Pandora in the Box – Travelling around the World in the Name
of Fashion
Lydia Maria Taylor
Abstract
Today, fashion victims use fashion magazines, shows etc. to become informed
about fashion news. But what sources did they use in the 18th century to catch the
latest trends when none of these media types existed?
Long before the first Barbie appeared, there already existed a doll that wore lavish
wardrobe and matching accessories but didn’t function as a toy at all. This paper
examines how a doll called Pandora was sent abroad by French dressmakers to
promote and sell the Parisian fashion around the world. First, Pandora had to
conquer the royal houses in Europe. Then, she made her way into the department
stores and shops and finally into the bourgeois home. Interestingly, her triumphal
procession didn’t stop there and by the middle of the 18 th century she was even
crossing the Atlantic to be exhibited in Boston and New York.
The three essential questions, that need to be answered, are: 1) When did the first
fashion doll appear in history? 2) What did these dolls look like? 3) Who was the
target audience for the fashion dolls in the late 17th and early 18th century?
Consequently, I have two main foci: First, I want to find out as to why the
Parisian fashion was already the leading fashion in the 18th century; second, I want
to trace the history of the fashion doll. The story of the Pandora has hardly been
investigated so far, which is rather surprising, since it is not simply a story about
fashion but it also tells us something about the earliest forms of consumption in
fashion and about successful sales promotion.
For my research, I primarily used data from the web, periodicals of the 18th
century, published reports about Pandora, and works dealing with the history of
fashion in 18th-century Britain.
Key Words: America, Barbie, doll, fashion, history, Pandora, Paris, London,
England, France.
*****
1. The Wooden Doll Enters the Fashion Stage
The first question that must be answered is: When did the fashion doll appear in
history for the first time? According to Mauger et al., ‘[t]he world’s first fashion
doll may date back to the ancient Egypt. D’Aulaire reports that a wooden torso
Pandora in the Box – Travelling around the World in the Name of Fashion
[which has been a fashion doll] was found in King Tutankhamen’s tomb not far
from his clothing chest (1350 BC)’.i
Although the history of the fashion doll seems to be closely related to France, one
of the earliest examples in western history appeared in the fourteenth century in
Nuremberg. The earliest dolls were made of materials like clay, ivory, stone or
wood.
These dolls were modeled after children, monks, and women,
dressed in the fashion of the time. One of the notable
characteristics of these dolls was a circular hollow in the breast. It
has been speculated that these cavities may have been designed to
hold a christening gift, such as a florin. Archaeologists noted the
existence of similar dolls in diggings, which indicated that these
dolls were made in multiple numbers. These discoveries indicated
that the doll industry was [already] a thriving enterprise at this
time.ii
Scholars still differ on the origin of the fashion doll. Some trace it to the Late
Middle Ages in France and others to the Renaissance in Italy.
However, the first references of the wooden doll, the prototype of the Pandora,
can be traced back to France in the early 14th century. Originally, they were intended as precious royalty gifts the French royal family sent to other European royal
courts to promote the latest French fashions. Historical documents around the
1300s have captured this practice. For instance, the court records provide information that in 1321 the French queen sent fashion dolls as gifts the queen of England.
Another and probably the first text source ‘(…) is a record from 1396 of Robert de
Varennes, the Court tailor of Charles VI, receiving 450 francs for a doll’s wardrobe
that he had executed, to be sent by Queen Isabeau of Bavaria to the Queen of
England’.iii
From the very beginning, these dolls were appreciated as something quite
exclusive which is why the endowed kings and queens displayed them in special
cabinets. Furthermore it is evident that, the presented excurse into the history
suggests that France was already the leading nation in fashion. ‘By the eighteenth
century there was already an assumed supremacy in French taste, which has
lingered into our own time ’.iv Paris soon became known to be officially the City of
Fashion and within a short period of time the remaining European Royal houses
and nobilities regular ordered a Pandora to be informed about the latest fashion
trends.
THE HISTORY OF the Fashion dolls was at first closely bound
up with that of France. It confirms the natural pre-eminence of
Paris in the world of fashion to find an English Queen sending
over for the latest French styles as early as the fourteenth century,
presumably unsatisfied by the products of her native country. v
2
Pandora in the Box – Travelling around the World in the Name of Fashion
2. The 18th Century: One Big Puppet Show
Although the fashion doll became popular in the early 14th century, its heyday
was the 18th century. What began as an aristocratic whim developed into an
important part of the high fashion trade of the 17th century.
These Pandoras were sent out by French fashion houses to
England, Germany, Spain and Italy, sometimes to exhibit the
details of their dresses, and sometimes for the details of their
coiffures alone – as in a doll which Madame de Sevigne sent to
her daughter, or the thirty coiffured dolls which were exhibited at
the annual show of Saint-Ovide in 1763.vi
This is not surprising at all, because for several reasons the 18 th century proved
to be the first epoch in the history where a significant majority of the population,
especially in England, became obsessed with clothes and fashion in particular.
There are several reasons as to why the influence of fashion spread fast and greatly
during the 18th century. First, European travel became freer and besides that numerous small continental courts sprang up and flourished, which helped the fashion
industry to increase significantly. Second, ‘[t]he evolution of technology and the
market intertwined to create varying opportunities for fashion promotion. Early
fashion marketers used travelling dolls extensively to promote their products’. vii
Furthermore, the financial wealth spread down to the citizens, mainly to the socalled middle class, and therefore people expected a higher standard of living.
Besides, since the Renaissance the strict dress codes medieval societies had to
follow had been dissolving bit by bit; the dresses of the 18th century reflected these
changes.
In order to understand the appeal of fashion – and its relationship
to the idea of democratization – one must recognize that it was not
until the repeal of sumptuary laws, restricting the wearing of high
fashions, that citizens were free to choose their attire.viii
All these developments increased the demand in fashion and wardrobes,
especially among the ladies and fine gentlewomen.
The economic and social life of the eighteenth century was more
conducive than that of previous eras to an interest in dolls, both
for fashion purposes and as playthings for children. Only the
wealthy could afford dressed dolls, but raising affluence among
the middle class increased the demand, especially in England,
where a large portion of the extant eighteenth-century dolls
originated.ix
3
Pandora in the Box – Travelling around the World in the Name of Fashion
Subsequently, the Pandora made its way into the department stores, the shops,
the bourgeois homes in England and finally into other European countries.
3. The Dolls: Fabrication and Clothing
The next burning question is: how where these dolls made and what did they
look like? Most of the fashion dolls were made of wood, but some had bodies and/
or heads made of other materials like wax or later even ceramic or plaster. As life
size dummies they were about five to six feet tall and thus comparable to the shop
window dummy nowadays.
It must be remembered that wide geographic variations are
evident in the dolls of this period. The carving on continental
dolls in most cases is quite different from the carving on dolls
found in England and America. English dolls usually have simple
peg joints; many continental dolls have combination peg and ball
joints.x
The doll’s body and head were carved by hand from one piece of wood, which
had been turned on a lathe. The legs were made separately and attached at the hips
and knees to the Pandora’s body. The lower arms and hands were also crafted of
wood, in contrast the upper arms were ‘(…) made of either soft linen fabric or kid
leather, attached to the torso’.xi Most dolls had painted eyes, but some of them had
sparkling glass eyes, a producer that was more labour-intensive, because for this
purpose, the doll maker had to carve diamond-shaped holes into the head and
afterwards he added blown glass bowls.
The wooden parts of her body and head painted with creamcoloured paint, over a coating of gesso (a mixture of plaster of
Paris and glue). Less fine dolls of the period were only painted on
the face and neck. The painter’s final touch [was] to add her
eyebrows, lips and cheeks.xii
Furthermore, the fashion dolls all had either real hair or wore a wig. The wigs
were made of flax or wool. The hair of the dolls was designed to be worn in the
popular style of the time because it was absolutely essential that the Pandora had a
fashionable hairstyle as well as accessories that matched with her dress. Interestingly, although most 18th century dolls represented ladies or girls, there also existed
men, boy and even infant dolls.
4. The Dolls as Saleswomen
Intended as advertisement for the French fashion and the dressmakers, the dolls
functioned as mannequins and were dressed in a petite-seize version of everything
a fashionable women need to wear the proper foundation garments included, which
4
Pandora in the Box – Travelling around the World in the Name of Fashion
meant that the Pandoras were outfitted head to toe and displayed the latest fashions
concerning clothes and hairstyle. The doll’s outer garment was a dress made of
highest quality cloth: linen, cotton, wool brocade or silk, followed by a petticoat or
multiple layers of petticoats which gave the dress or skirt the desired fashionable
shape. The hoop petticoat or wicker, also known as panier, was part of the
women’s underwear and consisted of a basket. ‘They [the petticoats] could get as
wide as 18 feet (5 metres), and satirists talked of hoops of 7 or 8 yards (6 or 7
metres) wide’.xiii The extreme wide framework of the hoop made it difficult for
women to walk through the doors, sit down on a chair or to drive with a coach.
Some even wore a stomacher, which was in fashion through the 17th and 18th
century in Europe and North America. The stomacher was a v-shaped piece of
fabric either made of the same material as the dress or of contrasting materials. It
was worn across the chest and stomach and embroidered or decorated with pearls
or other gemstones. Other key characteristics of women’s clothing that were also
part of the fashion dolls’ outfit were a corset (also called a pair of stays) and a linen
shift. Rounding out the whole outfit they were also wearing knitted stockings,
shoes, a muslin cap and jewellery.
Another question is; who were the potential buyers of the fashion dolls? First of
all, the fashion doll was purchased by the dressmakers and cloth retailers. Above
all the Pandoras functioned as display and show items. As fashion was extremely
expensive, the rich costumers wanted to have a look at what they were going to
spend their money on. So the ‘[f]ashion dolls were (...) made by dress-makers to
illustrate their skills in miniature for their clients’xiv and therefore these mannequins were the best advertisement for dressmakers. Beside the miniature dolls very
soon the full-sized versions of the fashion doll came into existence.
The usefulness of making the Pandoras life-size became apparent,
for it was possible for customers not only to copy the clothes, but
also to fit the actual dolls’ clothes onto themselves, in rather the
same way as model dresses today can be sometimes bought
directly from French couturiers without fittings, after having been
displayed for a season in the dress show.xv
Consequently, it was just a matter of time and the logical next step that the mainly
female clients desperately wanted to posses their own Pandora. This was the
moment when the aristocratic and bourgeois women started to collect French baby
dolls. ‘Life size dolls could also be found as decorative touch in a women’s
boudoir. Moreover, oftentimes the dresses were taken off the doll upon its arrival
and worn by the recipient’.xvi It is important to note that the more elegant wooden
fashion dolls were mainly the domain of the wealthy.
It became the fashion for ladies to own a pair of dolls, one dressed
en grand toilette, and the other en déshabille. These were known
5
Pandora in the Box – Travelling around the World in the Name of Fashion
as the Grande Pandora and the Petite Pandora respectively, and
were the subject of every extravagant whim of stylish dressing:
hats, dresses, shoes, elaborate hair – styles and a great deal of
miniature beads and jewellery.xvii
It should be remembered in this context that the fashion dolls were originally not
designed as toys; it just happened that after they had served their original purpose
they were handed down from the mother(s) to daughter(s) and so ‘(…) many of
them found their way into nurseries as playthings’.xviii
5. The Fashion Doll as Couriers and Emissaries of Fashion and Globe Trotters
It is remarkable how widely the dolls were geographically distributed in the 18th
century. They were not only spread through Europe but were also shipped across
the Atlantic. Travelling around the world in the name of fashion, the Pandoras took
over two functions: on the one hand, they were the ideal advertising vehicle for
French fashion; on the other hand, they served as a kind of diplomatic representtation of France. The fashion doll became one of the most important and popular
French export goods. ‘So from Paris to London and other points, dolls depicting
changing styles in dress traveled’.xix Paraphrasing, the ‘(…) fashion dolls were the
next best thing to a trip to Paris (…)’. xx Obviously the Pandora took the world of
fashion by storm and enlarged its scope of influence rapidly and steadily since
1700. ‘According to Ferguson the dolls were sent first to German courts, then to
Italy, England, and finally to the colonies’.xxi Furthermore, in a very special manner
the Pandora helped to stabilize the Anglo-French economic and also indirectly the
political relationship and ‘[t]here are frequent instances of Anglo-French cooperation in fashion throughout the eighteenth century’. xxii Her diplo- matic
mission can be seen as a significant contribution to the sometimes tense relations
between England and France.
Nevertheless it was with England that the main French fashion
trade was exchanged even during war of the Spanish Succession,
when the hostilities between the two countries might have been
expected to hinder such frivolous interchanges.xxiii
Their importance was so great that they even were granted some kind of diplomatic
immunity:
The Abbé Prevost, writing in 1704 at the height of the war,
observed: ‘By an act of gallantry which is worthy of being noted
in the chronicles of history for the benefit of the ladies, the
ministers of both courts granted a special pass to the mannequin;
that pass was always respected, and during the times of greatest
enmity experienced on both sides the mannequin was the one
object which remained unmolested’.xxiv
6
Pandora in the Box – Travelling around the World in the Name of Fashion
In 1712, for example, when France and England were at war with each other, the
fashion dolls were exempted from the embargo on enemy imports and were given
an ‛inviolable passport’xxv and even a kind of a cavalry escort. This is also
documented by one of the greatest periodicals of that time, The Spectator (17111712), edited by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. In Issue No. 277 on January
17th, 1712, Mr. Spectator reflects on current events and mentions the common
practice that before war broke out a so-called ‘jointed baby’ xxvi dressed in the latest
style arrived in London from Paris. Despite wartime conflict the female sex success fully achieved that the French dolls were no longer contraband goods. He
presents two eyewitness accounts of the arrival of a French baby:
'I was almost in despair of ever seeing a model from that dear
country, when last Sunday I overheard a lady in the next pew to
me whisper another, that at the Seven Stars, in King-street,
Covent-garden, there was a mademoiselle completely dressed, just
come from Paris'.xxvii
The news spread like wildfire. This proves that women of that time were really
eager for the Pandoras and that the fashion doll was the only commodity whose
safe travel was guaranteed and respected by the ambassadors of both countries.
Additionally, the readers are given a detailed description of the newly arrived
puppet, which has been examined personally by Mr. Spectator:
The puppet was dressed in a cherry-coloured gown and petticoat,
with a short working apron over it, which discovered her shape to
the most advantage. Her hair was cut and divided very prettily,
with several ribands stuck up and down in it. The milliner assured
me, that her complexion was such as was worn by the ladies of
the best fashion in Paris. Her head was extremely high, on which
subject having long since declared my sentiments, I shall say
nothing more to it at present. I was also offended at a small patch
she wore on her breast, which I cannot suppose is placed there
with any good design. Her necklace was of a immoderate length,
being tied before in such a manner, that the two ends hung down
to her girdle; but whether these supply the place of kissing-strings
in our enemy’s country, and whether our British ladies have any
occasion for them, I shall leave to their serious consideration.xxviii
It has become apparent that the Pandora followed an efficient and convenient
route, first conquering Europe and then the USA.
7
Pandora in the Box – Travelling around the World in the Name of Fashion
Dolls, as informative and/or persuasive advertising, appear to
have followed an ‘information stream’ or path. Once dolls,
received from France, had been copied by the court dressmakers,
they were displayed in windows of fashionable shops. Then, after
London shops had tired of them, the dolls were sent abroad to
America.xxix
Fortunately, contemporary newspapers of that time have documented the brisk
journey of the fashion doll from Europe to America.
By the early 18th Century they were arriving in an America
sufficiently settled and prosperous to indulge in such fripperies.
Newspaper advertising of Boston, New York and Philadelphia
frequently mentioned “Fashion Babies” among the items “just
arrived on the good Ship”.xxx
Another source that needs to be quoted is an advertisement of a dressmaker in the
New England Weekly Journal of July 12th in 1733, which reads as follows:
At Mrs Hannah Teats, dressmaker at the top of Summer Street,
Boston, is to be seen a mannequin in the latest fashion, with
articles of dress, night-dresses and everything pertaining to
woman’s attire. It has been brought from London by Captain
White. Ladies who choose to see it may come, it will cost you two
shillings, but if you send for it, seven shillings.xxxi
6. The Fashion Doll as Great Grandmother of Barbie
Is there anything analogous to the Pandora nowadays? As a matter of fact, the
fashion doll of the 18th century can be seen as the great grandmother of Mattel’s
Barbie. Without a doubt, a comparison of the two dolls seems to be a bit farfetched
considering the differences between them. For example, unlike Pandora, Barbie
was not a new invention. Her inventor Ruth Handler got the idea from a German
doll named "Lilli", which was used as a model in a comic strip and was sold as a
sex toy for men. By contrast, Barbie was intended for children and the toy market
from the very beginning. Furthermore, Barbie is a fictional Fashionista that has
mainly been used for marketing purposes. She has never been a handmade doll, nor
a precious gift, or an exclusive item for the wealthy; instead, she has always been
an industrially manufactured mass product.
Despite these differences, Barbie and Pandora have a lot in common. First,
Barbie was also designed to resemble a human being and to represent the social
ideal of what a young woman should look like. Second, Barbie is an adult fashion
doll, too. She can be regarded as one of the first top models and her connection to
fashion is inextricable. Her inventor Ruth Handler even hired fashion designer
8
Pandora in the Box – Travelling around the World in the Name of Fashion
Charlotte Johnson to create a wardrobe for the doll. Until today, Barbie is dressed
in clothes that can only be found in the most expensive stores. Third, Barbie
preserves and reflects the history of fashion just like Pandora. She gets at least one
hundred new clothing designs every year. Interestingly, due to the vast number of
outfits Mattel produces for her each year; the company has become the biggest
garment manufacturer in the world. Fourth, Barbie is known and sold in the whole
world. She and her "family" of dolls have travelled the world which is why she is
probably the most famous popular doll in history. Unsurprisingly, Barbie is
referred to as the Queen of Dolls and in 2006 she even took rank 43 in USA
Today’s list of the 101 most influential people.xxxii Moreover Barbie has become a
popular collectible for young and old alike. Like the Pandora the Barbie functions
as icon, a symbol and kind of a fetish object. She is a brand, an icon of female
beauty, an object of pop art and a symbol of the modern consumer culture. Finally,
both Barbie and Pandora have been confronted with massive criticism. They have
been regularly attacked for promoting beauty and fashion standards that are unachievable for many women and girls and thereby lower their self esteem.
7. The Fashion Doll: A Rich Cultural and Historical Source
The aim of this paper has been to point out that ‘[f]ashion dolls, in some form,
were always used as a promotional tool’xxxiii and that one of the most influential
objects in the fashion industry of the 18th century was the so-called Pandora. It
should also have become evident that ‘Well-dressed, well-appointed dolls epitomize our ideal of the well-dressed persona. Fashionably dressed dolls have been
the objects of our admiration and affection, as well as our disdain’.xxxivMoreover,
the history of the fashion doll reflects the intimate connection between fashion and
economy.
In retrospect, Pandora can been seen as the first fashion doll, the first fashion icon
and the great-grandmother of Barbie. ‘Fashion historians believe that the dolls
were a highly effective means of fashion dissemination, perhaps more informative
than present day fashion photography’. xxxv In the absence of any other reliable
source the fashion doll become an important relict. Since‘[t]he development of
fashion between the 1680s and the early 1700s cannot easily be studied in portraits
because so many ladies preferred to be painted in loose robes without accessories
or trimming’xxxvi the Fashion dolls can be considered as an excellent cultural and
historical source: ‘Such dolls are important, even unique costume documents, rich
in detail, providing valuable information [not only] for the student of historical
dress, especially for the seventeenth century when good visual sources are
limited’.xxxvii Although fashion in the 18th century did not change as rapidly as it
does nowadays, this century was really the first time in history when designers and
customers had to react quickly to changing fashion trends.
The Pandoras that survived into the 20th century are a precious treasure and
cultural heritage that offer us the opportunity to get a glimpse of the diversity and
9
Pandora in the Box – Travelling around the World in the Name of Fashion
variety of dresses, ‘for many are in their original condition and have their
appropriate accessories’.xxxviii
10
i
Notes
Ann Mauger, Kathleen M. Rassuli and Laura Farlow Dix, "Marketers,
Dolls and the Democratization of Fashion", accessed July 10 2011,
http://faculty.quinnipiac.edu/charm/CHARM%20proceedings/CHARM
%20article%20archive%20pdf%20format/Volume
%208%201997/113%20colbert%20rassuli%20dix.pdf , 114.
ii
History of the Doll Tripod, accessed April 14, 2011, http://chipsmitley.tripod.com/historyofthedoll.htm.
iii
"A 16th Century French Fashion Doll," Belphoebe’s Web Page, accessed
April 14, 2011,
http://www.houseffg.org/belphoebe/Research/Doll/Index.htm.
iv
Oriole Cullen, "Eighteenth –Century European Dress," in Heilbrunn
Timeline of Art History(New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
2000), published October 2003, accessed June 25, 2011,
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/eudr/hd_eudr.htm.
v
Antonia Fraser, Dolls Pleasures and Treasures, (London: Weidenfeld and
Nicolson, 1963), p.39.
vi
Antonia Fraser, Dolls Pleasures and Treasures, 40.
vii
Ann Mauger, Kathleen M. Rassuli and Laura Farlow Dix, "Marketers,
Dolls and the Democratization of Fashion", 113.
viii
Ann Mauger, Kathleen M. Rassuli and Laura Farlow Dix, "Marketers,
Dolls and the Democratization of Fashion", 113.
ix
"Chapter 2: Before 1790 – Dolls prior to the French Revolution," in The
Collector’s Book of Dolls Clothes. Costumes in Miniature: 1700-1929, ed.
Dorothy S., Elizabeth A., and Evelyn J. Coleman (London: Robert Hale&
Company, 1976), 15.
x
"Chapter 2: Before 1790 – Dolls prior to the French Revolution," in The
Collector’s Book of Dolls Clothes. Costumes in Miniature: 1700-1929, 15.
xi
"Wooden doll, unknown English maker, c1740-50," Hantsweb Hampshire County Council’s web site for Hampshire, England, accessed
April 13 2011http://www3.hants.gov.uk/museum/childhoodcollections/toys/c18-doll.htm.
xii
"Wooden doll, unknown English maker, c1740-50," Hantsweb Hampshire County Council’s web site for Hampshire, England, accessed
April 13 2011http://www3.hants.gov.uk/museum/childhoodcollections/toys/c18-doll.htm.
xiii
"hoop skirt," in Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web, accessed June 25, 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/271358/hoop-skirt.
xiv
Alian Gribbin "Dolls," in Four Hundred Years of Fashion, ed. Natalie
Rothstein (London: Victory and Albert Museum, 1984), 101.
xv
Antonia Fraser, Dolls Pleasures and Treasures, 41-42.
xvi
Ann Mauger, Kathleen M. Rassuli and Laura Farlow Dix, "Marketers,
Dolls and the Democratization of Fashion", 114.
xvii
Antonia Fraser, Dolls Pleasures and Treasures, p.40.
xviii
Ibid., 44.
xix
Richmond Huntley, "Flashback: Dolls Are More Than Toys," in
Collectors Weekly March 27, 2009, accessed June 28, 2011,
http://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/dolls-are-more-than-toys/.
xx
Ann Mauger, Kathleen M. Rassuli and Laura Farlow Dix, "Marketers,
Dolls and the Democratization of Fashion", 114.
xxi
Ibid., 115.
xxii
Antonia Fraser, Dolls Pleasures and Treasures, 41.
xxiii
Ibid.
xxiv
Ibid.
xxv
Joan E. DeJean, The Essence of Style: How the French Invented High
Fashion. Fine Food, Chic cafés, Style, Sophistication, and Glamour. (New
York/ London Toronto/ Sydney: Free Press, 2005), 67.
xxvi
Joseph Addison, The Spectator Volume VI, No. 277, in The British
Essayist, ed. J.B. Dove (London: St. John’s Square, 1827), 265.
xxvii
Joseph Addison, The Spectator Volume VI, No. 277, 266.
xxviii
Ibid., 267.
xxix
Ann Mauger, Kathleen M. Rassuli and Laura Farlow Dix, "Marketers,
Dolls and the Democratization of Fashion", 115.
xxx
Richmond Huntley, "Flashback: Dolls Are More Than Toys," in
Collectors Weekly March 27, 2009.
xxxi
Antonia Fraser, Dolls Pleasures and Treasures, 43.
xxxii
See Deirdre Donahue, "They were never born, but they’ll live forever,"
USA TODAY October 17, 2006, accessed July 16 2011,
http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-10-16-influential-people_x.htm.
xxxiii
Ann Mauger, Kathleen M. Rassuli and Laura Farlow Dix, "Marketers,
Dolls and the Democratization of Fashion", 113.
xxxiv
Ibid.
xxxv
Ibid., 116.
xxxvi
Madeleine Ginsburg, "Women’s Dress Before 1900," in Four Hundred
Years of Fashion, 20.
xxxvii
Alian Gribbin, "Dolls," in Four Hundred Years of Fashion, 101.
xxxviii
Madeleine Ginsburg, "Women’s Dress Before 1900," 26
Bibliography
"A 16th Century French Fashion Doll." Belphoebe’s Web Page. Accessed
April
14,
2011.
http://www.houseffg.org/belphoebe/Research/Doll/Index.htm.
Arnold, Janet (ed.). Queen Elizabeth’s Wardrobe Unlock’d: The inventories
of the Wardrobe of Robes prepared in July 1600 : edited from Stowe MSl
557 in the British Library, MS LR 2/121 in the Public Record Office,
London, and MS V.b.72 in the Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington
DC. Leeds: Manley, 1988.
Addison, Joseph. The Spectator. Volume VI. In: Dove, J.B. (ed.). The
British Essayist. London: St. John’s Square, 1827.
"Chapter 2: Before 1790 – Dolls prior to the French Revolution." In The
Collector’s Book of Dolls Clothes. Costumes in Miniature: 1700-1929,
edited by Dorothy S., Elizabeth A., and Evelyn J. Coleman, 14-29. London:
Robert Hale & Company, 1976.
Cullen, Oriole. "Eighteenth-Century European Dress". In Heilbrunn
Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
2000. Published October 2003. Accessed June 25, 2011.
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/eudr/hd_eudr.htm.
DeJean, Joan E. The Essence of Style: How the French Invented High
Fashion, Fine Food, Chic Cafés, Style, Sophistication, and Glamour. New
York et al.: Free Press, 2005.
Donahue, Deirdre. "They were never born, but they’ll live forever," USA
TODAY
October
17,
2006.
Accessed
July
16,
2011.
http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-10-16-influential-people_x.htm
().
Fraiser, Antonia. Dolls Pleasures and Treasures. London: Weidenfeld and
Nicolson, 1963.
History of the Doll Tripod. Accessed April 14, 2011.
http://chip-smitley.tripod.com/historyofthedoll.htm.
"hoop skirt." in Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. Accessed June 25, 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/271358/hoop-skirt.
Huck, Christian. Fashioning Society, or, The Mode of Modernity:
Observing
Fashion in Eighteenth-Century Britain. Würzburg: Königshausen &
Neumann,
2010.
Huntley, Richmond. "Flashback: Dolls Are More Than Toys." Collectors
Weekly
March
27,
2009.
Accessed
June
28,
2011.
http://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/dolls-are-more-than-toys/
Kowalski-Wallace, Elisabeth. Consuming Subjects: Women, Shopping, and
Business in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Columbia UP, 1997.
Mc Kendrick, Neil, John Brewer and J.H. Plumb. The Birth of a Consumer
Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England.
Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1982.
Rothstein, Natalie (ed.). Four Hundred Years of Fashion. London: Victory
and Albert Museum, 1984.
"Wooden doll, unknown English maker, c1740-50." Hantsweb - Hampshire
County Council’s web site for Hampshire, England. Accessed April 13,
2011. http://www3.hants.gov.uk/museum/childhood-collections/toys/c18doll.htm.