australia.
Plenty of rainfall (2,000mm a year) and high temperatures (27c) throughout
the year.
Characteristics
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Lush and dense vegetation
Dark and damp
45 m tall trees (emergent)
Can be upto 100 species in a hectare
Clear stratification
Heavy rainfall quickly dissolves and carries away nutrients (leaching) – leaves
behind an infertile red-coloured soil called latosol – rich in iron and very acidic
Adaptations
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Most animals live higher in the vegetation as that’s where the light is – birds in
the canopy, monkeys in the trees and deer on the forest floor eating seeds
and berries
Some tree leaves are adapted to twist and turn to face the sun as it arcs
across the sky
Rainforest floors are too dark so not much will grow.
Infertile soils – nutrients found at the surface where dead leaves decompose
rapidly in the hot and humid conditions - Shallow roots to absorb nutrients and
fungi growing on the roots transfer nutrients
Hot deserts
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A desert is an area that receives less than 250mm of rainfall per year.
The dryness (aridity) is the main factor controlling life in the desert
They are usually found 30N and 30S
Lack of cloud and rain and where high temperatures are found – lack of cloud
cover can also lead to freezing cold temperatures at night during the winter
Desert soils are stony, with little organic matter due to the general lack of
dense vegetation – soils are dry but can soak up water rapidly after rainfall.
Evaporation draws salt to the surface, leaving a white residue on the ground
Desert soils are not particularly fertile
Plant adaptation in the desert
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Desert yellow daisy – small linear leaves that are hairy and slightly succulent
Great basin sagebrush – tap roots upto 25m long and small needle like leaves
to reduce water loss.
Giant saguaro cactus – roots very close to the surface so that it can soak up
water before it evaporates – outside skin is pleated so that it can expand
when water is soaked up – grows very slowly to conserve energy
Joshua tree – needle like leaves coated with a waxy resin
3. What are temperate deciduous woodlands used for?
Case study Epping Forest, Essex, UK
Location and facts
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Epping Forest is mostly ancient temperate deciduous woodland but it also
includes areas of grassland and wetlands.
The woodland mostly consists of beech trees but it also contains oak and
hornbeam.
The soils in the forest vary, depending on the rock below. The vegetation that
grows on the surface depends on the soil below.
Epping Forest is located north-east of London and covers an area of about
2,500ha and is about 19km long and 4km wide. It is the largest area of public
open space near London.
How is Epping Forest being managed?
Pollarding: this involves cutting off trees at about shoulder height to encourage new
growth.
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Pollarding trees reshoot at this height, thereby providing new wood for future
cutting (to provide firewood and wood for building).
This is sustainable because it ensures a supply of wood for future
generations. It also means that ancient trees have survived because instead
of being felled for timber, they were pollarded. This type of management has
been in place since Norman times and has ensured the survival of the forest.
In 1878, as a response to local landowners attempting to buy parts of the forest,
an Act of Parliament was passed which stated 'the Conservators shall at all times
keep Epping Forest unenclosed and unbuilt on as an open space for the recreation
and enjoyment of the people'. Since then the forest has been managed by the City of
London Corporation.
Site of Special Scientific Interest: over 1,600ha of the forest has been designated
a SSSI.
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These are places which are important because of their plants and animals, or
the geology and geography of the area and are subsequently protected.
Areas of the forest have also been designated as an European Special Area
of Conservation. These are areas which have been given protection by the
EU. It involves increased protection for wild animals, plants and habitats and
are an important part of global effort to conserve the world's species.
Grazing: in the past commoners (people who lived in a forest parish and owned at
least half an acre of land) had the right to graze their animals in Epping Forest.
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Grazing like this allows certain plant species to thrive. In turn, many plant
insects rely on those plants for their survival.
Grazing continued into the 20th century but the number of cows decreased
because of changing farming methods and the BSE scare.
By 1996 there was no cows grazing on the land.
In 2002 a small number of cattle were reintroduced to a small area of
heathland in the forest. The herd has now grown to 50 cows.
The future and sustainability
The City of London Corporation produces management plans to ensure that the
forest continues to provide open space for the public while conserving the natural
environment. Planning measures adopted include the following:
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managing recreation by providing appropriate car parks, toilets and refreshment
facilities and by maintaining footpaths
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providing three easy-access parks to allow access for people with disabilities
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allowing old trees to die and collapse naturally unless they are dangerous
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controlling some forms of recreation, such as riding and mountain biking, which may
damage or affect other forms of recreation
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preserving ancient trees by re-pollarding them to enable new shoots to grow - since
1981, over 1000 ancient trees have been re-pollarded
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encouraging grazing to maintain the grassland and the flora and fauna associated
with it
4. Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest
Human uses of the rainforest
Logging
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Rainforest trees are mainly hardwoods. These can be very profitable on the
international market and as many of the countries of the world with tropical
rainforests in them are LEDC's, it is a market that they often exploit.
Unfortunately, to get to certain types of tree, logging companies destroy all the
other vegetation around them.
Ranching
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Large-scale forest clearance has taken place to make way for huge cattle
ranches, as these are also a profitable industry for the country.
The cattle quickly erode the fragile, and now unprotected, soil. The farmers
are not interested in the wood for sale, they often just burn it.
Damming
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To provide power for industries such as the mines and paper mills, large dam
schemes have been introduced.
An example of this is the Tucurui Dam in the Northern Brazilian rainforest.
The reservoir it created flooded an area of 2875 square kilometres and
displaced 40,000 people. It destroyed hundreds of species of animals and
thousands of species of plants, some of which may never have actually been
known about.
Subsistence Farming
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The initial growth into the rainforests was along roads that were cut through
the dense vegetation.
These encouraged people looking for a better way of life to enter the forest
and clear areas beside the roads for farming. They presumed that because
the rainforest was so rich with life, the soil would be very fertile.
Unfortunately that is not the case, and within a few years the farmers were
forced to move on because the soil had become so bad. Not being able to
afford to go back to the cities on the Eastern coasts, most of these farmers
end up copping down another area of forest and starting again. Unfortunately
the results are equally predictable.
Mining
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The Northern Amazon rainforest is rich in minerals, such as bauxite, iron ore
and even some gold.
This has meant that vast areas of rainforest have been cleared to allow
mining to occur. Settlements have grown up, such as Carajas and Manaus
purely based on the mining industry.
Sustainable use of the rainforest
Shifting cultivation
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Shifting cultivation is a traditional, sustainable method of agriculture which has
been practised by indigenous tribes for centuries.
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A small area of land is cleared and the vegetation burned, providing a source
of nutrients from the ash.
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For a few years the soil remains sufficiently fertile for a tribe to grow crops.
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When the soil's fertility is exhausted, the tribe moves on and clears another
small area of forest.
The original area is regenerated, as it receives nutrients and seeds from
surrounding vegetation.
As no lasting damage occurs, this method of agriculture is sustainable.
It is sometimes called 'slash and burn' agriculture.
Agro-forestry
 Growing trees and crops at the same time. This lets farmers take advantage
of shelter from the canopy of trees. It prevents soil erosion and the crops
benefit from the nutrients from the dead organic matter.
Selective logging
 Trees are only felled when they reach a particular height. This allows young
trees a guaranteed life span and the forest will regain full maturity after around
30-50 years.
Education
 Ensuring those involved in exploitation and management of the forest
understand the consequences behind their actions.
Afforestation
 The opposite of deforestation. If trees are cut down, they are replaced to
maintain the canopy.
Forest reserves
 Areas protected from exploitation.
Monitoring
 Use of satellite technology and photography to check that any activities taking
place are legal and follow guidelines for sustainability.
5. What are the opportunities for economic
developments in hot deserts?
Case study - The Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India – Developing world
The desert has a population density of over 80 people per km2. (Other deserts have
population densities below 10 per km2). There are many mobile sand dunes, and
sandy hills.
Economic opportunities in the desert
Subsistence farming
 Climate presents huge challenges – unreliable rainfall and frequent droughts
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The desert area is not very fertile. Soils are quickly drained, and contain few
nutrients.
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The farming is limited, typically the best way of farming in the area is to keep
a few animals on more grassy areas and growing fruit. Most is
subsistence farming although some are sold at market.
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Hunter-gathering also occurs in the desert – very basic form of farming and is
rarely found in the world
Commercial and irrigation farming
 Commercial farming has been possible since the building of the Indira
Ghandhi Canal. This irrigates an area near Jodhpur.
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Wheat and cotton can be grown.
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The canal also supplies drinking water.
Mining and industry
 Resources such as limestone and gypsum (for making plaster) and kaolin
(making paper white) are found in this desert - and are valuable for the
building industry.
Tourism
 Tourism is a growing industry, and locals can act as guides and provide
transport – such as hiring out camels and going on desert safaris.
Future challenges
Population pressure
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Most densely populated desert in the world – 83 people per km2 – and
population is increasing
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Extra pressure on the fragile ecosystem and leads to overgrazing and over
cultivation
Water management
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Excessive irrigation in some places has led to waterlogging of the ground
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Salts poisonous to plants have been deposited on the grounds surface –
salinisation
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Excessive demand for water has caused a fall in the water table
Soil erosion
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Over cultivation and overgrazing have damaged the vegetation – leading to
soil erosion by wind and rain
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The soil takes thousands of years to reform
Fuel
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Reserves of firewood, the main source of fuel are declining
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Now people are using manure as fuel rather than using it to improve the
quality of the soil
Tourism
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Although tourists bring benefits such as employment and extra income, the
environment they have come to enjoy is fragile and will suffer if more tourism
occurs
Sustainable management
Forestry
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Scientists have developed a plum tree called a Ber tree – produces large
fruits that can survive low rainfall conditions
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Fruits can be sold and can make a profit
Stabilising sand dunes
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Very mobile in the Thar desert
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Form a threat to farmland, roads and waterways
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Planting blocks of trees and shelterbelts of trees and fences alongside roads
and waterways
Thar Desert national park – planting and protection of Prosopis cineraria tree
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Been created to protect some 3,000km2 of this arid land and the endangered
and rare wildlife that has adapted to its extreme conditions
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Foliage is produced – feed
animals especially in the
winter
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Trees can produce good
quality firewood
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Wood is strong and can
be used as a building
material
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Pods provide animal
fodder
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Crops can benefit from
shade
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Stabilise sand dunes
Case study – The Sonoran Desert, Arizona, USA
Location
The Sonoran Desert, Arizona, USA
About: This desert is one North America’s largest, hottest and wettest desert - there
is over 300mm of rain per year in some places. It's very beautiful and contains a
large diversity of flora and fauna
Responses to the threat
The USA can respond differently to the challenges and opportunities of a hot desert
than other countries such as India or Africa – money enables physical difficulties to
be overcome
The climate can be overcome by using air-conditioning in vehicles, houses,
workplaces and shopping centres
Water can be piped around for irrigating crops to supply drinking water, and for
leisure activities, e.g. to fill swimming pools and water golf courses
The clear, clean atmosphere and open spaces are an attraction to holiday makers as
well as long term migrants
Recently, they have been migrated to the desert for retirement migration, where
people retire to newly built housing complexes with swimming pools and golf courses
Marana: a town in the Sonoran Desert
Population: 30,000 Location: A few kilometres from the city of Tucson, Arizona
Has become an important business town and leisure resort
In 1920, a new irrigation system enabled it to become an agricultural centre
specialising in cotton.
In the '40s, agricultural production expanded to produce wheat, barley and pecans.
In the '90s farming declined to be replaced with housing developments, and today,
only 15 cotton farms remain. Wheat is produced and exported to Italy to make pasta
In 2007, Marana began hosting golf tournaments.
Managing the Sonoran desert
In 1998 a conservation plan was initiated in order to conserve the country’s most
valued natural and cultural resources, whilst accommodating for population growth
and economic expansion
This plan began from concerns about threats to wildlife as the housing development
expanded. An endangered species of owls was particularly vulnerable
This plan led to:
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Detailed mapping of the country’s natural and cultural heritage
Development of buffer zones around areas of ecological significance
Native plant protection
Hillside development restrictions
Home design recommendations in order to conserve energy and water
The Coastal Zone
Key words
Fetch - the distance of open water over which the wind can blow.
Beach - a deposit of sand or shingle at the coast, often found at the head of a bay.
Crest - the top of a wave.
Swash - the forward movement of a wave up the beach.
Backwash - the backward movement of the wave down a beach when the wave has
broken.
Constructive Wave - A powerful wave with a strong swash that surges up the
beach.
Destructive Wave - a wave formed by a local storm that crashes down onto the
beach and has a powerful backwash.
Cliff - a vertical face of the rock.
Fetch - the distance of open water over which the wind can blow.
Crest - the top of a wave.
Longshore drift - the transportation of sediment along a stretch of coastline caused
by the waves approaching the beach at an angle.
Bay - a coastal inlet with a beach.
Headland - land which juts out into the sea.
Wave cut platform - a small indentation (or notch) cut into the cliff by coastal
erosion roughly at the level of high tide.
Cave - a hollowed out feature at the base of an eroding cliff.
Arch - A headland that has been partly broken through by the sea to form a thin
roofed arch.
Stack - an isolated pinnacle of rock sticking out to the sea.
Spit - a finger of new land made of sand jutting out into the sea from the coast.
Saltmarsh - low lying coastal wetland
Bar - a spit that has grown across a bay.
Sliding - a type of mass movement involving material moving downhill on a flat
surface (a landslide)
Slumping - a type of mass movement involving material downhill under its own
weight.
Constructive waves
‘Construct’ the beach
Smaller in height
Well spaced, low frequency.
Powerful Swash, weak Backwash
Destructive waves
‘Destroy’ the beach.
Taller in height
Closely spaced.
Powerful Backwash, weak Swash
Weathering
Mechanical Weathering- the rocks are broken up without any chemical
changes taking place. Eg. Freeze- thaw weathering- water freezes in cracks
in the rocks and expands by 9%. When it melts the water seeps into new
cracks. Thie puts pressure on the rock and over time this is repeated and
fragments of rock becomes detached.
Chemical Weathering- Some minerals and rocks are dissolved in rain water.
This is called Solution. Rainwater becomes a carbonic acid and dissolves
limestone or chalk.
Mass movements
Mass movement is when rocks loosened by weathering move down slope
under the force of gravity. The rocks can slide or slump. It is more likely to
happen when the rock is full of water.
Sliding is when large chunks of rock slide down the
slope quickly without warning. This can make it very
dangerous to walk under the cliffs. Sliding means that
material shifts in a straight line.
Slumping is when the material shifts with a rotation.
common where the cliffs are
made of clay. The clay becomes
saturated during heavy rainfall
and oozed down towards the sea
as part of a mud or debris flow.
Human activities can make it
worse:

Building on top of unstable cliffs can put too much pressure and weight on
them making them more likely to collapse.
Coastal erosion
The sea shapes the coastal landscape. Coastal erosion is the wearing away and
breaking up of rock along the coast. Destructive waves erode the coastline in a
number of ways:




Hydraulic action. Air may become trapped in joints and cracks on a cliff face. When
a wave breaks, the trapped air is compressed which weakens the cliff and causes
erosion.
Abrasion. Bits of rock and sand in waves grind down cliff surfaces like sandpaper.
Attrition. Waves smash rocks and pebbles on the shore into each other, and they
break and become smoother.
Solution. Acids contained in sea water will dissolve some types of rock such as
chalk or limestone
Coastal transportation
Process
Description
Solution
Minerals are dissolved in sea water and carried in solution. The load
is not visible. Load can come from cliffs made from chalk or
limestone, and calcium carbonate is carried along in solution.
Suspension Small particles are carried in water, eg silts and clays, which can
make the water look cloudy. Currents pick up large amounts of
sediment in suspension during a storm, when strong winds generate
high energy waves.
Saltation
Load is bounced along the sea bed, eg small pieces of shingle or
large sand grains. Currents cannot keep the larger and heavier
sediment afloat for long periods.
Traction
Pebbles and larger sediment are rolled along the sea bed
Long shore Drift
The transport of sand and pebbles
along the coast is called longshore
drift.
The prevailing wind (the direction
the wind usually blows from) causes
waves to approach the coast at an
angle. The swash carries the sand and
pebbles up the beach at the same angle (usually 45º). The backwash, however
carries the material back down the beach at right angles (90°) as this is the steepest
gradient.
if a pebble was placed in the water it would be carried along the coastline in a zigzag motion and would eventually be deposited when the waves lose energy.
Coastal Deposition
Coastal deposition takes paces in areas where the flow of water slows doen.
Sediment can no longer be transported and has to be put down. It is most common
in bays- where the energy of the bay is reduced on entering the bay.
Landforms created by erosion
Headlands are formed when the sea attacks a section of coast with alternating
bands of hard and soft rock.
The bands of soft rock, such
as sand and clay, erode more
quickly than those of more
resistant rock, such as chalk.
This leaves a section of land
jutting out into the sea called
a headland. The areas
where the soft rock has
eroded away, next to the
headland, are called bays.
Wave cut platforms.
When waves break against a
cliff, erosion takes a ‘bite’ out
of the cliff to form a wave cut
notch. Over a long period of
time the notch gets deeper until the overlying cliff can no longer support its weight
and it collapses. The cliff line gradually retreats.
Caves, arches, Stacks and stumps
Landforms created by Deposition
Beaches- these are accumulations of sand and shingle where deposition
occurs at the coast. They are often found in sheltered bays where the waves
have lost energy.
The development of Spurn Head
1. Longshore drift moves material along the coastline.
2. A spit forms when the material is deposited at a point where the coastline
changes direction.
3. Over time, the spit grows and develops a hook if wind direction changes further
out.
4. Waves cannot get past a spit, which creates a sheltered area where silt is
deposited and mud flats or salt marshes form. Being close to sea level, spits are
vulnerable to erosion especially during storms.
Bars
Occasionally Longshore Drift may cause a
spit to grow right across a bay, trapping
freshwater lagoon behind it.
Case Study of rising sea levels: East Anglia
Causes:



Global warming has caused sea level change. Thermal expansion of sea
water happens when it absorbs heat from the atmosphere.
Global sea levels have risen 3mm a year for the past 15 years.
Global sea level is predicted to rise by up to 43cm by the end of the Century.
Effects:
The Norfolk Broads would be flooded. It
is a popular tourist destination bringing
£5m to the local area. (economic/social)
Settlements eg. Kings Lynn may be lost.
Farmland, the Fens will be at greater
flooding risk (economic/social)
Erosion rates will increase which will
threaten settlements such as Overstrand
and Happisburgh. Sea defences will need
strengthening which will be expensive.
(economic)
A storm surge in 1953 killed 300 people.
Rising sea level could make that happen
again.
Low lying mudflats and marshes in Essex
are vulnerable to sea level rise. 22%
could be lost by 2050.
The Thames Barrier currently protect buildings worth
£80bn. It will need to be replaced within 50 years. Sea level
rise will increase (economic/political/social)
Case study of cliff collapse/coastal erosion: Holderness Coast, east Yorkshire.
Physical Causes




The main reason is rock type: Boulder Clay- the sea washes away the sand
and clay from between the boulders to leave them unsupported.
Powerful destructive waves from the North Sea.
Thin beaches offer little protection from the sea.
Slumping- during heavy rain water enters cracks in the rock which makes the
cliff top unstable and prone to slumping.
Human Causes

The sea defences built in 1991 to protect the village at Mappleton has put the
settlements further along the coast more at risk. £2m was spent on coastal
protection on a village of 100 people. Blocks of granite were imported from
Norway and 2 rock groynes were built. These trap beach material to protect
the cliffs from wave attack. Beach material further down the coast has been
washed away and none is being transported to replace it, leaving settlements
south of Mappleton exposed.
Effects



7-10m of land are eroded per year.
3-4km of land has been lost since Roman times.
29 villages along the coast have been lost in 1000 years.
Social and Economic
 Industry at Easington is being threatened as the gas terminal is too close to
the sea. It supplies a large amount of North Sea oil.
 Farms alongside the sea are devaluing and losing profits year on year as land
falls into the sea.eg. Cliff house Farm:
o lost 3m in 3months.
o It was unsafe for the pigs that they farmed as they fell down the crack
in the coastline, the bullock was stood on land that fell into the sea.
o The lorries could not access the farm
o building used for sows to have piglets were knocked down.
o The insurance company refused to cover erosion.
o The couple have lost their business.




Withernsea has to spend millions of pounds each year to protect its
population.
Properties along the coast lose their value, leaving owners in negative equity.
Many of the settlements rely heavily on tourism and if they are undefended
their trade would diminish as facilities close down.
There would be little or no new investment to sustain local communities.

The loss of jobs and few jobs means that young people move away from the
settlements along the coast.
Environmental
 By protecting certain areas along the coast it has made erosion worse in other
places.
 Essential services (coastguard and lifeguard) will soon have to be moved as
due to defences Spurn point is not receiving enough material.
 Wildlife behind Spurn Point is losing diversity as the environment cannot
support many species due to the lack of sediment.
 The headland at Flamborough has formed into classic examples of stacks,
arches, stumps and caves.
Sea defences/ coastal management
-
Hard engineering- building artificial structures such as sea walls aimed at
controlling natural processes.
Soft engineering- a sustainable approach to managing the coast without using
artificial structures.
Hard engineering
Hard
Description Cost
engineering
Sea wall
Groynes
Concrete
barrier at
the foot of
the cliffs.
Has a
curved face
to reflect
waves back
out to sea.
Timer or
rock
structures
built out to
sea from the
coast. They
trap
sediment
being
moved by
longshore
drift and
broaden the
Up to
£10millio
n per km
Advantages/
Benefits


Up to
£5000
per
metre



Disadvantages
(sometimes referred to
as costs)
Effective at
 Does not fit with
stopping the
the landscape.
sea.
 Very expensive.
Often has a
 High
walk way for
maintenance
people to walk
costs.
along.
Can create a
bigger beach
which can
attract
tourists.
Provide useful
structures for
fishing.
Not too
expensive.



Erosion can be
made worse
further down the
coast because
they interrupt
longshore drift
and starve
beaches
downdrift.
Groynes look
unnatural.
Rock groynes are
ugly.
Rock armour
beach. The
wider beach
acts as a
buffer to
incoming
waves,
reducing
wave attack
at the coast.
Piles of
large
boulders are
dumped at
eh foot of
the cliff. The
rocks force
waves to
break,
absorbing
their energy
and
protecting
cliffs.
Approxi
mately
£1000 to
£4000
per
metre


Relatively
cheap to
maintain
Can be used
to stand on for
fishing.



Rocks can be
expensive to
transport.
They do not fit
with local
landscape/geolog
y.
They can look
ugly.
Soft engineering
Soft
engineering
Beach
nourishment
Dune
regeneration
Description
Cost
Advantages
Disadvantages
The addition
of sand or
shingle to an
existing beach
to make it
higher or
broader. The
wider beach
acts as a
buffer to the
waves,
protecting the
cliffs from
wave attack.
Sand dunes
can be buffers
against the
sea but they
are easily
£3000 per
metre
Relatively
cheap and
easy to
maintain.
Blends in with
existing
beach.
Increases
tourist
potential by
making a
bigger beach.
The sand is
moved on by
longshore drift
so needs
constant
maintenance.
£2000 per
metre.
It is natural
coastal
environment
that is popular
Time
consuming to
plant marram
grass and
fenceoff.
Marsh
creation
damaged.
Marram grass
can be
planted to
stabilise them.
Areas can be
fenced off to
keep people
off newly
planted
dunes.
Allowing low
lying coastal
areas to be
flooded by the
sea to
become salt
marshes. Salt
marshes are
good barriers
against the
sea.
Depends on
the value of
the farm land.
Usually
between
£5000 and
£10000
with people
and wildlife.
Relatively
cheap
Can be
damaged by
storms.
People don’t
always respond
well to being
stopped from
going in areas.
Cheaper than
maintaining
expensive sea
defences.
Creates
habitat for
wildlife.
Land is lost as
it is flooded by
sea water.
Farmers/land
owners will
need to be
compensated.
Managed retreat
Another option is to allow the coastline to retreat. If the land is worth little it may not
be worth protecting if costs of protection outweigh the benefits of protecting.
Case study of sea defences: Minehead, Somerset
Why were sea defences needed?
Butlin’s tourist resort was located at Minehead and attracted thousands of visitors
per year.
In 1990s it was clear new sea defences were needed- estimated £21m damage from
storms if nothing was done.
What was done:
The Environment Agency developed a plan to defend the town.
Work started in 1997 and the sea defences were opened in 2001
The sea defences cost £12.3m (a saving compared
to potential storm damage if nothing was done).
The main features were:
A sea wall- 0.6m high.
Curved to deflect waves.
Landward side was made with local
red sandstone to look more attractive.
Curved top to prevent people walking
on it.
Rock armour
Placed at the base of the wall to
absorb wave energy.
Beach nourishment
Built up the beach by 2m in height.
This forces the waves to break further
out at sea, reducing their energy.
Provided a beach for tourists.
4 rock groynes:
To help stop longshore drift from moving sand to the east.
Success?
Yes. It protects the town from storms and high tides and has also enhanced the sea
front by creating an attractive beach environment.
Case study: tourism in Studland Bay Nature Reserve
Studland Bay is located in the Isle of Purbeck in Dorset and is popular with tourists.
It can be accessed by ferry from the desirable area of Sandbanks in Poole during the
summer. It is only a few minutes drive from the resort of Swanage and most visitors
arrive by car.
Studland Bay is a good example of a place where conflict can occur between
interest groups.
The issues
Studland Beach


The nature reserve is an area of sand dunes. These are dynamic, but often
unstable and vulnerable environments.
Areas such as this are home to rare species of plants and birds.









The area is attractive to tourists because of the dunes and the wide, sandy beach.
The beach can get very crowded in summer months.
Visitors need somewhere to park and also demand other facilities, such as paths
and public toilets.
Tourists bring their problems such as litter and fire hazards (caused by barbecues
and cigarette ends).
How is the area managed?
Vulnerable areas and areas recently planted with marram grass (which is used to
stabilise the dunes) are fenced off to limit access and damage.
Boardwalks have been laid through the dunes to focus tourists onto specific paths.
Car parks have been provided and people are not permitted to drive onto the beach.
Fire beaters are positioned within the dune area in case of a fire.
Facilities including a shop, café, toilets and litter bins are provided near the car parks
to focus tourists into one area.
Information boards educate visitors about the environment and how they can help to
protect it.