Alternative Health Practitioner, Vol. 5, No. 2, Fall 1999 A Questionnaire to Study Maharishi Ayur- Veda Theresa M. Olson, PhD, and John W. Sorflaten, PhD Research into the effectiveness of treatment modalities of the traditional medical system of Ayur-Veda can be aided by access to a self-report questionnaire based on the dosha or "temperament" theory of Ayur-Veda . Fifteen adjective pairs were selected to create bipolar Likert-type scales that purport to capture psychophysiological "state" as determined by the subject’s self-report. A sample of 931 varied subjects completed the selfreport questionnaire at least twice, with an intervening musical experience. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient indicated only one adjectival pair failed the test of internal consistency. It was removed from further analysis. Factor analysis showed that the hypothesized grouping of adjectives matched the three temperaments or doshas of Ayur-Veda theory brough out by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. This included a test-retest comparison of the factor loadings, as well as comparisons of two diverse subject subpopulations. Historical trends in temperament theory are covered to aid understanding of the construct validity of the questionnaire. is recognized by the World Health Organization as an effective system of traditional health care and is widely used in India (Bannerman et al., 1988, Sharma, 1993). A leading Vedic scholar and a contemporary exponent of Ayur-Veda, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi has identified and systematized 40 aspects associated with this system which together constitute a &dquo;complete science of health&dquo; (Glazer, 1988). This restoration of Ayur-Vedic approaches meets authentication criteria contained in the classic Vedic texts and is known as the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Healths’. (Hereinafter this approach will be referred to as Maharishi Ayur-VedasM.) In addition to diagnosis and treatment of overt health problems, a major component of Maharishi Ayur-Veda includes preventative medicine and personal development practices such as the well-known Transcendental Meditation® (TMO) techniques. Over 650 research studies from 212 universities and research organizations have reported on the usefulness of components of Maharishi Ayur-Veda. Over 250 studies found placement in peer-reviewed journals (Sharma & Alexander, 1996a, 1996b). Funding for some of this research has come from the National Institute of Aging; the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, as well as the U.S. Department of Health’s Office of Alternative Medicine. The current research aimed at developing a self-report questionnaire to allow measurement of psychophysiological changes during treatment by many of the 40 aspects of Maharishi Ayur-Veda. The questionnaire uses conceptual constructs of dosha typology that support the diagnostic and therapeutic approach of Maharishi Ayur-Veda. Ayur-Veda @ 1999 Springer Publishing Company Downloaded from chp.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 19, 2016 163 164 The questionnaire augments the definition of various psychophysiological states called vrikriti that represent a departure from ideal mental and physical health. These states are otherwise established by traditional Ayur- Vedic pulse diagnosis, or nadi vigyan. Pulse diagnosis typically requires a well-trained Ayurvedic physician or vaidya. A successfully validated questionnaire would permit objective, quantifiable verification of the pulse diagnosis, or could allow independent classification of a subjects’ state. However, in sophisticated inquiries or research protocols, it would not completely replace pulse diagnosis. Ayur-Veda, an individual’s health is determined by the functioning of three psychophysiological traits, Vata, Pitta, and Kapha, known as the three doshas. These will be defined below. The pulse diagnostician first determines an individual’s typology, then within that typology, characterizes the problem or &dquo;imbalance&dquo; associated with one or more of the doshas. Good mental and physical health consists of the three doshas (and subdoshas) functioning optimally within the individual. This optimum balance differs per person and is called the individual’s prakriti. According to Sharma and Clark (1998) each of the three doshas have specific physiological, cognitive and psychological characteristics. Those individuals with Vata dosha predominating tend to be thin, small framed, may have curly or kinky hair, smaller eyes and joints that tend to crack noisily. Generally, these persons tend to be overactive and often overdo, resulting in exhaustion or fatigue. Vata types are light sleepers, waking easily. Cognitively, Vata types have very alert, quick, and active minds. They are quick to learn and quick to forget. Psychologically, Vatas tend to move, think and speak quickly. If Vata dosha is out of balance, these individuals tend to worry, be anxious, overly sensitive and blame themselves. They have difficulty making decisions. Individuals with physically predominant Pitta dosha have moderate height and body frames. Pittas generally have fair or reddish complexions with thin, silky hair which is often red, blond, or light brown in color. Pittas generally have strong appetites and strong digestion. Delayed meals can make Pitta types irritable. Sleep for Pitta types is sound and of medium length. Pittas are also warm by nature and therefore may be adverse to hot weather. They prefer cold food and drinks. Cognitively, Pittas have sharp penetrating intellects with methodical and well-organized minds. Psychologically, individuals with balanced Pitta dosha can be bold, focused, energetic, and chivalrous. When Pitta dosha is out of balance, these individuals may be short-tempered, impatient, critical, and speak harshly of others. Individuals with Kapha dosha predominant physiologically tend to be welldeveloped and rounded, with broad chests and good musculature. Kaphas gain weight easily. Their skin is usually soft, lustrous, oily; their complexion light or fair; their hair dark, thick, soft, and wavy. Digestion tends to be slow. Kaphas can easily miss meals without feeling any aggravation. Kaphas have excellent physical stamina but need more sleep than the other dosha types. Their sleep is heavy and deep. Kaphas dislike cool, damp weather. Cognitively, Kaphas are slow to learn and slow to forget. Psychologically, Kapha dosha-types tend to be tranquil and steady. Kaphas do not worry or get angry easily. Balanced Kapha dosha-type individuals are agreeable, forgiving, affectionate, generous, and emotionally stable. Out-ofbalance Kapha type individuals can be lethargic, overly attached to the status quo, and lacking Within in motivation. Research has attempted to correlate prakriti with familiar western variables. For example, high Pitta subjects have scored significantly higher on Type A behavior in the Jenkins Activity Survey, while high Kapha subjects scored significantly higher on Type B behavior (Schneider, Wallace, Kasture, Averbach, & Robinson, 1985). Neurotransmitters appear to discriminate between the main prakritis. A Pitta group had greater levels of acetylcholine, Downloaded from chp.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 19, 2016 165 while a Vata group showed greater levels of catecholamines, and a Kapha group displayed greater levels of histamine (Singh, Singh, & Udupa, 1980). The authors suggest that these patterns were consistent with current understanding of the roles assigned to the different neurotransmitters. Mood difficulties and ill health consist of aggravations in the physical systems that interfere with the balanced functioning of the predominant dosha of the patient. Dosha imbalance occurs from diet impurities, lifestyle abuses, stress, etc. interacting with the prakriti resulting in one’s vrikriti, or current state. Often, the diagnostician finds the vrikriti masks the prakriti (Sharma & Clark, 1998). Over time, treatment uncovers the more fundamental characteristics, or prakriti, of the individual. The questionnaire studied here measures the current states of the individual’s mood. Shifts over time indicate improvement or deterioration of mood. Based on the content of the questionnaire, measured improvements purportedly reflect psychophysiological shifts of the doshas toward the subject’s prakriti. METHOD Questionnaire Construction According to the Ayur-Vedic text Carika Samhita, different affect or subjective feelings may be associated with each of the three doshas. In 1990, prior to the many subsequent publications on Maharishi Ayur-Veda, a list of feelings associated with each dosha was created with the help of Dr. Stuart Rothenberg, MD, Co-Director of Maharishi Ayur-Veda International and Dean of the College of Maharishi Ayur-Veda at Maharishi University of Management, and Dr. David Orme-Johnson, former Chairman of the Department of Psychology at Maharishi University of Management. From this, a set of bipolar adjectives was created that reflected the most balanced (prakriti) and imbalanced (vrikriti) states associated with each feeling. The test used a Likert-type scale from -3 to +3 (see Table 1). Subjects Nine-hundred concert. thirty-one subjects agreed to fill out the questionnaire while attending a Subjects attended one of five western Baroque guitar or duo piano concerts (N= 217, average age 37), or one of five classical Indian sitar and vocal concerts of Maharishi Gandharva VedaSM music (N = 675, average age 40). All concerts occurred at various colleges in Iowa, except one Maharishi Gandharva VedasM concert was held in Cleveland, Ohio. For more details on subject selection and research on the effects of Maharishi Gandharva Veda music, see Olson,1995. Practically all subjects at the Maharishi Gandharva Veda concerts indicated they practiced the Transcendental Meditation (TM) technique. Audiences for the western Baroque analysis consisted of about 50% non-TM practitioners. In general, the diversity of settings and concert venues lead to a balanced diversity of subjects across TM vs. non-TM, male vs. female, rural vs. urban, students vs. employed, and afternoon vs. evening. Protocol Subjects filled in the MAARQ prior to any musical performance as well as after various portions of the concerts. An &dquo;improvement&dquo; score was calculated as the difference between the premusic and postmusic scores on each adjective pair. The improvement scores allowed a test-retest validity check. For additional checks on whether the practice of TM or type of Downloaded from chp.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 19, 2016 166 Table 1. The Maharishi Ayur-Veda Affective Response Questionnaire (MAARQ) concert might influence scores, two subgroups were also analyzed. One subgroup consisted of TM practitioners from one of the Maharishi Gandharva-Veda concerts (N 100). The other subgroup consisted of non-TM practitioners from a collection of four western Baroque = concerts (N = 126). Statistical Analysis The goal of this research was to test the construct validity of dosha typology within the Therefore, the main test determined how well the threefold structure of Vata, Pitta, and Kapha doshas held up under factor analysis. In other words, did context of a self-report checklist. the adjective pairs that described each dosha correlate with each other more than with the other doshas? Were similar correlations observed in a retest context? Were similar correlations observed among subsets of the subject group? Varimax rotation was used as a means of obtaining orthogonal axes, following practices indicated in Watson and Tellegen (1985). The number of factors was set at three on the basis of their psychological meaningfulness. Only coefficients of .35 or greater were considered members of a given factor, after Thayer (1978). A preliminary test using Cronbach’s alpha on a subset of subjects (N = 871) provided a test of internal consistency. Downloaded from chp.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 19, 2016 167 RESULTS Internal Consistency Cronbach (1984, p. 169) describes the &dquo;alpha coefficient,&dquo; as a test of internal consistency that tells how well scores obtained by one item (e.g., settled - restless) represent the group scores (e.g., average of the six items representing Vata dosha). Results given in Table 2 show that for Vata dosha the reliability coefficient was .9394, and for Kapha dosha, .9008. For Pitta dosha, the item &dquo;cold/hot&dquo; failed to correlate with its group (r = .054), thus it was dropped from the questionnaire. The resulting alpha coefficient for Pitta was .5573. Results indicated sufficient internal consistency to confirm the analysis. Factor Structures Varimax orthogonal rotation was used for the factor analysis. Recall that three population studied: all subjects combined (N = 931 ), subjects attending the Gandharvagroups Veda concert (N 100, all practitioners of Transcendental Meditation), and subjects western attending Baroque (N = 126, all non-TM practitioners). Additional factor analysis studied the &dquo;Improvement&dquo; scores, constituting a &dquo;retest&dquo; event for comparison with the original scores. To simplify visual grouping, the table presents only factor loadings .35 or greater. See Table 3 for the results. Considering the &dquo;All&dquo; subjects group, the second factor was the clearest, with all the Kapha adjectives loading solely on the factor. Therefore, it meets requirements for defining the degree of Kapha being experienced. It accounted for 24.7% of were = the total variance. The first factor appears ambiguous. Both Pitta and Vata adjectives loaded on the first factor, accounting for 38.3% of the total variance. However, note that the Pitta adjectives load less (.51 -.75) than the Vata adjectives (.75 -.91). The Vata adjectives fall solely within the factor and dominate it with greater loadings, thus permitting the label of Vata for the factor. However, some explanation regarding loadings of the Pitta adjectives appears needed. In this regard, note a traditional explanation regarding Vata-namely, that it &dquo;leads&dquo; the other doshas. According to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (personal communication), aggravated Vata can lead to aggravation of the other doshas-giving it the role of &dquo;king&dquo; or &dquo;leader&dquo; of the doshas. Classic texts indicate about 80 types of disease arise from Vata disorder, 40 from Pita, and 20 from Kapha, a very stable dosha (Sharma & Clark, 1998, p. 37). Table 2. Results of Tests of Internal Consistency of MAARQ Dosha-Related Adjectives *With &dquo;cold/hot&dquo; included. Downloaded from chp.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 19, 2016 168 Table 3. Factor Analyses of the Maharishi Ayur(MAARQ) for Three Populations *Only coefficients of .35 or greater are Vedic Affective included. &dquo;Pre&dquo; identifies Response Questionnaire loadings derived from the MAARQ administered prior to the audience hearing the music. &dquo;Imp&dquo; identifies loadings derived from the improvement score (postmusic MAARQ scores minus premusic MAARQ scores). The theoretically assigned dosha affiliation for each adjective is given in the leftmost column (V, P, K). Downloaded from chp.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 19, 2016 169 Given this &dquo;leadership&dquo; role, it appears acceptable that the Pitta adjectives would load on the Vata factor, as well as appear in their own factor, albeit explaining only 4.2% of the variance of the third factor. The appearance of the third factor as a cluster of Pitta adjectives gives encouragement to inclusion of the adjectives. They are not entirely redundant to the Vata adjectives. A special case must be made for the Pitta adjectives &dquo;serene&dquo; and &dquo;happy.&dquo; Serene fails to appear in any loading. For the &dquo;All&dquo; group, its highest loading was .25 (not shown) on factor one, Vata, with negligible loadings on factors 2 and 3. However, the factors analysis for the additional two groups loaded &dquo;serene&dquo; in both Vata and Pitta factors. Therefore, &dquo;serene&dquo; remains provisionally acceptable until other evidence rejects its value.2 &dquo;Happy&dquo; inconveniently loads on the Kapha factor as well as the other two factors. This indicates it covaries with all three doshas. The ubiquity of happiness suggests it may be dropped as a discriminator in future uses of the MAARQ. However, its absence in the Kapha factor of the GandharvaVeda (GV) group suggests it may play a subtle role in discriminating the doshas. Further research is recommended. Results of the analysis centered on the other two groups (GV and WB) followed the factor structure of the &dquo;All&dquo; group in reasonable degrees, indicating no particular bias associated with TM participation or with the type of music. Similar conclusions arise out of the &dquo;Improvement&dquo; analysis. DISCUSSION The results of the three sets of factor analysis indicate that the MAARQ reasonably represents the affective components of Maharishi Ayur-Vedic doshas. The instrument may thus be used to detect shifts of psychophysiological states within an experimental population. Thus, objective, repeatable measures of affective state may be obtained in the context of one of the largest and oldest systems of medical help in the world, Ayur-Veda. It is useful to continue our study of the MAARQ by placing it in an historical context, with reference to the underlying psychological constructs, thus contributing to evaluation of its construct validity, as well. In a sense, the study of psychology could be considered the study of typologies whenever sufficient data accumulate to stimulate researchers to create a taxonomy. &dquo;Temperament&dquo; perhaps best describes the dosha theory. Shapiro ( 1984) indicates that temperament derives from humoral theory and was picked up by Kretschmer (1925) and Sheldon and Stevens (1942) in theories of inherited body form or physique. Carl Jung (1923) substituted the word &dquo;type&dquo; for temperament, consisting of a combination of an attitude and a function. Subsequently, Eysenck attempted to demonstrate a physiological basis for Jungian attitudes, relating them to traits that could be measured. For example, Eysenck (1967) noted that extroverts have higher thresholds of ascending reticular activation system activity, thus exhibiting lower cortical arousal. Kefir (1984) suggests that a remarkable degree of uniformity appears if, when examining the work of philosophers and clinicians, one corrects for differences in language. &dquo;Despite the fact that there is not one term in common out of the 20 terms...,&dquo; according to Kefir, &dquo;it seems evident that these individuals have come to mutual agreement&dquo; (p. 383). Kefir’s analysis appears here, together with the possible relation to the three dosha types (see Table 4). An important contemporary investigator of similar structures associated with &dquo;mood&dquo; suggests that questionnaires serve an important role in defining one’s psychophysiological state (Thayer, 1989). Thayer has found, for example, that measures of physiological arousal Downloaded from chp.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 19, 2016 170 ~ <u b0fl >~· ~,:,M S £ 8 @ O bp ,-.~ ~S . ~ ~ , C ci «~% W C6 ~ i ~8 ci ’X q~h~5 Q_ Q 0., 64 040 04 .n°r,°~’w w .- qQ ~M (U ct-~ s-4 $ 4i <uCd 5o~ « cd ~ ~...na ~ C ~2 a) ed ,u .Cd ~ a °5 Cd © # _~£ ~ ~= 0o =$ &dquo;0 cj 0. 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This improved predictability is an outcome of &dquo;controlled introspection&dquo; in which the observer becomes the best monitor of the integrated outcome of various bodily functions. However, the role of treatment in modifying mood suggests that mood and the physiological substrate ultimately interact. One does not necessarily have causal primacy over the other. Thayer (1978) suggests that ... Many problems involving anxiety might be better understood with respect to the present model [of the moods of energy and tension]. As a case in point, occupational and other kinds of activity therapies have long been successfully employed.... With a thorough understanding of the parameters of this [model] it may be possible to design activity-based therapies more effectively (p. 31 ). It is this promise that suggests the benefit of measuring psychophysiological states with the MAARQ. In addition, the weight of the tradition ofAyur-Vedic approaches to health suggests that significant progress has been made in determining how the human physiology for modification through various modes of treatment. offers means NOTES ’® Transcendental Mediation, TM, Maharishi Ayur-Veda, Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health, and Maharishi Gandharva Veda are registered or common law trademarks licenced to Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation and used under sublicense or with permission. ’The &dquo;provisional&dquo; nature of acceptance for &dquo;serene&dquo; may have been foreshortened by publications subsequent to development of the MAARQ. Some authors report their investigations associate &dquo;serene&dquo; with Kapha dosha (e.g., Sharma, 1993, p. 301). The same author associates &dquo;exhilarated&dquo; with Vata dosha as well (instead of with Kapha). However, the current study uses negative terms in the bipolar scales for both adjectives that remain associated with the original doshas. This may be the reason the factor loadings have remained more or less true to the theory for the current study. REFERENCES Bannerman, R., H., Burton, J., Ch’en, W.-C. (Eds.). (1988). Traditional medicine and health care coverage. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Cronbach, L. J. (1984). Essentials of psychological testing (4th ed.). New York: Harper and Row Publishers. The biological basis . of personality Springfield, IL: Thomas. Maharishi An introduction to recent research. Modem J. L. Glaser, (1988). Ayurveda: Science and Vedic Science, 2 (1), 89-108. Jung, C. (1923). Psychological types. New York: Harcourt Brace. Kefir, N. (1984). Dispositional sets (p. 383). In R. J. Corsini & B. D. Ozaki (Eds.), Encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 3). New York: John Wiley and Sons. Kretschner, E. (1925). Physique and character. New York: Harcourt Brace. Olson, T. M. (1995). Increased personal harmony and integration as effects of Maharishi Gandharva Veda music on affect, physiology, and behavior: The psychophysiology of an evolving audience. PhD thesis in the Department of Psychology, Maharishi University of Management. Eysenck, N. W. (1967). Downloaded from chp.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 19, 2016 172 Schneider, R. H., Wallace, R. K., Kasture, H. S., Averbach, R., Rothenberg, S., & Robinson, D. K. (1985, September). Physiological and psychological correlates of Maharishi Ayurveda psychosomatic types. Paper presented at the Eighth World Congress of the International College of Psychosomatic Medicine, Chicago, IL. Shapiro, K. J. (1984). Temperaments (p. 410). In R. J. Corsini & B. D. Ozaki (Eds.), Encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 3). New York: John Wiley and Sons. Sharma, H. (1993). Freedom from disease (pp. 269-312). Toronto, Ontario: Veda Publishing, Inc. Alexander, C. (1996a). Maharishi Ayureveda: Research review, part 1. (1), 21-28. Complementary Medicine International, 3 Sharma, H., & Alexander, C. (1996b). Maharishi Ayureveda: Research review, part 2: Maharishi Ayurveda herbal food supplements and additional strategies. Complementary Sharma, H., & Medicine International, 3 (2), 17-28. Sheldon, W. H., & Stevens, S. S. (1942). The varieties . of temperament New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers. Sharma, H., & Clark, C. (1998). Contemporary Ayurveda: Medicine and research in Maharishi Ayur-Veda (pp. 43-47). New York: Churchill Livingstone. Singh, R. H., Singh, N. B., & Udupa, K. N. (1980). A study of tridosha as neurohumors. Journal of Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, 1 (1), 1-20. Thayer, R. E. (1978). Factor analytic and reliability studies on the activation-deactivation , 747-756. adjective check list. Psychological Reports, 42 a R. E. Toward (1978). theory of multidimensional activation psychological Thayer, (1), 1-34. (arousal). Motivation and Emotion, 2 . New York: Oxford Press. Thayer, R. E. (1980). The biopsychology of mood and arousal Watson, D., & Tellegen, A. (1985) Toward a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98 (2), 219-235. Data. Theresa M. Olson received her PhD in Psychology at Maharishi in 1995. Her dissertation topic: Increased personal harmony and integration as effects of Maharishi Gandharva Veda music on affect, physiology, and behavior: The psychophysiology of an evolving audience. Her present academic interests include the effects of healing sound and traditional forms of music on the individual, Maharishi Vedic Psychology and the Psychology of World Religions. Presently, she is an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Maharishi University of Management in Fairfield, Iowa. John W. Sorflaten received his PhD from the University of Iowa in 1994, in the field of Educational Design and Technology. His dissertation topic: Piaget’s concept of formal operational reasoning and whole brain function: Evidence from EEG alpha coherence during Transcendental Meditation. As a Visiting Assistant Professor of Psychology at Maharishi University of Management, Dr. Sorflaten has spearheaded the implementation of a specialized master’s degree program in human-computer interface design offered by the Psychology Department at MUM. Dr. Sorflaten is also Project Direcor at Human Factors International located in Fairfield, Iowa. His areas of interest include human-computer interface design and Maharishi Vedic Psychology. Biographical International University Offprints. Requests for offprints should be directed to Theresa M. Olson, PhD, Assistant Professor, Psychology Department, Maharishi University of Management, Fairfield, IA 52556. Downloaded from chp.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 19, 2016
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