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Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers
Graduate School
1985
Characteristics of Korean mask-dance drama
Yŏng-gyu Kim
The University of Montana
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Kim, Yŏng-gyu, "Characteristics of Korean mask-dance drama" (1985). Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers. Paper 8018.
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BY THE AUTHOR.
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C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S OF K O R E A N M A S K - D A N C E DR A M A
By
Yong- Gy u Ki m
B.A., Ch un g - A n g University,
Seoul,
Korea,
1980
P r es e n t e d in partial fulfill me nt
of the requirements for the deg re e of
Ma st e r of Arts
U NI VE R S I T Y OF M O N T A N A
1985
£ Examin e rs
D e 2fn, G r a d u a t e ^ h o o l
Date
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UMI Number: EP38819
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U M T
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Kim, Yong-Gyu,
M . A . , A u g u s t 1985
C ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of K o re an M a s k - D a n q e , ^ ^ a m a
Director:
Drama
{91 pp.)
R o l l a n d R. Meinholtz/
T r a d i t i o n a l K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e d r a m a is invest ig at e d
t h r o u g h its history, the common subjects tr e a t e d by the
plays, and religious b a c k g r o u n d of the plays.
This
d r a m a form or ig i n a l l y came from Sonang-Je, as part of a
vil la ge shrine ceremony, abou t 200 years ago.
Many
K o r e a n ma sk - d a n c e dramas, w h i c h still are p e r f o r m e d in
their own regions w i t h shamans, satirize h y po cr i sy and
immorality.
The y also d e p ic t the h a r d life and tragedy.
The subjects are, however, el e v a t e d into a farce form
of drama w h i c h evokes laughter from the a u di en ce and,
thus, an o p ti mi s t i c ph il o s o p h y ov ershadows h a r d - p r e s s e d
reality.
The Pong - Sa n ma s k- d a n c e dra ma curre nt ly p e r f o r m e d in
Seoul city serves as a mod el for the study of stage
arrangement, dialogue, farcical characters, plot, masks,
costumes, music, and ritual.
Korean m a s k - d a n c e dra ma
has m a n y qualities that can be d e v e l o p e d into a gr e a t
r eligious festival drama.
It is ho p e d tha t eff or ts will
be e xp en de d to recover the moo d of p l a y i n g m a s k - d a n c e
drama.
11
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT
................... ‘..............................
L IS T O F F I G U R E S
LIST OF MAP S
ii
............................................
vi
..............................................
vii
Chapter
1.
INTRODUCTION
....................................
O v e r v i e w of the S t u d y
........................
Sources and Research Methodology
..........
O r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e S t u d y
...................
2.
3.
4.
COMMON SUBJECTS OF KOREAN MASK-DANCE
DRAMAS
...........................................
1
6
7
8
R E L I G I O U S B A C K G R O U N D OF M A S K - D A N C E
DRAMA
..............................................
12
HISTORY OF THE PONG-SAN MASK-DANCE
DRAMA
..............................................
23
Origin
.........................................
Development
....................................
23
26
E a r l y P e r i o d (1750-1900)
G o l d e n P e r i o d (1901-1938)
D e c l i n e (1939-1945)
M o d e r n P e r i o d (1945-present)
5.
1
............
27
27
28
29
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PONG-SAN
MASK-DANCE DRAMA
...............................
31
Character Types
...............................
O u t l i n e of t h e P l a y
.........................
31
32
Kwajang 1
Kwajang 2
32
33
Scene 1
Scene 2
33
33
iii
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chapter
Page
K w a ja ng 3
K w a ja ng 4
33
33
Scene 1
Scene 2
Scene 3
33
34
37
K w a ja ng 5
K w aj an g 6
Kwaj a ng 7
37
37
40
...................
40
S t a g e ........................................
D i al og ue
....................................
Farce
......................................
40
44
51
Dramatic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Plot an d Struc tu re
Dance and M u s i c
..........................
............................
57
59
Nojan g' s Danc e
............................
..............
D a n c e of the Four Sangjwas
Dance of the Eigh t M o k c h u n g s
............
Lion's Dance
...............................
62
63
63
64
Masks a n d C o st um e s
..........................
65
....................................
69
Mask
......................................
Cost u me
.................................
69
69
S a ng jw a
Mokchung
....................................
69
Mask
......................................
.................................
Costume
69
70
Nojang
......................................
70
Mask
......................................
C ostu me
.................................
70
70
S injan gs u
.................................
70
Mask
......................................
Costume
.................................
70
71
C h wi ba li
. . . . .
........................
71
Mask
......................................
C ostu me
.................................
71
71
Iv
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Chapter
Page
M i y a l ........................................
71
Mask
......................................
Costume
.................................
71
71
Yonggam
....................................
71
Mask
......................................
C o s tu me
71
72
Domori
72
Mask
......................................
.................................
C o s tu me
Mudang
......................................
72
Ma sk
......................................
C o s tu me
.................................
72
72
S a en ni m
...................................
Ma s k
......................................
Costume
.................................
Sobangnim
72
72
72
.................................
74
Mask
......................................
C o st um e '
.................................
74
74
Toryongnim
.............. ..................
Ma s k
......................................
Costume
.................................
Namggang Noin
74
74
74
............................
74
Mask
......................................
Costume
.............. . . . . .
74
74
E leme nt s of Ritu a l
6.
72
72
CONCLUSIONS;
THE F U T U R E
75
THE P R ES EN T AND
......................................
83
S u m ma ry
......................................
R ec o m m e n d a t i o n s
.............................
83
86
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.............................................
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89
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1.
A farmer's b a n d
...............................
2.
The sangjwas d a n c e — o p en in g c e r e m o n y
3.
Two m u d a n g p h o t o g r a p h s
4.
M o kc hu ng s exit
5.
Nojang,
6.
A m ok c h u n g an d the lion
7.
The y a ng - b a n s dan ce
8.
Two stages
9.
N o j an g danc es
. . . .
16
18
........................
21
..................................
35
Somu, monkey,
and S in ja n gs u
. . . .
36
......................
38
...........................
39
.......................................
42
..................................
53
....................
55
...........................
61
10.
Chwibali danc es w i t h Somu
11.
The m o k c h u n g s danc e
12.
T a e gu m
...........................................
66
13.
H a e gu m
...........................................
67
14.
Changgo
.........................................
68
15.
Mud an g and N a m g g a n g N o i n
......................
V I
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73
LIST OF MAPS
Map
Page
1.
Map of Kor ea and s e l ec te d p ro vi n ce s
2.
Six maps of K o re a n dynasties,
. . . .
e t c .................
Vll
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4
13
Chapter 1
INTROD UC TI ON
O ve r v i e w of the Study
K o re an peo pl e have been fond of singing,
d r i n k i n g since e a r l i e s t times.
dancing,
and
Even t od a y one can come upon
groups of K o r ea ns d a n c i n g in the open countryside.
Eleanor
King, p ro f e s s o r emeritus of danc e at the U n i v e r s i t y of
Arkansas, d id n ' t h es i t a t e to call K o r ea ns the D io n y s i a n s of
East Asia.
T h e y danc e un se lf consciously, individually, freely, wit h
t h a t i n e l u c ta bl e sense of "mot" and "heung"
(irrepressible joy from within, state of ex h i l a r a t i o n
from a dee p sense of beauty) w h i c h has not changed.
Their m o v e m e n t s have subtle delicacy, and always that
lift of the breat h wh i c h sends th e m float in g h a p p i l y
over the gr o u n d or s us pe nd ed like a butterfly, on one
foot, w h i l e the s houlders sof tl y c on ti nu e to dance.
It
is this s p o n t a n e o u s , i n s t i nc ti ve e x p r e s s i o n in Korea
wh i c h I like to call the lesser Dionysia, and w h e n I
think of Ko re a n dancing, the first image w hi c h comes to
my mind is h o w u n t a u g h t c o u n t r y m e n a nd w o m e n n a t u r a l l y
express this spir i t (emphasis m i n e ).^
This spontaneity,
K orea n art,
undecorated.
r e g ar de d as an o u t s t a n d i n g t r ai t of
is r e f l e c t e d in a t e n d e n c y to leave p o t t e r y
The u n d e c o r a t e d objects elicit a de li gh t f u l
^ Elea no r King, " R ef le ct io n on K o r e a n Dance," The K o r ea n
N a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n f o r - U N E S C O (Ed.), K o r e a n Dance (Seoul:
S i - s a - y o n g - o - s a , Inc., 1983), p. 63.
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f e e l i n g of e x p a n d e d space leadi ng to a lack of ar ti f i c i a l
pretense.2
T he s e q u a l i t i e s m a k e it d i f f e r e n t fro m C h in es e
and J a p a n e s e art.
C h i ne se art is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an
e m p ha si s on formality,
pe rfection.
order in complexity,
and t ec h n i c a l
J a pa ne s e art is m a r k e d by roman ti c
d e c o r a t i v e n e s s and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n in v i su al terms.
K o r e a n art c o n s i s t e n t l y is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y op t i m i s m
wit h a p r e f e r e n c e for s i m p l i c i t y and n a i v e t e .3
it relies on
b e a u t y of line and shape rather than on cost ly materials.
K o r e a n artists ten d to express their m a j o r themes in contour
or p r o f i l e forms,
re i n f o r c i n g their m a i n ideas wi th m in o r
deta il s or colors.
D e c o r a t i o n ofte n appe a rs to be s ec on da ry
— a l m o st an afterthought.'^
T o yo ta ro Tanaka,
s p e c i a l i s t in K o r e a n pottery,
b o r n tha n made.
said,
a Japan es e
"Korean w a r e is rather
The re is no inkling of h e s i t a t i o n on the
par t of the p o t t e r . "5
T a na ka also b e l i e v e s s p o n t a n e i t y is
an o u ts ta n di ng trai t of K o r e a n a r t .
This s p o n t a n e i t y is found even in the p e r f o r m a n c e of
K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e drama.
Ther e is no sign of the high
2won-yong Kim, "Philos op hi es and Styles in K or e a n Art,"
The K o r ea n N a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n for U N E S C O (Ed.), T r a d i t i on al
K o re an Art (Seoul:
S i - s a - y o n g - o - s a , Inc., 1983), p. 11.
^ Won-yong Kim, "Some A s p e c t s of the I n t e r r e l a t i o n of
Korean, C h in es e and J a p an es e Arts," The K o re an Nati on al
C o m m i s s i o n for U N E S C O (Ed.), T r a d i t i o n a l K o r e a n Art (Seoul:
Si-sa-y on g- o- sa , Inc., 1983), p. 22.
^Eve l yn McCune, The Arts of K o r e a
E. T u t t l e Co., Inc., 1967), p. 20.
^Kim,
" Ph i losophies," op.
cit.,
p.
(Rutland,
VT:
10.
2
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Char le s
quality of the formal and
stylized Peking Opera or the beauty
and e x c e l l e n c e of the Noh
dram a form.
m a s k - d a n c e dr a m a in Kor ea
p e r f o r m o u t do or s w i t h o u t any
p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of stage.
Thei r m o v e m e n t s a nd g e st u re s
The pl a y e r s of
a w k w a r d and scenes have no logical progression.
look
This
suggests tha t m a s k - d a n c e dram a o r i g i n a l l y was i m p r ov is at io na l
theater.
Play e rs of this dra ma form act from a s k et ch y plot
outl i ne or synopsis of each scene,
dialogue,
songs,
action,
t h e n i m pr o v i s e the
and dances.®
The r e are e i gh t m a j o r regional v a r i e t i e s of m a s k - d a n c e
d r a ma in Korea:
1.
Ha-hoe.
2.
Yang-Ju.
3.
Pong-San.
4.
Kang-Nyong.
5.
Ko-Sung.
6.
Song-Pa.
7.
Kang-Nung.
8.
Tong-Nae.
T h e y w e r e na m e d aft er the small cities in w h i c h they
o r ig i n a t e d
(see M a p 1, p.
Unfortunately,
4) and still are p e r f o r m e d there.
no clear in f o r m a t i o n on the recent a c ti vi t i e s
of two m a s k - d a n c e p l a y s — the P on g - S a n and K a n g - N y o n g — has
®0h Kon Cho, "The M a s k - D a n c e T h e a t r e from H w a n g - h a e
P r ov in ce ," K o r e a J o u r n a l (May 1982): 43.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
P o ng -S a n
Sariwon
Sohung
Kang-Nyong
1#
1. Seoul
2. Y a ng -J u
3. Song-pa
K wa n g - w o n Provin ce
1. K a ng nu n g
Province
Province
1. Ha-hoe
2. Tong- N ae
3. K o - Suno
Ma p 1.
provinces.
A m a p of K or e a and s el e ct ed d es i g n a t e d
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b e e n a v a i l a b l e since the K o r e a n W a r
(1950-1953).
These cities
p r e s e n t l y are p a r t of N o r t h Korea.
D u r i n g the war,
however,
a few p l a ye rs of these dram as m a n a g e d to m i g r a t e to Seoul.
W i t h other i n t e r e s t e d indivi du al s t h e y r e v i v e d the dram as in
South K o r e a . 7
Since then,
the y hav e bee n p e r f o r m e d m a i n l y
in th e Seoul area.
Af t e r the K o r e a n War,
some scholars b e g an to t h or ou g h l y
r e s ea rc h m a s k - d a n c e in order to tra ce their cultural
heritage.
D o o - H y u n Lee, p ro f e s s o r of K o r e a n language
e d u c a t i o n at the Seoul N a ti o na l University,
has mad e a g re a t
c o n t r ib u ti on by c o l l e c t i n g each play's d i a l o g u e — whi ch had
been ha nd e d d o w n o r a l l y — and t r a c i n g the h i st or ie s of
m a s k - d a n c e plays.
M o d e r n K o r e a n scholars have not, however, ha d e n ou gh
time to assess this t h e at e r form in terms of d ra ma ti c value.
K o r e a n p e op le have b e e n bu sy s ur vi vi n g d i f f i c u l t social and
e c o n o m i c hardships:
reconstructions.
colonial times, wars,
and
Yet, thanks to the effor ts of some scholars
and theat er people,
the m a s k - d a n c e plays have bee n d e s i g n a t e d
an Impor t an t I n t a n g i b l e Cu l t u r a l P r o p e r t y by the G ov er n m e n t
of South Kore a and t h e y are p e r f o r m e d o c c a s i o n a l l y for a few
days as part of the annual N at i o n a l Folk Arts Festi va l of
Korea.
W h e n w a t c h i n g perform an ce s ,
I often have felt that
m a s k - d a n c e plays coul d be d e v e l o p e d into a bette r o r g a n i z e d
^ I b i d . , p.
44.
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an d d r a m a t i z e d f o r m of t h e a te r art w i t h o u t c h an gi ng the
t r a d i t i o n a l an d r i t u a l i s t i c background.
The first step in
such a d e v e l o p m e n t w o u l d be to focus u p o n the unique
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the ex i s t i n g t h e a t e r form.
Thus this
stu d y was d e s i g n e d to d e t e r m i n e the g e ne r al c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s
of K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e thea te r rat he r th a n spec if ic
ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each regional m a s k - d a n c e p l a y with,
however,
c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the P o ng - Sa n in particular.
S ources and R e s e a r c h
Methodology
The p r i m a r y sources for this study nu mb e r six :
1.
K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e d ra m a scripts and research works
about th e hi st o r i e s of m a s k - d a n c e plays co ll e c t e d by Dr.
D o o - H y u n Lee.
2.
A P o n g - S a n p l a y script t r a n s l a t e d into English by
Dr. Oh Kon Cho, p r e s e n t l y p ro f e s s o r of the at er at the State
U n i v e r s i t y of N e w York at Brockport.
3.
Dr. Cho's research work,
"The M a s k - D a n c e T h ea te r
from H w a ng -h ae P rovince," w h e r e the P o n g - S a n g and K a n g - N y o n g
m a s k - d a n c e plays originated.
4.
The p r e s e n t r e s e a r ch er ' s p er so n al v i e w i n g of a
P o n g - S a n d ra m a performance.
5.
Ph ot og ra ph s of a P o n g - S a n dra ma p e r f o r m a n c e by
Jin -H i Kim.
6.
A b e t a m a x v i d e o t a p e of a Po n g - S a n drama
p e r f o rm a nc e, p r o d u c e d by KBS.
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T h e s e sources we r e a n a l y z e d for e v i d e n c e an d i n f o r m a t i o n
r e l a t i n g to
(1) c o m m o n subjects of K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e plays,
(2) h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of the P o n g - S a n drama, and
(3) the d r a m a t i c e l e m en ts of t h e P o n g - S a n drama.
O r g a n i z a t i o n of the Study
A l t h o u g h eac h of the eigh t m a s k - d a n c e dram as has
u n i qu e cha ra ct e ri st ic s,
the P o n g - S a n is the m o s t popular
a nd c o n s i d e r e d the bes t in terms of d r a m a t i c unity.
This
study p r e se nt s the b a c k g r o u n d and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e t h ea te r in general,
then co n ce nt ra te s on
each dr a m a t i c e l e m e n t of the P on g - S a n g m a s k - d a n c e pla y
s p e c i f i c a l l y — as o u t l i n e d below.
C hapt er s 2 an d 3 focus u p o n the c o mm o n subjects and
r eligious b a c k g r o u n d of K o r e a n m a s k d an c e plays,
respectively.
The se chapt er s sketch the contou rs of the
d ram as as a whole.
C h a pt er 4 d e sc r ib es the histo ry of
the P o ng -S an p l a y a n d chap te r 5 a n a ly ze s each dramatic
e l e m e n t in it.
C h a pt er 6 e xp la i ns the pr o b l e m s of curre nt
m a s k - d a n c e pla ys and suggests ways to solve them, t h e r e b y
d e v e l o p i n g the plays.
This last chapter also su mmarizes the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of this dra ma form in general.
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Chapter 2
C OMMO N SUBJECTS OF K O R E A N M A S K - D A N C E DRAMAS
The ch ar ac t e r s in K or e a n m a s k - d a n c e dra ma are d i v id ed
into t hr e e categories:
aristocrats, monks,
S it ua t i o n s in this dram a form,
portrayed,
and commoners.
c o m p o u n d e d by the r e l a t i o ns hi ps
veil the long and d e e p s o r r o w of the Ko re a n people.
Kore an s long hav e suffer ed a ff li ct i on s r e s u l t i n g from
me rc i l e s s f o r ei g n invaders,
and p ol i t i c a l corruption.
utte r d e s t i t u t i o n a n d poverty,
Am id their suffer in gs the y learned
tha t the sile nc e of r e s i g n a t i o n was a r e al is ti c solution.
This r e s i g n a t i o n wa s not n e c e s s a r i l y pessimistic.
It was
a me a n s by w hi c h to t o le ra te their h a r d - p r e s s e d reality,
a pa s s a g e to enlightment,
and an o pt im i s t i c philosophy.
Koreans a cc ep te d a n d t o l e r a t e d their ha rd s h i p s and clung
to belief in a fertile land that wo u l d p r od uc e abun da nt
crops.^
They could,
therefore,
laugh and e n j o y m a s k - d a n c e
plays w h e n actors d e p i c t e d and m i m i c k e d their h a r d lives,
false ho od s of aristocrats,
T h r o u g h eroticism,
i mp ro v i s e d dancing,
the
and t h e i r social conflicts.
free and ou t s p o k e n dialogue,
and
the p e o p l e had an emot i on al outlet.
The
^ Wo n- yo ng Kim, "Ph il o so ph ie s an d Styles in K o r e an Art,"
The K o r e a n N at i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n for U N E S C O (Ed.), T r a d i t i o n a l
K o r e a n A r t (Seoul: Si-sa-yo n g- o- sa , Inc., 1983), p. 12.
8
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c o n t e n t s of the m a s k - d a n c e d ra m a stories had m u c h in common:
e x p o s u r e of reality,
satire, debauchery,
laughter,
and
l a m e n t a t i o n t h r o u g h the actions of ch ar ac t e r s such as a
d e g e n e r a t e monk,
foolish aristocrats,
a sha ma n priestess,
and
v a le ts and commo ne rs y o u n g and old.
The H a - ho e m a s k - d a n c e dram a is a go o d example.
This
p l a y d e v e l o p e d fr o m rituals in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h offeri ng s
p l a c e d bef or e the v i l l a g e shrine in the K y o n g s a n g - d o area
(see M a p 1, p.
4).
Now,
as then, p r e p a r a t i o n s for this eve nt
c o m me nc e the en d of D e ce mb e r a c c o r d i n g to the lunar
calendar.2
T h e h e a d shaman p r ie st selects a c ar pe nt er to
bui ld a p l a t f o r m in front of the shrine.
d a y of J a n u a r y of the lunar calendar,
Then,
on the sec on d
a shama n prie st and
p ri es te ss offer p r ay er s to the v i l l a g e god.
Afte r the god
s up po s e d l y desc en d s to sha k e a bell at the top of a pole
d r a p e d with f iv e- c o l o r cloths
green),
the priest,
priestess,
(red, white,
yellow, blue,
and
and m a s k - d a n c e players bear
the p o l e and m a r c h throu gh the v i l l a g e to the a c c o m p a n i m e n t of
b a n d music.
W h e n they arriv e at the v i l l a g e square they
pla nt the po le t h e r e i n and b eg i n to p e r f o r m the m a s k - d a n c e
drama^ w h i c h c o n s i s t s of nin e k w a j a n g s .^
^ Doo- Hy un Lee, "Korean Folk Play," International
C ul tu ra l F o u n d a t i o n (Ed.), Folk C u lt ur e in K o r e a (Seoul:
S i - s a- yo n g- o- sa , Inc., 1982), p. 113.
3ibid.
4a k w a j a n g is a d i v i s i o n c r e a t e d by a d i f f e r e n t danc e
story.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
In the fir s t kwajang,
in a li on o ut f i t
or lion's dance, tw o m e n co s t u m e d
(front an d rear), w i t h a ho o d and mask,
da n c e to the be a t of the music.
This is a sort of
r i t u a l i s t i c c h a s i n g a w a y of evil spirits.
is a r a b bi t d a n c e by a priestess,
The second k w a j a n g
but the r a b bi t m a s k has
b e co me lost t h r o u g h the p a s s a g e of time.^
In the t h i r d k w a j a n g a b ou t a fal l en monk,
a p pe ar s and d an c e s w h i l e a m o n k w a t c h e s .
together.
a maiden
Soon th ey dance
U p o n the e n tr a nc e of a y a n g- ba n' s^
mon k runs a w a y w i t h the m a i d e n on his back.
servant,
the
Th e n a p p ea r a
y a n g - b a n and s c h ol ar w h o lament the c o r r u p t i o n w hi l e their
servants fall in love w i t h one another.
The fourth k w a j a n g focuses up o n a y a n g - b a n and. scholar.
A d a n c i n g coqu et te tempts the y a n g - b a n and scholar and
they form a love triangle.
The y a n g - b a n an d scholar eac h
brag abou t the d i g n i t y of his house and his l ea rn ed ne ss in an
a t te mp t to win the love of the coquette.
s cholar dance w i t h the coquette,
The y a n g - b a n and
eac h t r y i n g to a t t ra c t her.
A b u t c h e r then enter s wi th an axe and a bull's testicle,
s ayi ng that it is v e r y g o o d for sexual stamina.
The
s c h ol ar and y a n g - b a n t r y to buy the testi cl e a nd pull at it.
An old woma n comes on stage and mak e s peace b e t w e e n the
two.
^Lee,
op.
cit.,
p. 114.
GAn aristocrat.
10
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Th e fifth k w a j a n g il lu st ra t es t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s of a
c o m m o n e r 's livelihood.
The sixth k w a j a n g is a m a c a b r e
sh o w f ea t u r i n g a b u t c he r k i l l i n g an d d i s p o s i n g of v a r io u s
parts of a cow.
It is said that this scene or ig i n a l l y
d e p i c t e d the e x e c u t i o n of a m a n — w h i c h has bee n softened
t h r o u g h the years.
The seventh k a w j a n g d e pi c ts the
w r o n g d o i n g of p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n m e n t o f fi ci al s by showing a
tax co ll e c t o r p o c k e t i n g p a r t of an o f fi ci al c o l l e c t i o n of
g r a i n for himself.
The eig ht h kwajang,
ceremony.
a m ar r i a g e scene, p o r tr ay s a w e d d i n g
The nin th k w a j a n g shows the first nigh t of the
m a r r i e d couple.
W h e n the bride opens a ches t after the g r o o m
has falle n asleep,
her lover comes out of it a n d kills the
groom.
Like this H a - h o e m a s k - d a n c e play,
the subjects in other
e x i s t i n g m a s k - d a n c e dram as are fai rl y homogeneous;
da n c e for d i s p e l l i n g evil spirits,
a g a i n s t the y a n g - b a n class,
satire an d d e ri s io n
satire a g a i n s t a d e g e n e r a t e monk,
a t r a g e d y s t em mi ng from the c o n c u b i n a g e system,
d a n ce for d i s p e l l i n g evil spirits,
blessings.7
a ritual
a lion's
and a pr a y e r for
A v i l l a g e festival thus served as a vent for the
g r i e v a n c e s of the c o mm o n p e o p le a g a i ns t the soci a l
taboos of the times.
Al t h o u g h each dr a m a exhibi ts slight
d i f f e r e n c e s in its t r e a t m e n t of themes,
the same bas ic
outl oo ks p r e v a i l in the m a s k - d a n c e dr a m a of Korea.
^Lee,
op.
cit.,
p. 125.
11
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Chapter 3
R EL I G I O U S B A C K G R O U N D OF M A S K - D A N C E DRA M A
A re co r d of a r i t u a l is ti c c er e m o n y of ear ly K o r e a n
p e o pl e has bee n p r o v i d e d by the C h in es e Jin Su:
In M a h a n — a c o u nt ry bef or e the Silla D y n a s t y [see M a p 2,
p. 13]— some f estivals took pla ce in May for planting,
and in O c t o b e r for harvest, and they ha ve w o r s h i p for
Ghost.
The p e o p l e drink, sing, an d d an c e for ten days
and n i g h t s . 1
At the cent e r of the o l d e s t spiri tu al beli e fs of the
peo p le of Korea is a shama n figure c a ll e d a m u d a n g . 2
The
m u d a n g r e l ig io n has d o m i n a t e d the beli e fs of the com mo n
p e o p l e of Korea for c e n t u r i e s . 2
The ea r l y Kore an s b e l i e v e d
that all natural objects p o s s e s s e d indwe ll in g souls w h o s e
c onsci ou s lives wer e e x p r e s s e d in n a t ur al phenomena.
of gr e a t mountains,
rivers,
trees,
Spirits
an d stones we r e w o r s h i p p e d
as b en ef i ci al gods w h o broug h t m a n k i n d p r o d u c t i v i t y and
^Eleanor King, "Reflection on K o r e a n Dance," The K o r e a n
Na t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n for U N E S C O (Ed.), K o r ea n Danc e (Seoul;
Si- sa -y on g- o- s a, Inc., 1983), p. 63.
^Mu da ng in K o re an means a female s h am a n an d p a k s u mean s
a m a l e shaman, but the peo pl e g e n e r a l l y call all shamans
mudang.
^Man-Yong Han, "Introduction," The K o r e a n N a t io na l
C o m m i s s i o n for U N E S C O (Ed.), K o r e a n Dan ce (Seoul:
K w a n g - m y o n g P r i nt er s Co., 1975), p. 11.
12
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C h i na
KOREA
KOREA
Koryo
Tribal States Pe ri o d
(B.C. F ir s t Century)
Thr ee K i n g d o m Peri od
(Fifth Century)
Koryo Dynasty
(918-1392)
orth
KOREA
South
Yi Dynas t y
(1392-1910)
J a p a n e s e Colony
(1910-1945)
Since a.ndependence
(1945-'resent)
M ap 2.
Six maps i l l u s t r a t i n g Kore an periods,
and divisions.
dynasties,
13
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h a p p i n e s s .^
in time,
evil spirits came into e x i s t e n c e who
took d e l i g h t in d i s t u r b i n g the c e r e m o n y of the hu m a n world.
T h e y w e r e placated,
or d i v e r t e d from thei r m i s c h i e v o u s
intentions, t h r o u g h m a g i c in c an ta ti on s and e x o r c i s m s .^
The m u d a n g r e l i g i o n is, therefore, v e r y practical.
Its p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e is to b r i n g goo d f o r tu ne to the
u n f o r t u n a t e — w e a l t h to the poor, h e a l t h to the sick,
to the childless,
c h il dr e n
an d ab u n d a n t harvests of crops and fish to
farmers and fishermen.
Rain,
courage,
a nd v i c t o r y are other
o b je c t i v e s of m u d a n g c er em on i es .^
In the ea r l y days in s o u th er n Korea,
f estivals wer e h e l d biannually:
and af t e r the harvest.
thanksgiving
after ri ce t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n
Dances w e r e p e r f o r m e d by a doze n
p erso ns w h o lined up singl e file a n d fo l l o w e d a leader,
r aisi ng their han d s up and d o w n and st a m p i n g on the grou n d
to the a c c o m p a n i m e n t of music.
The c er em o n i e s wer e p r es id ed
o ver by a mudang.^
This festival, w h i c h seems to be c o n n e c t e d wit h the
J i - S h i n - B a h l p - G i ,® is ob s e r v e d mo s t f r e q u e n t l y in the C ho l l a
^Wanne J. Joe, T r a d i t i o n a l Korea.
A C u lt ur al H i st or y
(Seoul:
C h u n g - A n g U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1982), p. 42.
Sibid.,
p.
®Han, loc.
43.
cit.
^Alan C. Heyman, "Korean Folk M u s i c and Dance,"
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C u l t u r a l F o u n d a t i o n (Ed.), Fol k C u l t u r e in
K o r e a (Seoul: S i - s a - y o n g - o - s a , Inc., 1982), p. 91.
®The J i - S h i n - B a h l p - G i , m e a n i n g "step pi ng on the g r o u n d
spiri ts ," is use d to step on and pre ss evil spirits into the
earth.
14
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and Kyongsahng provinces
n e w yea r holidays.
(see M a p 1, p.
A farmer 's band goes a r o u n d the v i l l a g e
and v i s i t s e a c h household,
dances,
4) d u r i n g the lunar
p e r f o r m i n g e x o r c i s t songs and
c i r c l i n g eac h h ou s e unti l all the evil spirits have
b een c h a s e d ou t or p r e s s e d into the g r o u n d
(Fig.
1, p. 16).
A f t e r a s u p p l i c a t i o n of bless in gs for the y e a r to come,
g r o u p rece iv es money,
grain,
food,
and w i n e . ^
the
Unde r the
S h a m a n i s t i c influence, this K o r e a n v i l l a g e c e r em o ny still
r ep re se nt s the l a r ge st scale c o m b i n a t i o n of a holy
s a n c t i f i c a t i o n a n d f es ti v a l - l i k e at mo sp h e r e by groups fro m
n e i g h b o r i n g v i l l a g e co m m u n i t i e s that gat he r to g e t h e r for this
gala e v e n t . 10
T o w a r d the e n d of the fourth century,
beg an to w e l c o m e Buddhism.
K o r e a n Sh a m a n i s m
B u d d h i s m ' s p l i a n c y and leniency,
m a n i f e s t e d in the image of Buddha, m a d e this c o m p l e t e l y
for ei gn r e l ig io n p a l a t a b l e to K o r e a n tastes.
K o r e a n cult ur e
g r a d u a l l y ab s o r b e d and n a t u r a l i z e d the Indi a n religion.
Its
t r i um ph in Kor ea m a y be e x p l a i n e d in ter ms of its read y
a c c o m m o d a t i o n wit h n a t i v e r e l i g i o n . H
p o r t r a y e d p a ra di se and hells.
w i t h Sh a m a n i s t i c religion.
W i t h its v i v i d l y
B u d d h i s m s e em ed to bl e n d well
For example,
shrine altar h on o r s the m o u n t a i n spirit,
^Heyman,
op.
cit., p.
at e ve r y tem pl e a
d e p i c t e d as a
94.
l^ Ch u- K e u n Chang, "Mu-Sok:
The S h a m a n Cult ur e of
Kore a ," I n t e r n at io na l C u l tu r al F o u n d a t i o n (Ed.), Fo lk
C u l t u r e in K or e a (Seoul:
Si-sa-yon g- o- s a, Inc., 1982),
pp. 64-65.
l l l b i d . , p.
112.
15
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. ■y'^.. .■'i'-fjr-rr--
■
y
-L,
Figure 1.
A farmer's band.
seen at the left.
A shaman devil p o s t is
Source
P o s t c a r d p u b l i s h e d by the K y o n g II Pu bl is h i n g C o m p a n y ,
Korea.
16
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b e a r d e d m a n w i t h a tiger c r o u c h i n g nearby.
local Shamanism,
D e r i v e d from
the m o u n t a i n spirit receives due ve neration,
f o l l o w i n g c er em on ie s h o n o r i n g Bud d ha in the m a i n hall,
lest
the local m o u n t a i n spirit on w ho s e land the temple stands
s houl d b ec o m e a n g r y . 1%
Thus B u d d h i s m e x p e r i e n c e d little
d i f f i c u l t y a s s i m i l a t i n g the n a ti v e gods w h i c h people
u n d e r s t o o d as t e m p o r a r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of Bu d d h i s t gods.
Since the sprea d of B u d d h i s m in Korea, m a n y B u d d h i s t i c
a r t s — temples,
pagodas,
sculptures,
c r e at ed by K o r e a n people; but,
and p a i n t i n g s — have been
a l th ou gh B u d d h i s m g r a d u a l l y
m i n g l e d wit h the t ra d it io na l m u d a n g S h a m a n i s m and in fl ue n c e d
m a n y aspects of the peopl e' s culture,
folk art r e m ai ne d
v i r t u a l l y un to u c h e d by B u d d h i s m . O n e
e s p e c i a l l y finds
little e v id en c e of B ud d h i s t impact on folk entertainment.
Rather,
one sees a d e g e n e r a t e mon k being m o c k e d for his
d e b a u c h e r y du ri n g a p e r f o r m a n c e of K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e drama.
Nonetheless,
d r a m a form.
p.
B u d d h i s m has had some infl u en ce upon this
For example, an o p e ni ng ce r e m o n y dan ce
18) d e d i c a t e d to the five d i r e c t i o n s — North,
West,
(Fig.
South,
2,
East,
and al l- i m p o r t a n t C e n t e r — parall el s a similar t r a d i t i o n
found in K or e a n cou rt c e re mo ni es .I'*
Also, the colors of the
mas ks are symbo li c of the five d ir e ct i o n s of the compass;
l ^ Ed wa rd B. Adams, K o r e a n G u i d e (Seoul:
T o u r i s t P ub li s h i n g Co., 1977), p. 238.
l^Han,
In te rn at io n al
loc. cit.
I'^Renee Renouf, "Welcome to the M a s q u e r a d e , " K o r ea n
C u l t u r e (January 1982): 7.
17
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F i g ur e 2.
The sangjwas d a n c e — opening c er em on y
( Ph ot og ra ph e d by J i n - H i Kim)
(kwajang 1).
b l u e for East,
North,
red for south, w h i t e for West,
and y e l l o w for C e n t e r . T h e
black for
p e r f o r m a n c e of this
d r a m a form often wa s h e l d on Apr il 8, Budd ha ' s birthday.
D u ri ng the Kor yo D y n a s t y
(981-1392),
B u d d h i s m r e a c he d
its ape x of p o w e r and i n f lu en ce in K o r e a and linked the
p e a s a n t and aristocrat.
1392,
At the clo se of the K or y o D y n a s t y in
a d r am at i c cha ng e took pl a c e b e c au se Confucianism,
with
its g r e a t e s t f ol l o w i n g among the ed u c a t e d an d official
classes,
r e p l a c e d B u d d h i s m as the state religion.
Later,
C o n f u c i a n i s m b e c a m e the f ou nd a t i o n of the ethical th i n k i n g
of the p e op le d u r i n g the Yi D y n a s t y
(1392-1910),
and
S h a m a n i s m was d i s r e g a r d e d by the Koreans and m i s u n d e r s t o o d
as b e i n g c o m p o s e d of n o t h i n g but superst it io n .^ ^
C o n f u c i a n i s m was e s s e n t i a l l y a po li t i c a l ideo lo gy rather
than a religion.
Co n f u c i u s set u p an ethica l- mo ra l system
i nt en de d to g o v e r n ideally all r e l a ti o ns hi ps in the family,
community,
conduct,
and state.
It has,
as a code of mor al s and
formed s tandards of ethical behavior,
t he r e f o r e the
K o r e a n peop le c r e a te d a l mo st n o t h i n g in the w a y of reli gi ou s
art beca u se of C on fucianism.
In m a s k - d a n c e dramas.
l ^ D o o - H y u n Lee, "M ask-Dance Dramas," The K o r e a n N a t i o n a l
C o m m i s s i o n for U N E S C O (Ed.), T r a d i t i o n a l P e r f o r m i n g Arts o f
K or e a (Seoul:
K w a n g - m y o n g P ri n t i n g Co., 1978), p. 36,
^ ^ D o o - H y u n Lee, "Korean Folk Play," Int er na tt i on al
C u l t u r a l F o u n d a t i o n (Ed.), Fo l k cult ur e in Korea (Seoul:
S i - s a - y o n g - o - s a , Inc., 1982), p. 120.
l^chang,
op.
cit., p.
61.
19
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C o n f u c i a n i s t i c a r i s t o c r a t s are m o c k e d by common er s b e c au se
of t h e i r s u r f a c e m o r a l i t y a n d
A l t h o u g h the p e a s a n t a n d
c o m m o n r e li g i o u s tradition,
wa s Shamanism,
loss of face.
aristocrat shared Buddhism
as a
the g re a t e s t link b e t w e e n t h e m
s y m b o l i z e d p r i m a r i l y by a female s h a m a n . ■
K o r e a n S h a m a n i s m s u r v i v e d the
Yi D y n a s t y p e r i o d whe n
C o n f u c i a n i s m was the m or a l d oc t r i n e of the populace.
S h a m a n i s m still d om i n a t e s the beliefs of the c o m m on people.
K o r e a n shamans u n i f y the co mm o n people,
e n c o u r a g i n g the m
to cr ea t e w o r k s of art and p r o d u c e dan ce and music al
entertainment
the shamans'
(see Fig.
3, p.
21).
An i mp o r t a n t part of
e f f e c t i v e n e s s is in their a r t i s t i c productivity.
One w a y the y i n f l u e n c e othe rs is t h r o u g h t he i r acting
a b i l i t i e s . 18
The m a i n m o t i v a t i o n b e h i n d Kore an m a s k - d a n c e d r a ma was
to p r e s e n t a S h a m a n i s t i c ce r e m o n y to disp e ll evil as w e l l as
p r o v i d e entertainment.
For example, Ha-h o e d r a ma was
p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g S h a m a n i s t i c p r ay er festi va ls on the second
d a y of the firs t moon.
It was pla ye d to a p p e a s e the spirits
of two d e p a r t e d w o m e n who,
s pi r i t u a l pow er ove r the
it was thought,
v i l l a g e .
1^
possessed
in Kore an folk belief,
w h e n p e o p le die it is said t h e y m e r e l y have gone to anoth e r
u n s p e c i f i e d p l a c e or area.
York:
This beli ef seems to come from
l^An dr ea s Lommel, Shamanism, the B e g i n n i n g of A r t
M c G r a w Hil l B o o k Co., 1967), p. 137.
l^Heyman,
op.
cit., p.
99.
20
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
(New
: K o r e a n •■hitmans p e rs u a d e tn e m h - rs of
t h e i r a u d ie n c e ; o dance a n d t t n it a le
i,'<'■7.
hen
t Ser e a n>u<i<ing ( r i ^ h l ) directs a
I’lltaiser cjf C h u n g H a I g a r i.
my-iki;-*'
0-;v. t , - F a n s p t a s a m a ; o r r o le i n th e dances o f th e m u d a n g . H e r e , on e o f the m u d u iig a < C h u n g I la
I g a r i , s i n g i n g a n d d a n c i n g , f a n i n h a n d.
Figure
3.
Tw o m u d a n g p h o t o g r a p h s .
Source
E l e a n o r King, "The H o l y - U n h o l y S h am an s, "
C u l t u r e 4, No. 4 (Dece mb e r 1983): 7 an d 13.
Korean
21
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Shama n is m,
thus m a n y m a s k - d a n c e d r am as and p u p p e t p l a y s in
K o r e a e n d w i t h death.
In summary,
w i t h Shamanism.
K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e dram as are c l o s e l y lin ke d
A n d b e c au se S h a m a n i s m is an integral p a r t of
the r e l i g i o u s m i n d of the K o r e a n people,
it forms the cor e of
m a s k - d a n c e dramas.
22
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Chapter 4
H I S T O R Y OF THE P O N G - S A N M A S K - D A N C E DRAI4A
O r ig i n
The P o n g - S a n is a m a s k - d r a m a for m that spread t h r o u g h o u t
the H w a n g - h a e p r o v i n c e area
coast.1
(see M a p 1, p.
For the pas t few h u n d r e d years this d ra m a has b e e n
a p o p u l a r fo rm of t h e a t r i c a l entertainment.
however,
4) alo ng the w e s t
No one knows,
e x a c t l y h o w the d r a ma began, developed,
w h a t it is today.
and beca me
No hi s to r i c a l d o c u m e n t s r em a i n w h i c h
e x p l a i n its origin.
An i n t e r e s t i n g legen d exists a b o u t the or ig i n of
P o n g - S a n g drama:
A long time ago, the re was an old high B u d d h i s t Monk
w h o had d e v o t e d his life to p r a y for Buddha.
As a.
result, he was n o t o n l y h ig h l y r e v e r e d by his admirers,
but also p r a c t i c a l l y w o r s h i p e d as a living Buddha
himself.
Meanw hi le , there was a y o u n g clergyman, an
a c q u a i n t a n c e of the hig h monk, wh o w h i l e d away his time
by i n d u l g i n g in in t e m p e r a t e d r i n k i n g and debauchery.
U nawa re of his o wn faults, he was e x t r e m e l y jealous of
th e high e s t e e m e n j o y e d by the old monk.
He m a d e
s everal a t t e m p t s to tarn is h the old m o n k 's reputation,
but fai le d eac h time.
There was also a p r o f e s s i o n a l
e n t e r t a i n i n g gir l in the area wh o was wel l k n o w n for
p e e rl es s b e a u t y an d her tal e nt for singi ng and dancing.
O v e r w h e l m e d by her beauty, winsom en e ss , an d dexterity,
the old monk, d i s r e g a r d i n g his long d e v o t i o n to Buddha,
s u c c u m b e d to his d e s i r e for her, c o m m i t t i n g an offe ns e
a g a i n s t his religion.
^ Do o- Hy un Lee, "Mask D a n ce Dramas," The K o r e a n N a t i o n a l
C o m m i s s i o n for U N E S C O (Ed.), Tr a d i t i o n a l P e r f o r m i n g Arts of
K o r e a (Seoul:
K w a n g - m y o n g P r i n t i n g Co., 1978), p. 52.
23
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W h e n the s t o ry of his t r a n s g r e s s i o n was revealed,
h a t r e d and a n t i p a t h y for the old mo n k s p r e a d far and
wide.
As a result, a scholar in the regio n wr o t e this
m a s k - d a n c e d ra m a to p r e v e n t other m o n k s fr o m m a k i n g
s i m il ar t r a n s g r e s s i o n s as we l l as to w a r d off the
d e m o r a l i z a t i o n of the p e o p l e . 2
W h i l e l e g en d ex p l a i n s the scenes in m a s k - d a n c e d r a m as that
f e at ur e a t r a n s g r e s s i n g Bu d d h i s t monk,
it is d i f f i c u l t to be
c e r t a i n that the story repre se nt s the b e g i n n i n g of the
P o n g - S a n b e c a u s e t h e r e i n the m o n k scen e occup ie s only a par t
of the drama.
Mo s t scholars t o d ay b e l ie v e that this dra ma is a
sp l i n t e r for m of Sandae-dogara d r a m a ,3 a n ot he r kin d of ma s k d a n c e t h e a t e r c o m p o s e d of two p a r t s — (1) song and dance,
and
(2) d r a m a w i t h a stor y and d i a l o g u e — w h i c h includes the
p r e s e n t Y a n g - J u dr a m a of the K y on gg i a r e a
4).
For example,
(see M a p 1, page
at least five scenes in the Po n g - S a n dra ma
deal w i t h the same subjects an d c h ar ac te rs as appear in the
Y a n g - J u drama.
In addition,
some of the d i a l o g u e in the
P o n g - S a n is a l m o s t identi ca l w i t h tha t found in the
Yang-Ju.
One must,
therefore,
c o n si d er the origin of
S a n d a e - d o g a m drama.
It is b e l i e v e d tha t th e t e r m S a n d a e - d o g a m o ri gi n a t e d
fro m a p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e of the same name whic h e x e r c i s e d
cont r ol over folk p e r f o r m a n c e s at the b e g i n n i n g of the Yi
2oh Kon Cho, "The M a s k Danc e T h e a t e r from H w a ng -h ae
P ro vi n c e , " K o r e a J o ur na l (May 1982): 36-37.
^Lee,
loc.
cit.
24
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Dynasty
(1392-1910).^
A n o t h e r t h e o r y is that it o r i g i n a t e d
f r o m th e S o n a n g - J e ^ and fr o m the Kiak®
(Gigaku in Japanese).
The latter is m o s t c o n v i n c i n g and p r ov id es an e x c e l l e n t basis
for comparison.
It helps e x p l a i n that the m a s k - d a n c e d ra m a
in its p r e s e n t for m was i n f l u e n c e d by plays p e r f o r m e d at the
S o na n g - J e and by plays t r a n s p o r t e d fr om fo r e i g n countries,
n a m e l y th e G i g a k u fr om central Asia.^
A l t h o u g h it seems that
S a n d a e - d o g a m d r a ma d e r i v e d from the S o na ng -J e and Kiak,
some
q u e s t i o n s r e ma i n as to h o w and w h e n this dr a m a was created.
T h e g o v e r n m e n t offic e S a n d a e - d o g a m was a b o l i s h e d as an
o f f i c i a l ce r e m o n y in the t w e l f t h yea r of the reign of King
Injo
(1634 A.D.)
of the Yi Dynas ty . ®
B an i s h e d from court,
some p l a y e r s j o ur ne y ed to the n e a r b y c o u n t r y s i d e w h e r e their
l i v e l i h o o d s d e p e n d e d e n t i r e l y on w h a t e v e r income th ey coul d
ear n f r o m s p or ad ic performances,
capital,
some s e t tl ed near the
and some t o u r e d the Hw an g - h a e p r o v i n c e and sett l ed
^ Doo-Hyun Lee, H a n g u k - k a m y o n g u k
1981), p. 112.
(Seoul:
Il-Ji-Sa,
^The Sonang-Je, m e a n i n g "village shrine ce remonies,"
c o n s i s t s m a i n l y of m u s i c and dance.
® Kia k (Gigaku), m e a n i n g "song an d dan c e for pray er to
Buddha," is a kin d of sile nt dr a m a w h i c h uses gestu re s and
p a n t o m i m e s only.
O r i g i n a l l y fr o m China, it was h a n d ed d o w n
to J a pa n t h r o u g h Korea.
It no longer exists in any of these
c o u n t r i e s today.
^Lee,
"Mask - Da nc e Dramas,"
op.
cit.,
p.
37.
®Ibid.
25
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in the large towns of Pong-San,
Hae-Ju,
and K a n g - N y o n g
(see
M a p 1 , p. 4).9
It is said th at C h o - M o k An,
l ivi ng in Pong-San,
a low r a n k i n g official
r e v i v e d the P o n g - S a n m a s k - d a n c e drama
a b o u t 200 year s ago.
When,
afte r his e xi l e to an island
in the south C h o l l a province,
he r et ur ne d to Pong-Sang,
i n s t i t u t e d m a n y i nn ov at io ns into the drama.
he
For example,
he
c h a n g e d th e w o o d e n ma s k s th at had b e e n in use to pape r ones.
Later, w i t h other lower officials,
of the p l a y a l t o g e t h e r .10
he took p ri n c i p a l c o m ma nd
One m a y conjecture,
b e c a u s e no w r i t t e n record exists,
therefore,
tha t the Pong-S an
m a s k - d a n c e p l a y came into bein g 200 years a g o , H
and that the
form k n o w n t o d a y has be en i nf lu en ce d by plays from other
regions since its inception.
Development
A l t h o u g h no reco rd exists abo ut the first perio d of
P o n g - S a n thea t er history,
ther e is some i n f o r m at io n in regard
to its a c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g the pas t 50 years.
Some refug ee s
from the H w a n g - h a e province, w h o fled to Seoul d u ri n g the
K o r e a n War, w e r e s e e m i n g l y the m a i n source of this
information.
O th e r facts abou t its d e v e l o p m e n t have b e e n
c o l l e c t e d from oral traditions.
^Cho,
loc.
cit.
l^Lee,
H a n g u k , op.
cit.,
p.
182.
l^Lee,
"Mask- Da nc e D r a m a s , ” loc.
cit.
26
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Early Period
(1750-1900)
As p r e v i o u s l y mentioned,
until the end of the Yi D y n a s t y
the P o n g - S a n d r a m a u s u a l l y w a s p e r f o r m e d on Apr il 8,
B u d d h a ' s b i r t h d a y . ^2
in addition,
the m a s k - d a n c e p l a y e r s
wer e i n v i t e d to p e r f o r m at a lm o s t e v e r y t e m p o r a r y free
market,
set up for five days in the cen t er of a v i l l a g e or
t o w n w h e r e p e o p l e from the s u r r o u n d i n g co u n t r y s i d e g a t h e r e d
to b a r t e r the ir wares.
In this w a y the dram a spread
t h r o u g h o u t the H w a n g - h a e province.
A l t h o u g h the dr a m a was p e r f o r m e d m a i n l y for farmers and
m er ch an ts ,
the t r ou pe s o f t e n w e r e s u m mo ne d by local
m a g i s t r a t e s to p e r f o r m for their birthdays,
weddi ng s,
c hildren's
and i mp or ta n t p u b li c c er em o n i e s such as the
e n t e r t a i n i n g of v i s i t i n g C h in es e envoys.
The lion dance,
a
h i g h l i g h t of this drama, was i nt ro d u c e d abo u t 1900.
G o l d e n P e r io d
(1901-1938)
At the en d of the Yi Dynasty,
an annual,
the Po n g - S a n drama beca me
a l l - n i g h t eve nt b es i d e a b o n f i r e on M a y 5.
This
date, m a r k i n g a festi va l h o l i d a y c a l le d Dano in the n o r t h e r n
pa rt of the country,
fell at the tim e of ye a r w h e n farmers
had some r e s p i t e b e fo re the rice p l a n t i n g season.
The
p e r f o r m a n c e of the m a s k - d a n c e dra ma was held to dispel evil
and p r a y for p l e n t i f u l crops.
l^Lee,
H a n g u k , op.
1 3 i b i d . , p.
cit.,
p. 183.
184.
27
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A p p r o x i m a t e l y one m o n t h p r i o r to the Da no Festival,
i n v o l v e d in t h e p e r f o r m a n c e took h o l y baths.
all
Then they
lod ge d t o g e t h e r in a local B u d d h i s t templ e w h i l e r e h e a r s i n g
the p l a y and m a k i n g the ma s k s and properties.
The n u m be r
p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the p r e p a r a t i o n and p e r f o r m a n c e t o t a l l e d
approximately 40
p e o p l e .
14
In the H w a n g - h a e province,
Hwang-Ju,
So hu n g w e r e the m a i n p e r f o r m a n c e areas
Pong-San,
and
(see M a p 1, p.
4).
T h e s e towns w e r e m a r k e t p l a c e s for a g r i c ul tu r al pr o d u c t s and
h a n d i c r a f t s . 15
T h e y we r e m o r e than able to p r o v id e the
fi na n c i a l support n ee d e d for m a s k - d a n c e performances.
As the d r a m a for m developed,
a m a s k - d a n c e contest was
he ld a m o n g p l ay er s from d i f f e r e n t areas fr om M a y 5 t h r o u g h 8
at the H a e - J u g o v e r n o r ' s r e s i d e n c e . 15
w h e n the m a s k - d a n c e
t h ea te r in P o n g - S a n m o v e d to Sariw on in 1915,
the co m p a n y
b eg a n to use a t e m p o r a r y t w o - s t o r y s t r uc tu re built for the
ann u al Dano F e s t i v a l . 1^
Decline
(1939-1945)
D u r i n g 1939 to 1945,
theat er wa s shut do wn in every
to wn by o c c u p y i n g J a p a n e s e forces.
The J ap a n e s e military,
w h i c h star t ed the S i n o - J a p a n e s e wa r on Jul y 7, 1938,
14cho,
op.
l^Lee,
H a n g u k , loc. cit.
1 5 i b i d . , p.
l^Cho,
op.
cit.,
p.
40.
184.
cit., p.
39.
28
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o s t e n s i b l y d e c l a r e d t h a t no mas s e n t e r t a i n m e n t by K o r ea n s
s h o u l d be a l l o w e d d u r i n g w a r t i m e . ^ ®
As a result#
m a s k - d a n c e t h e a t e r ' s p e r f o r m a n c e was s u s p e n d e d unti l W o r l d
W a r II w a s over.
M o d e r n P e ri od
(1945-present)
Since the e ar l y 1950s,
no clear i n f o r m a t i o n on recent
a c t i v i t i e s of this t h ea t er form in c o m m u n i s t N o rt h K o r e a has
b e e n available.
Due to the effor ts of Ko re a n W a r refugees
who fl ed to Seoul from towns in the H wa n g - h a e province,
m a s k - d a n c e p e r f o r m a n c e s w e r e reviv ed after W o r l d W a r II in
the Seoul are a and they agai n bec am e a p o p ul ar par t of the
annual Dano F e s t i v a l . O t h e r
helped.
For example,
i n t e r e s t e d individuals
J i n - O k Kim, w ho be g a n d a n c i n g in
m a s k - d a n c e pl a y s at the age of 7 and p e r f o r m e d for 60 years
b efor e he died, m a d e a g re a t c o n t r i b u t i o n in this dr a m a
rev iv al in South
K o r e a .
20
In 1958 a P o n g - S a n m a s k - d a n c e dr a m a was p e r f o r m e d in
Seoul as part of the Na t i o n a l Folk Arts F e s ti va l of Korea.
R e p r e s e n t i n g the folk the at er of the H wa n g - h a e province,
the
P o n g - S a n M a s k - D a n c e C o m p a n y — w h i c h a few play er s from the
n o r t h and some v o l u n t e e r s o r g a n i z e d h a s t i l y — p a r t i c i p a t e d in
this special event.
l^ibid., p.
l^Lee,
In 1967 the G o v e r n m e n t of South Kor ea
38.
H a n g u k , p.
185.
20lbid. , p. 183.
29
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d e s i g na t ed ,
as p r e v i o u s l y noted,
m a s k - d a n c e t h e at er an
I m p o r t a n t I n t a n g i b l e C ul t u r a l P r o p e r t y . 21
sinc e then,
c o m p a n y has b e e n s u p p o r t e d by the government.
e f fo rt s of the g o v e r n m e n t and some scholars,
d r a m a form,
Thanks to the
this m a s k - d a n c e
r e g u l a r l y p e r f o r m e d in the Seoul area, has become
w e l l - k n o w n to S ou t h K o r e a n people.
2lcho,
this
op. cit.,
p.
38.
30
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Chapter 5
C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S OF TH E P O N G - S A N M A S K - D A N C E D RA M A
C h a r a c t e r Types
The f o l lo w in g o u tl in e class if ie s the c h ar ac t er type s in
the P o n g - S a n m a s k - d a n c e play.
These c ha ra ct e r types appe ar
in a l m o s t all m a s k - d a n c e dramas.
I. J u - Y u k
A.
(Main Role)
Chung
1.
(Buddhist monk)
Sangjwa;
a y o u n g mon k w h o has just began b e i ng
d e v o u t to Buddha.
Four appear in each
of the
m a s k - d a n c e plays.
2.
Mokchung:
a m o n k wh o lacks spiri t ua l de v o t i o n to
Buddha.
3.
Nojang:
an old B u d d h i s t monk who has d e v ot ed his
life to prayer.
B.
Yang-ban
1.
(nobleman)
Saennim:
a d i g n i f i e d old aristocrat.
(Under
his nos e the re is a h or i zo nt al red scar whic h
reac h es to his up p e r l i p . )
2.
Sobangnim:
a m i d d l e - a g e d aristocrat.
(He has
a cle ft p a l a t e w h i c h indic at es he has a v e n er a l
disease,
as in the case of Saennim.)
31
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3.
T oryongnim;
a young,
u n m a r r i e d aristocrat.
(His m o u t h an d nose are a s k e w to the left.)
C.
Noi n
1.
(old people)
Miyal:
an old w o m a n looking for a h u s b a n d
wh o has b e e n missing.
2.
Yonggam;
M i y a l 's husband;
he is having an
affair wi t h a yo u n g concubine.
3.
D.
II.
a l icentious old bachelor.
Others
1.
Malttugi:
2.
Sinjangsu:
Dan-yuk
A.
Chwibali;
a m e a n but smart and w i t t y servant.
a m e r c h a n t — humorous shoe seller.
(minor role)
Miscellaneous
1.
Kosa:
a giant.
2.
Sadang:
3.
Domori:
4.
Somu:
5.
Mudang:
6.
N a m g g a n g Noin:
7.
Monkey.
an e n t e r t a i n m e n t girl.
Y o n g g a m ’s y o u n g concubine.
a y ou n g female shaman.
anot he r female shaman.
an old man.
O u t l i n e of the Play
Kwajang 1
The d a n ce of four sangjwas
p.
19).
hats,
(young monks)
(see F i g . 2 ,
Four sangjwas, w e a r i n g monk' s whi te coats and p e a k e d
d a n c e to the music.
four di rections,
Th ey b ow to the deities of the
a kind of o p en i ng ritual in the play.
32
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Kwajang 2
T h e dan ce of e i g h t m o k c h u n g s
(monks lacki ng spiritual
devotion).
Scene 1 .
Each m o k c h u n g rushes to the stage in t u r n and
d a n ce s boisterously,
c i r c l i n g a r o u nd the stage and w a v i n g his
s l e e v e s and l i f ti ng one of his legs.
poe ms a n d d a nc es again.
He then recites w i t t y
As each m o k c h u n g enters, he slaps
his p r e d e c e s s o r in the face w i t h his sleeve,
s i gn al in g tha t
the n o w - p e r f o r m i n g m o k c h u n g is to exit.
Sce ne 2 .
Two m ok c h u n g s enter a nd m a k e puns wit h a d r u m
for a while.
Kwajang 3
T h e dan c e of Sad a ng
(entertainment girl).
in a n e m b e l l i s h e d costume,
Sadang enters
f o ll ow e d by seven kosas
(giants).
She sings and danc es w h i l e the kosas sing t o ge th er an d pla y
v a r i o u s drums.
Kwajang 4
The d an c e of N o j a n g
Scene 1 .
(old hi gh B ud d h i s t monk).
All the m o k c h u n g s enter,
c ar ry in g N oj a ng 's
cane, d r a g g i n g N o j a n g to the stage fr o m the cost um e hall.
N o j a n g hol ds one end of the cane.
of the cane and falls down.
N o j a n g is dead,
He s u d d en ly drops his end
All the mokchungs, who think
cir cl e a r o u n d him and p e r f o r m a ritual w h i l e
33
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r e c i t i n g a y om b u l . ^
t h e y all exit.
W h e n t h e y see t h a t N o j a n g is reviving,
T h e n th e y reenter,
female shaman)
carrying Somu
on an open palanquin,
l itt le d i s t a n c e from N o j a n g
all the m o k c h u n g s exit,
(se Fig.
wh i c h the y set d o w n a
4, p.
35).
As soon as
Somu begins a da n c e to the music.
U n e x p e c t e d l y find in g Somu dancing,
but d e t e r m i n e d to a p p r o a c h her.
u n a b l e to w i n her heart.
put s it on her.
(young
N o j a n g is s u r pr is ed
D e s p i t e ev e r y method,
he is
Th e n he takes off his rosar y and
W h e n she keep s the rosary,
he makes a couple
of jumps for joy a n d comes to the front of her to sed uc e her.
For a w h i l e he dan ce s w i t h her.
Scene 2 .
(shoe seller)
Wh i l e N o j a n g and Somu are dancing,
enters,
over to Nojang,
looking for customers.
Si nj a n g s u
W h e n he walks
the latte r strikes h i m in the face wi t h his
fan a n d want s to buy shoes for hi m a n d Somu.
W h e n Si nj a n g s u
opens his m e r c h a n d i s e to pick up a pair of shoes from the
bottom,
a m o n k e y jumps out.
a c t i o n for a w h i l e
The m o n k e y imitates his e v er y
( F i g . 5, p.
36).
S in j a n g s u sends the m o n k e y to N o j a n g to coll ec t m o n e y
for the shoes.
N o j a n g s cribbles on a
w a n t to c o ll ec t the money,
piec e of
paper,
"If you
you mu s t come to the corner of
F i r e w o o d Street," an d hands it to the
monkey.
Sinjan gs u
thinks N o j a n g is g o i n g to burn hi m to
d e a t h in
a fire a n d he
runs a w a y w i t h the monkey.
B u d d h i s t invocation;
th e s a c r e d name of Amitabha.
for example,
the r e p e t i t i o n of
34
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F ig u r e 4.
The m o k c h u n g s exit after leaving Somu beside N o j a n g
sce ne 1).
(Photographed by Jin-Hi Kim)
(kwajang 4,
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Figure 5.
F r o m left to right:
Nojang, Somu, monkey,
(kwajang 4, scene 2).
(Photographed by Jin-Hi Kim)
and S in j a n g s u
Scene 3 .
C h wi b al i
(a licen ti ou s old bachelor)
o n t o the stage as if drunk.
w h i l e a nd recites poems.
staggers
He does a ha nd - d a n c e for a
N o j a n g s u dd en ly strikes h i m in the
face w i t h his fan w h e n C h w i b a l i comes in front of him.
tw o m e n v i e for S o m u 's affections.
away,
The
C h w ib al i forces N o j a n g
t h e n wins Somu w i t h money.
Kwajang 5
The d an c e of the lion.
lion,
Eig ht mokchungs,
ente r the stage together.
chase d by a
The lion appe ar s ready to
kill a n d eat all the m o k c h u n g s b e c au se th e y t r i ck ed their
m a s t e r w h o d e v o t e d hims el f to p r ay i ng to Buddha.
The
m o k c h u n g s m a k e a ci r c l e a r o u n d the stage, then exist in the
d i r e c t i o n o p po si te thei r e n t r a n c e — excep t one who plays the
role of a lion driver.
He says the m o k c h u n g s regret wha t
th e y h a v e do n e and tha t t h e y are g oi n g to devo t e thems el ve s
to p r a y e r and beco m e g o o d di sc i p l e s of Buddha.
Satisfied,
the lion forgi ve s t h e m and dances wi th the lion driver
6, p.
(Fig.
38).
Kwajang 6
The danc e of the y a n g - b a n s
servant)
enters,
(noblemen).
Maltt u gi
g u i d i n g three y a n g - b a n brothers;
(a
Saennim
(dignified old a ristocrat),
Sobangnim
ar istocrat),
(young, u n m a r r i e d aristocrat)
(Fig.
7, p.
and T o r y o n g n i m
39).
(middle-aged
M a l t t u g i mak e s fun of his foolish m a s t e r s
via witty r e m a r k s .
37
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Fig ur e 6.
A m o k c h u n g (lion driver) dances to the left of the lion
(kwajang 5).
(Photographed by Jin-Hi Kim)
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Figure 7.
and T o r y o n g n i m
The y an g - b a n s dance.
F r o m left to right:
(kwajang 6).
(Photographed by Jin-Hi Kim)
Sebangnim,
Saennim,
Kwajang 7
T he d a n c e of Mi y a l
reci te s poems.
(old woman).
Miy al danc es and
She is looking for her h u sb an d who has
bee n m i s s i n g since a war.
She finally finds him, Yonggam,
and t h e y d a nc e to g e t h e r w i t h joy.
(Yonggam's y o u n g concubine).
Then Miy al sees Domori
R e al i z i n g that the y we re c h e a t e d
by Yongg am , M i y a l and Dom or i b e g i n to beat each other,
t h i n k i n g t h e y are b e a t i n g Yonggam.
dies.
Then Mudang
(female shaman)
Miy al is k n o c k e d d o w n and
enters and performs an
e x o r c i s m to send M i y a l 's soul to paradise.
Dr a m a t i c C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Stage
N e i t h e r a p e r m a n e n t theatr i ca l struc tu re nor a formal
stage e x i s t e d for the p r e s e n t a t i o n of m a s k - d a n c e dramas.
Tr ad it io na ll y ,
p e r f o r m a n c e s o cc u r r e d outdoors.
The
p r o d u c t i o n of this dr a m a also r e qu ir ed no scenic settings.
A n y o pe n - a i r space could be c on v e r t e d into a tempor ar y
t h e a t e r - i n - t h e - r o u n d stage.
spectators,
This space w a s s u r ro un de d by the
l e a vi n g a n a r r o w path thro ug h w h i c h the players
m a d e their en tr a n c e s a nd exists to a te mp o r a r y cost um e r o o m . 2
Until the b e g i n n i n g of the t w e nt ie th century,
a sandy
b e a c h b y a river near a hill was u s e d as a stage for the
2oh K o n Cho, "The M a s k - D a n c e T h e a t e r from H w a n g - h a e
P ro vi n c e , " Ko r e a J o u rn a l (May 1982); 39.
40
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p e r f o r m a n c e of this drama.^
The stage w as rai se d
a p p r o x i m a t e l y a foot abo ve the g r ou n d so as to improve the
a u d i e n c e ' s view.
W h e n the dra m a b e c a m e an annual
a l l - o i g h t e ve n t on M a y 5, b l a zi ng bonfi re s w e r e set a ro u n d
the s p a c e .^
A f t e r the d r a m a p e r f o r m a n c e m o v e d to S a r i w o n in the
1920s,
t h e c o m p a n y b eg a n us i n g a t e m p o r a r y t w o - s t o r y
s t r u c t u r e bui lt for the annual Dano Festival.
This m a k e s h i f t
s t r u c t u r e was p a r t i t i o n e d into 28 small co m pa rt me nt s wh i c h
f o r me d a s em ic i r c l e in front of the k y un gn ar u. ^
up m o r e than one half the circu la r space.
This took
The third
c o m p a r t m e n t f r o m the left was us ed for the players'
room;
dressing
s om et im e s the back of the k y u n g n a r u was used for a
d r e s s i n g r o o m also.
kyungnaru.6
The or c h e s t r a was sea t ed in front of the
(See Fig.
8 , d i a g r a m 1,
p.
42).
The rest of the c o m p a r t m e n t s u s u a l l y w e r e rented to
local m e r c h a n t s w h o o p e n e d t e m p o r a r y re st au r an ts du ri n g the
f e s t i v a l — w h i c h i nc l u d e d a p e r f o r m a n c e of the m a s k - d a n c e
drama.
The p r o p r i e t o r s of the t em p o r a r y re staurants issued
i nv it at io ns to t h ei r regular patro n s wh o w a t c h e d the
3lbid.
^D oo - H y u n Lee,
1981) , p. 186.
Hanquk-kamyonguk
(Seoul:
Il-Ji-Sa,
small place made of wood for viewing and resting
while in the mountains.
Gcho, loc. cit.
41
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Kyungnari
rchestr
Cos tu me
room
Stage
DIAGRAM 1
S o u rc e
W o O “T a e k Kim, Ko re a n T r a d i t i o n a l Dramas and The ir
Sta ge (Seoul:
Gae-Moon-Sa, 1978), p. 125.
Stage
DIAGRAM 2
Chon-mak
(av;nina)
Orchestra
F ig u r e 8 .
|
Two stages
42
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p e r f o r m a n c e w h i l e e a t i n g and d r i n k i n g on the upper level
of th e t e m p o r a r y a u d i t o r i u m .7
M e m b e r s of the a u di en ce who could not affo rd to pa y for
food and drinks at the restaurants^
w a t c h i n g the performance.
stood on the g r ou nd w hi l e
They paid no a dm i ss io n fe e . 9
It is
p r e s u m e d that some of these spectators seated t hemselves in
the ope n air on stools or on benches brought from their homes
w h i c h t h e y ar r a n g e d alo n g the sides of the stage.
T o d a y the P on g - S a n c o mp an y sometimes uses an indoor
stage w h i c h has a v a r i a t i o n of a pr os ce n i u m opening.
Usually,
though,
the drama is p e rf or me d outdoors where a
large nu mb e r of peop l e are able to gather and watch.
The
c o m p a n y tends to select a place with trees in the background.
T h e r e is no e v i d e n c e to s u gg es t that a c t o r s in the P o n g - S a n
d r a m a m a d e s i m i l a r stag e e n t r a n c e s of p a s s i n g b y p i n e trees
Q
l i k e the N o h d r a m a actors, the c o m p a n y just p r e f e r s a space
with a natural
e n v i r o n m e n t f o r its p er f o r m a n c e .
conjectured, however,
It c a n he
tha t p l a y e r s in the e a r l y p e r i o d of
m a s k - d a n c e d r a m a u s e d the a r e a b e h i n d tree s as a d r e s s i n g room.
A space in the Duk-Soo Palace in Seoul often is us e d as
a stage for m a s k - d a n c e performances.
K o r e a n t o u r i s t attraction,
Because it is a famous
sightseers in the palace can
7lbid., p. 187.
8cho, loc. cit.
^Donald Keen, No (Tokyo and Palo Alto:
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Ltd., 1966), p. 84.
K o da n sh a
43
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see the p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h o u t p a y i n g an a d m i s s i o n fee.
In 1983
th e G o v e r n m e n t of South K o r e a a rr an g ed space for the Na t i o n a l
T h e a t e r m a s k - d a n c e p e r f o r m a n c e s on a r e c t a n g ul ar stage
s u r r o u n d e d by stone steps and a c hon-mak^O
diagram 2 ,
p.
42).
(see Fig.
8,
Al t h o u g h it is not an ideal stage for a
m a s k - d a n c e dr a m a performance,
it can be c on si de re d the first
f i x e d stage.
Dialogue
On e factor c o n t r i b u t i n g to the ma sk - d a n c e p l a y ’s
o u t s p o k e n n e s s is t h a t m o s t of the texts w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d
o r al ly ll and the di a l o g u e always has be en improv is ed as in
the Ital ia n c o m m e d i a dell'arte.
W h e n compared to other
m a s k - d a n c e plays w h i c h use e v e r y d a y speech, the P o n g- Sa n
e m p l o y s rhyt hm ic d i a l o g u e loaded w i t h poetry,
songs, puns,
and some B ud dh is t prayers.
In k w a j u n g 1, wh e n the second m o k c h u n g enters he starts
r e c i t i n g poems as follows;
Since ther e was no calendar in the mountains.
U n k no wn to m e came the change of s e a s o n s .
W hen the flowers bloom.
It mus t be the s pr i n g season.
W h e n th e leaves on the trees grow.
It m u s t be the summer season.
W h e n t h e leaves of P a u l o w n i a fall.
It mu st be the a u t u m n season.
l^An awning.
No.
l l gu k- Ke e Yoh,
2 (1971):146.
"Korean M a s k Plays,"
Drama R e v i e w 15,
44
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
W h e n the s n ow f la ke s
Fall on the g r e e n pines and bamboos,
It is no o t h e r th a n the win te r season.
I, o r i g i n a l l y a l ib er t in e of the country.
H ave b e e n e n g a g i n g in a h e r m i t -l ik e existe n ce
In the mountains.
B ut w h e n I he a r the sound of music,
I lose my i nt e r e s t in a p r a ye r to Buddha.
W i t h this e l e g a n t mu s i c
Shall I h a v e some fun?12
(In a pullim)
A l t h o u g h m y hair is gray,
My m i n d is still y ou n g . . .
(He begi ns d a n c i n g to the m us i c for a while)
F r o m this first d i a l o g u e in the drama,
the mood.
one can gra sp
Th e e a s y p o e m and un ex p e c t e d e n di ng with d a n ci ng
c a u s e s pe ct at or s to b ec o m e a b s o r b e d in the dra ma from the
beginning.
This p l a y c o nt ai ns m o r e p o e t r y than alm os t any other
m a s k - d a n c e drama.
It al so contains mo re qu o ta t i o n s from and
p a r o d y of C h i n e s e cl as s i c a l
p o e m s .
14
por example,
the thir d
m o k c h u n g in k w a j u n g 2 recites this poem;
After c o m i n g here,
I g la n c e in the four directions.
Then I c l e a r l y see the four words:
"Indifference, purity, peac e an d tranquility"
12oh K o n Cho, " Pong-San Talchum:
A M a s k - D a n c e D r a m a of
H w a n g - h a e Province:
I," K or e a Journ al (May 1982): 47.
n o n s e n s e - s y l l a b l e p h ra se o f t e n e m p l o y e d to cue the
m u s i c i a n s as to w h a t type of m u s i c or rhythmic beat is to be
p l a y e d for an e n s u i n g dance.
1 4 o o o - H y u n Lee, "Korean Folk Play," Intern at io n al
C u l t u r a l F o u n d a t i o n (Ed.), Fol k C u l t u r e in K or e a (Seoul:
S i — s a —y o n g —o — s a , I n c . , 1982) , p. 121.
45
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
W h e n I look to the east,
I c l e a r l y see Ki n g Chu M u n ,^ 5 an e t e rn al sage,
W h o is t r a v e l i n g to W i s u y a n g . 1 6
W h e n I look to the south,
I o b v i o u s l y find Chi n M o k- Ko ng ^^
D u r i n g the C h u n c h u period^® . . . .
T h i s k i n d of q u o t a t i o n contains d e e p m e a n i n g s and the a v e r a g e
a u d i e n c e does n ot u n d e r s t a n d these names an d phrases from
China.
An e x a m p l e of p a r o d y by means of C h i n e s e poetry,
was m o n o p o l i z e d by the rul i ng ya n g - b a n class,
which
appea rs in
kwajang 6 :
Saennim:
Hey, brother.
We are bo rn yang-bans.
fed up wit h sitt in g idle here. . . .
abo ut c o m p o s i n g a poem, one each?
Sobangnim:
Fine.
Saennim:
Sobangnim:
I am
What
»
You beg in first, my dear elder brother.
All right.
Y ou give me un-ja.^9
Certainly, I'll do that.
a nd ch ar a c t e r y o n g . 21
Charac te r san^O
l^An a n c i e n t C h in es e king.
l^A m e r i t o r i o u s sub je ct of King Chu M u n in a n ci en t
China.
17lt is n o t cl e a r w h o this p e r s o n is.
l ^ A p p r o x i m a t e l y b e t w e e n the eig ht h a n d f ifteenth
c e n t u r i e s B.C. d u r i n g the C h o u D y n a s t y of China, as no t e d by
Oh K o n Cho, "P on g - S a n Talchum:
I," op. cit., pp. 48 and 69.
l ^ c h a r a c t e r s to rhyme with.
2ÛMountain.
ZlHill.
46
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Saennim:
V e r y d i f f i c u l t one, isn't it?
My dear,
listen, I a m n o t sure w h e t h e r it is wel l
done, but I w i l l read it.
(In the style of r e c it in g poems)
Here and the re stand the mountains.
B e t w e e n the Y e l l o w R i v e r and lush m o u n t a i n s
T he r e has em e r g e d the Tong son-Hill.
Sobangnim:
Ha, ha!
(The two brot he rs laugh together)
V e r y good.
Saennim:
Now, yo ur turn.
Sobangnim:
Yo u give me un-ja.
Saennim:
C h a r a c t e r chong^Z and chara ct er m o t . 23
Sobangnim;
V e r y t r i ck y un-ja indeed.
(After t o i l i n g a good while)
N o w listen.
(In the style of r ec i t i n g poems)
"The s t r a w - s h o e s ' front
Is a c lo th - m a d e front.
At the heel of the w o o d e n shoes
T h e r e is a clasp."
Malttugi:
Saennim, ple as e do giv e me un-j a so that I
m a y compo se one myself.
Saennim:
T h e y say eve n a dog can sing about the m o o n
a nd the wi n d if it o v er he a rs m e n do it for
three years.
Y o u have been staying w i t h us
y a n g - b a n s these several years.
We have done
it w i t h two un-ja, but I'll give y ou onl y
one.
It is the c ha r a c t e r k a n g . 2 4
2 2 <rhe fron t p a r t of shoes.
23 a nail.
2 4Rang can m e a n m a n y things.
Multtugi, the servant,
d e l i b e r a t e l y take s it for the last syllab le of dae-gang, a
s lan g f o r m for head.
47
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Maltt u gi ;
(Promptly,
in the style of r e c i t i n g poems)
“In the hole of the d e c a y e d r ee d- f en ce
Is a dog 's pate.
A n d in the hole of the w o r n - o u t trousers
Is a cock's p a t e . "25
M a l t t u g i wa s m o r e succe ss f ul th a n S o ba n g n i m in p a r o d y i n g
C h i n e s e p o e t r y t h r o u g h vu lg a r expressions.
h u m o r o u s re s p o n s e to m u n ja ^G
This kind of
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the c o m mo n
p e o p l e ' s l i t e r a t u r e d u r i n g the later Yi D y n a s t y . 27
T he r e also are a large numb er of comic and c ol lo qu ia l
d i a l o g u e s in thi s drama.
to Nojang,
mute,
Sinjangsu,
the shoe seller,
the old high B u dd hi st monk,
speaks
but N o j a n g plays the
r e s p o n d i n g w i t h gest u re s onl y and his fan
(kwajang 4,
scene 2 ):
Sinjangsu:
(Singing)
I am going,
Ae-yi,
I am going
To the m a r k e t of g o o d harvest.
I am going,
Ae- yi . . . .
(He w al k s over to Noja ng wh o strikes him
in the face w i t h his fan; Sinjangsu, shocked,
recoils a few steps)
W h a t is this?
I've never bee n b e at en by
a n yo n e be fo r e in my life.
I see.
Since he
w e a r s a m o n k' s hat down to his face, a blue
m o n k ' s dress, a rosary w i t h 108 beads, an d a
red sash, he m u s t be a monk.
Ev en though
m onk s ha v e d i f f e r e n t customs from o r d i n a r y
people, he shoul d hav e g r e et e d me, a
yang-ban.
Instead, he hit me.
25yoh, op. cit., pp. 150-151.
2^Meaning Chinese words.
27yoh, op. cit., p. 151.
48
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Nojang:
(Beckons to Sinjangsu)
Sinjangsu:
(Suddenly b ec o m i n g polite)
Oh, he w an t s me to come.
(He puts d o w n his m e r c h a n d i s e and goes to
Nojang, spea ki ng gently)
Do you w a n t to buy shoes?
Well, wh a t kind?
Nojang:
(Points to his shoes)
Sinjangsu:
Oh, yes,
Nojang:
(Indicates size wi t h his hand on the fan)
Sinjangsu:
Oh,
Nojang:
(Points to S o m u ’s shoes)
Sinjangsu:
Oh, for your daughter, too?
I have the m
for her, too.
Well, w h a t size?
Nojang:
(Indicates size w i t h his h a n d on the fan)
Sinjangsu:
(Surprised)
I have them.
size 1 \ ,
Oh.
Wh a t size?
Yes,
I have them.
Oh, m y goodness, size 99?28
she m u s t have
huge feet.
They can be u s e d as boats for
the flood.
Yes, I have them, t o o . 29
S i n j a n g s u ’s g a r r u l i t y cont ra st s d r a m a t i c a l l y wi t h N o j a n g 's
mime.
M a n y p as sa ge s from kas a^ O songs are found in
m a s k - d a n c e p l a y s — m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s l y in the Pong- Sa n d r a m a . 21
In k w a j a n g 7, Miyal,
husband,
the old woman,
is looking for her
Yonggam.
2 8 M e a n i n g her sex organ.
29cho,
"P on g - S a n Talchum:
I," op.
cit.,
pp.
61-62
2 0 Na rr at iv e songs.
2iYoh, op.
cit.,
p. 144.
49
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Musician:
Tell me, w h a t does your h u s b a n d look like?
Miyal:
He has
the color of a horse.
Musician:
Do y o u
m e a n he is a colt?
Miyal:
No, he
has the color of a
Musician:
Do y o u
m e a n he is a calf?
Miyal:
No, he has n e it he r the color of a
a cow.
Anyway, wh a t ' s the use of
w h a t he looks like?
W h a t p u r p os e
s erv e e v e n if l tell yo u his true
Musician:
It m i g h t be p o si b le to find him if yo u w o u l d
tell m e wh a t he looks like.
Miyal;
(In a sing in g tone)
cow.
ho r s e nor
knowing
w o u l d it
a p pe ar an c e?
My h us b a n d ' s appearance?
His fore h ea d is cliff-like
W h i l e his chin looks like a w o o d e n spoon
W it h h o l l o w eyes and d o g - f o o t - l i k e nose.
He looks like a servant
W i t h a stum py bear d
And a penis like a topknot
He's o n l y thre e feet four inches tall.
Musician:
Ah, I see, he just we n t to chase the animals
into the trap.
Miyal:
M y goodness!
(Yonggam,
exits)
H o w stupid!
the husband,
They say
. . . .32
enters after Miyal
Yonggam:
H o w shoul d I call her?
Musician :
Y o u' r e from M a ng ma k v i ll ag e in Chej u Island,
so you mus t call her to the tu ne of
s i n a w i c h o n g .^ 3
32cho,
" Pong-San Talchum:
I," op.
cit.,
p.
49.
33 a p o p u l a r so ng in Chej u Island l o ca te d in the s o u t h e r n
p a r t of Korea.
50
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Yonggam;
C h o l j o l chol s ig u
C h o l j o r i cholj ol chol s ig u
. . . .
To see my wi f e
I've b e e n s ea rc hi ng for her
W i t h feelings of long in g for the rain
D u r i n g th e seven - ye ar drought.
W i t h feelings of longing for the sunshine
D u r i n g the n in e - y e a r flood.
If I h a p p e n to see my wife
I w a n t to tou ch
Her eyes, nose, and m o u t h . 34
The l a n g u a g e of the P o ng -S an m a s k - d a n c e p l a y is c o m p o s e d
of poetry,
n a r r a t i v e songs,
together.
The pl a y also includes a grea t deal of b aw d y
language,
and colloquial dialo g ue s m i x e d
w h i c h o f t e n is found in the other m a s k - d a n c e plays
of Korea.
It is said tha t the lines spok en by Chwibali,
the
l i c e n t i o u s old bachelor, w e r e so obscene that w o m e n v i ew er s
u s u a l l y r e t i r e d b e f or e he came on
s t a g e .
35
This bawdy
l a n g u a g e is d i s c u s s e d in the next section.
Far ce
S i t u a t i o n is the ma i n elem en t in farce.
i n v o l v e d are not
The
pe op l e
fully di me ns i on al c ha ra ct e rs but
types.
A
c h a r a c t e r re p re s e n t s an enti re class rather t h a n an
individual.
An a po s t a t e monk,
a yang-ban,
and the c o mm on e r
are typ es in the
P o n g - S a n drama.
Most characters,
m o k c h u n g s in t h e
s e co nd k w a j a n g to Y o n g g a m in the
fro m the
last,
c o m i c a l l y caricatured.
34cho,
"Pong-San Talchum:
I," op.
35Lee,
"Korean Folk Play," op.
cit.,
cit.,
p.
50
p. 117.
51
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are
A s e c o n d f e at ur e of farce is the use of exaggeration,
com ic gestur es ,
dances.
monk,
and a w k w a r d r e p e t i t i o n — e x p a c i a l l y in the
In K w a j a n g 4, scene 2, Nojang,
the old high B u d d h i s t
e x p r e s s e s his feeli ng s by do i n g an e x a g g e r a t e d mim e
w h e n he sees Somu,
Nojang:
the you ng female shaman, dancing.
(He tries to stand up to the music.
Finally
he get s up.
As he leans on his cane he covers
his face w i t h a silk gauze fan.
Then he looks
a r o u n d slowly, b e n d in g his back to see w h e t h e r
a ny o n e is around him.
U n e x p e c t e d l y fin d in g
So m u dancing, he is surprised.
He q u i c k l y
covers his face w i t h the fan; his bod y
trembles.
He crouches to the g r o u n d once
again.
He stands up and f ur t i v e l y peers at
Somu b e t w e e n the ribs of the f a n . 37
(see
Fig. 9, p. 53.)
D r a ma is n ot h e i g h t e n e d by verbal d e x t e r i t y alone.
When
a s i t u a t i o n or c h a r a c t e r e x p l i c i t l y lack grandeur, b ur l e s q u e
has a p e c u l i a r f o r c e . 38
Likewise, N o j a n g ' s dan ce and mimes
a f f e c t f a r ci ca l q u a l i t y an d his acti on s arou se laughter.
In k w a j a n g 7, the last scene of the play, Miyal dies
af t e r she is c u r s e d by her husband,
Yonggam,
and is k n o c k e d
d o w n b y Domori, his concubine.
Yonggam:
She is so hot-tempered, so touchy, like dr i e d
leaves set on fire. Is she r e al l y dead?
(Sings)
"Darling, darling,
yo u done?"
darling, dear me, w h a t have
Oh, ray wife, d a r l i n g dear.
Look, she's q ui t e
stiff.
A co ld w i n d rises fro m under her nose.
W h a t a lot for a w o m a n of 80!
Wh a t shall I
37cho,
" P on g - S a n Talchum:
I," op. cit., p. 60.
38j. L. Styan, Th e Dar k Com ed y
U n iv er si ty , 1967), p. 32.
(London;
Ca mb r i d g e
52
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F i g u r e 9.
N o j a n g dances
(Photog ra ph ed by Jin-Hi Kim)
as he approaches Somu
(kwajang 4, scene 1).
do, p o v e rt y- st r ic ke n,
as I am!
penniless,
and in rags
(Sings)
"Oi, oi, 0-oi,
0-oi."
A m I n o w la m e n t i n g or re c i t i n g a verse?
Now,
t h e r e is no choi c e but to bu r y the dead.
I
thi nk I've got a p ro di ga l son.
He was n am e d
a fte r a tool.
W hi c h tool was it, I wond er ?
T hat' s right.
It wa s a tool for w o o d c h o p p i n g .
K kak-k wi ?
No, it was a tokki.
(Sings)
"Tokki,
are yo u there, Tokki?"
T hi s s c en e depic ts the po v e r t y of
s p i te
of the
. . ."39
the comm on people.
u n p l e a s a n t natu r e of the subject,
In
it d e f i n i t e l y
i n v o l v e s a r e ma r k a b l e degr ee of comi c spirit and
g e s t u r e .
^9
A t h i r d a s p e c t of farce is leche ry and o b s c e n i t y in
m o v e m e n t and
s p e e c h .
the o ld bachelor,
41
in k w a j a n g 4, scene 3 (Fig. 10, p.
Chwibali,
crawls, with d a n c i n g steps,
b e t w e e n Somu's legs, t h e n raises his head and says,
My goodness.
55),
It's r e a ll y hot here.
. . ."42
"Shee!
soon after,
S omu acts as t h o u g h she has a stomach pai n and drops a doll,
s u g g e s t i n g she has g iv e n birt h to a baby.
In k w a j a n g 7, Miy al and Y o n g g a m simulate sexual
i n tercourse.
A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is in k w a j a n g 6 w h e n the
s e r v a n t M a l t t u g i makes fun of his master,
3 9 y o h ,
op. cit., p.
Sobangnim.
151.
4 0 l b i d .
4 1 l b i d .
, p.
248.
42cho,
"Pong -S an Talchum;
I," op.
cit.,
p.
66.
54
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F i g u r e 10.
Chwibali dances with Somu after forcing Nojang to retreat
( k w a j a n g 4, s c e n e 3).
( P h o t o g r a p h e d b y J i n - H i Kim)
S obangnim:
Sirrah, w h e r e have you been?
w a i t on me all the time.
Malttugi:
Well, I ate a bowl of col d rice and soup
for ray breakfast, wen t to the stable, and
p u l l e d out Mr. Mule.
Afte r br u s h i n g him.
Sir M a lt tu gi got on his back, and then I
v i s i t e d e ve r y nook and c r a n n y of the c o u n t r y
. . . t o search for Saennim, but I fai l ed to
find him or any o ne like him.
So I we n t up
to Seoul to see if S a en ni m w as at home.
N e i t h e r he nor the ma s t e r of the m a i n hou se
wa s at home, only madam, w h o m I found all
alone.
Well, w i t h o u t re m o v i n g my felt hat
and my foot wraps, I knelt down and th en did
it and did it.
Sobangnim:
Yo u villain!
Malttugi:
Ha, ha, you didn 't get me correctly.
What
I m e a n t was, w h e n I r e pe a te dl y greet ed my
m a d a m by saying, "How are you, madam?"
She
o f fe re d me wine to drink.
She herself
p o ur ed it to the br i m for me.
I drank one,
two, thr ee glasses.
Th en she p ro du ce d some
snacks:
boil ed ribs of beef on a big brass
tray, po rk on a small brass tray, vinegar,
pepper, p i c kl ed kimchi, octopus, abalone,
and a chot -d ae ga en ' i^ 3 w h i c h w a s left over
and w h i c h you broug h t back from your outing
to the m o u n t a i n s last A u g us t . . . .
You should
Wha t nons en se are you talking?
A l t h o u g h the poor found the p r e v a i l i n g e x o r c i s m to be
a n e m o t i o n a l o u t l e t fr om the strict code of Confucianism,
it
s ho u l d not be m i s i n t e r p r e t e d as havi ng be en p r a c t i s e d m e r e l y
as a form of o b s c en e e n t e r t a i n m e n t but as a form of i mi t at iv e
m a g i c tha t w a s c o n s i d e r e d to be part of a f er ti li t y rite.
The i m i t a t i o n of
sexual i nt er co ur s e and the scene d e p i c t i n g
c h i l d b i r t h c o n s t i t u t e symbo li c acts
of i nv o ca ti on for good
^^Glans or h e a d of a penis.
44cho,
" Po n g - S a n Talchum.
I," op. cit., p.
48
56
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h a r v e s t s an d o t h e r b l e ss in gs
in the year to
c o m e .
45
Thes e
o b s c e n e m o v e m e n t s and speeches are c o nn e c t e d wi th
S h a m a n i s t i c belief.
T h r e e fa r c i c a l c h a ra ct er i st ic s appear in all the mas kd a n c e dramas.
As in the W e s t e r n concept of farce,
c o n c e n t r a t e on s it ua ti o ns over plot,
d ev el op me nt ,
they
on types over c ha r a c t e r
a n d on e n er ge ti c and ludicrous physi c al actions.
W i t t y d i a l o g u e o f t en is s u b o r di na te d to those farcical
quali t ie s.
T h e g h o s t l y and u n r e a l is t ic masks also add a
f a rc ic al quality.
M o r e importantly,
those qual it ie s are kep t
an d d e v e l o p e d by each act or p l a y i n g the same c haracter
t h r o u g h o u t his career,
like the actors of the Italian
c o m m e d i a dell'arte.
Plo t and Structure
D e s pi te the m a n y in t e r e s t i n g and amusi ng stories in
K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e plays,
no plo t develops from the b e g i n n i n g
to the end of the play.
The stories are not c o nn ec t ed and
the subje ct s c h a n ge s ud d e n l y from scene to scene.
pl o t is a result of the i n t e r a ct i on of characters.
Ideally,
The
a p p e a r a n c e of c h a r a c t e r s in this d r am a is c on si s t e n t w i t h its
lack of o r g a n i c d r a m a t i c structure.
If they w e r e to be judged by A r i s t o t e l i a n concepts,
the
K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e plays' m o s t salient feature is lack of
4 5D oo - H y u n Lee, "Mask-Dance Dramas," The Kor ea n
N a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n for U N E S C O (Ed.), Tr a d i t i o n a l P e r f o r m i n g
Arts of Ko r e a (Seoul:
K w a n g - m y o n g P ri nt in g Co., 1978),
p. 36.
57
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logic or c o n s i s t e n c y in thei r p l o t s . A c c o r d i n g
to D o r o t h y
B lai r S h u m e r , t he ord er of the six eleme nt s of t r a g e d y
e n u m e r a t e d by A r i s t o t l e is, on the whole, d i r e c t l y r ev e r s e d
in A s i a n drama:
in m a n y cases,
plot,
the first element,
is e p i s o d i c only,
an d u s u a l l y lacks i ne vi t ab le de v el o p m e n t . ^ ^
In general,
the plo t of K o r ea n m a s k - d a n c e plays has an
u n v a r y i n g s i t u a t i o n and p r e d i c t a b l e ending, n e i th e r of wh i c h
are h e r o i c an d both of w h i c h deal m o s t l y w i t h hum an and
h i s t o r i c a l e x c e s s e s of religious and social
p r i v i l e g e . ^8
in
short, K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e pla ys cons is t of several d i f f e r e n t
or i n d e p e n d e n t scenes in w hi c h plot has alm os t n o t h i n g to
do w i t h a play 's t h e m e s .49
Th is d r a m a is, on the whole,
acts of the e i g h t m o k c h u n g s
yang-bans
(kwajang 2), No ja n g
(kwajang 6 ), and M i ya l
d an c e of the sangjwas
S ad a n g ' s d an c e
comp os ed of the in de pe n de nt
(kwajang 7) to w h i c h the
(opening c e re m on y in k w aj an g 1 ),
(kwajang 3— m a i n l y songs),
(kwajang 5) are added.
(kwajang 4),
A mo n g them,
and a lion danc e
the scenes c en t e r i n g upon
N o j a n g and the yang- ba ns hav e some plo t a nd d ra m a t i c unity.
The i n d e p e nd e nt p l o t in each scene,
structure,
48yoh,
the lack of orga ni c
and the o n e- ti me a p p e a r a n c e of charac te rs are
op.
cit.,
p. 147.
4?lbid; also D o r o t h y Bla ir Shumer, "Asian Dra ma via
A r i s t o t l e , " W e s t e r n H u m a n i t y R e v i e w (Winter 1967): 39-40.
48Renee Renouf, "Welcome to the M a s q u e ra de ," K o re an
C u l t u r e (January 1982), pp. 2-7.
49yoh,
loc.
cit.
58
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a t t r i b u t a b l e to the fact that at the b e g i n n i n g this d r a ma was
i m p r o v i s a t i o n a l t h e a t e r . 50
Be yo n d a broad plot,
i m p r o v i s a t i o n is the ord er of the performance, wit h no kind
ot tight,
s t r u c t u r a l p r o g r e s s i o n o b s e r v e d . 51
it is a s s u m e d
t h a t th e p l a y e r s a c t e d o n the bas is of plot outline in
e ach scene.
U s i n g a s ke t c h e d synopsis of plot,
i m p r o v i s e d the dialogues,
songs,
actions,
they
and dances.
This
was e n h a n c e d by ea ch acto r p l a y i n g the same role with a fixed
mask,
costume,
e t c . 52
an d indivi du al props such as fans,
canes,
I n c o n s i s t e n c y of the drama t ic stru c tu re and plot
d e v e l o p m e n t are,
therefore,
one of the charac ti st ic s of this
d ra m a form.
D an c e and Mus ic
In K o r e a ther e are six v ar ie ti e s of traditi on al dance;
(1) Shamanistic,
(2) Buddhist,
(4) c ou r t e nt ertainments,
(6 ) th e
m a s k - d a n c e .
53
and
(3) C o n f u c i a n rituals,
(5) c o u n t r y or folk dances,
and
Kore an danc e mo v e m e n t has been aptl y
d e s c r i b e d by a Weste rn er ,
Ele an or King,
in the p ar a g r a p h
tha t follows:
50cho,
"The Mask Dance Theater," op. cit., p. 43.
5lRenouf, op. cit., p. 5.
5 2cho,
"The M a s k Dance Theater," loc. cit.
53Eleanor King, "Reflection on Korean Dance," The Korean
National Commission for UNESCO (Ed.), Korean Dance (Seoul:
Si-sa-yong-o-sa, Inc., 1983), p. 32.
59
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T he c h a r a c t e r i s t i c K o r e a n mo ve m e n t s are the heel wa l k
an d t u r n i n g on the heels; rais in g th e bo d y s of t l y and
l i g h t l y f r o m b e n t knee position; slight v i b r a t i o n s from
hips up; the pulses fr o m the shoulders; e c o n o m y of
m ovement, an d im pr ovisation.
The mo s t d i s t i n c t i v e of
K o r e a n m o v e m e n t s is the s u s pe nd e d position, b al a n c i n g
on one f o o t w i t h the free leg e x t en de d wh i l e the
s h o u l d e r s s o ft l y rise and fall.
Wi t h its elan, this
e x p r e s s i o n c o n v e y s a d e e p sense of e c s ta ti c power.
E c s t a s y p e r m e a t e s all of the types of d a n c e — not only
the s h a ma n an d farmers' folk dance, but ev e n e x t r e m e l y
formal l i m i t e d cour t d a n c e has shoulder p u l s a t i o n —
a c t u a l l y fr o m the chest, in breath r h y t h m — i nd i ca ti ng
that s e cr e t inner joy of m o t i o n . 5 4
In the P o n g - S a n m a s k - d a n c e dram a there are eight
s a w i s ; 5 5
1.
Ae-sawi:
a dan ce p a t t e r n in w h i ch the arms are
t o s s e d o u t w a r d in a d i r e c t i o n aw ay from the center of the
body.
T h e m o k c h u n g s dan ce this w a y
2.
Kop-sawi:
(Fig.
11, p.
61).
a danc e style in w h i c h the index finger
of e a c h hand is a l t e r n a t e l y b r o ug ht to a p o s i t i o n in front of
the body,
center,
then over the head.
3.
Yang-sawi;
4.
Man-sawi:
similar to the Kop- s aw i above.
a danc e p a t t e r n p e r f o r m e d in a slow
movement.
5.
K k a e k k i - c h o o m ;
56
a basi c form of all m a s k - d a n c e
d ra m a w h i c h requi re s the use of every part of a dancer's
body.
The tune of the
t a r y o n g 5 7
ig required for this dance.
54ibid.
55pance patterns.
56choom means dancing.
57a kind of ballad tune.
60
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6.
Kungdungi-choom;
a d an c e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s w i ng in g
the b u t t o c k s b a c k and forth.
7.
Muttung-choom;
a d a n c e form c o ns i s t i n g of various
styles p e r f o r m e d by the eig h t m o k c h u n g s d a n c i n g to g e t h e r to a
fast t a r y o n g r h y t h m i c accompaniment.
The basi c m ov e m e n t
c o n s i s t s of th e d a n c e r s tu r n i n g their right hands upsi de
down,
t h e n l i f t i n g t h e m q u i c k l y and lowering them.
8.
M a g p i e steps:
step w h e r e b y a dancer,
a co m bi n a t i o n of a t w o- st e p and skip
looking at the ground,
takes the steps
a n d hop s w h i l e m a k i n g g e st u re s in imitation of a mag pi e
w a l k i n g on the g r o u n d . 58
D an c e s m o s t l y c o m me nc e after p e rf o r m e r s sing a short
p u l l i m g i v i n g a cue as to the rhythmic patt e rn to be
employed.
dance,
The o u t s t a n d i n g dances in this dram a are N o j a n g * s
the da n c e of the four sangjwas,
mokch u ng s,
the d a n ce of the eig ht
and the lion's dance.
N o j a n g * s Dance
Th i s dan ce is almos t a mime.
Mim e and d an c e are so
i n t e r r e l a t e d as to be i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e
(see Fig.
9, p.
53).
. . . As if he is determined, he nods.
He is c o m p l e t e l y
c a p i t u l a t e d by the b e a u t y of Somu.
He is d e t e r m i n e d to
a p pr oa ch Somu.
He atte mp ts to lift his cane, but it is
stu c k to the ground.
H o l d i n g his cane, he circles
aro u nd it as he danc es to the tune of m u s ic w h il e
c o v e r i n g his face with the fan.
He cannot lift the
cane.
N o w he folds his fan.
As he dances, he strikes
t h e cane wit h the fan.
He is n o w able to life the cane.
H o l d i n g the cane in both hands, he carries it on his
58Lee,
"Mask D a n c e Dramas," op.
cit.,
p.
53.
62
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
shoulder.
As if he is a s h a m e d of himself,
b a c k w a r d t o w a r d Somu . . . .59
he walks
Using these highly developed
t ec hn i q u e s of danc e
N o j a n g s u c c e e d s in c o n v e y i n g
an impersonal
w h i c h is one of the farcic al
qualities.
and mime,
a w k w a r d n e s s , 50
D a n ce of the F o u r Sangj w as
Originally,
however,
the dan c e was p e rf or me d by males.
it is m o r e c o m m o n l y p e r f o r m e d by females.
d a n c e r s w e a r B u d d h i s t costumes and whi te hoods.
Now,
The
This d an c e
is r e g a r d e d as the m o s t femi ni ne and mo s t delic at e of all the
monks'
d a n c e s .
51
in addition,
its technique,
charm,
and
q u i e t m o v e m e n t s m a k e it rich in essences and one high in
a r t i s t i c m e r i t as well
(see Fig.
2, p. 19).
D a n c e of the Eigh t
Mokchungs
This is p e r ha ps the m o s t vigo ro u s and most m a s c u l i n e of
all K o r e a n dances.
Perfo rm er s wea r robes wit h long sleeves
f u l l y co v e r i n g the ir hands.
The sleeves are gai ly t h r u s t up
and d o w n and t w i r l e d arou nd in rapid moveme nt s
p.
61).
(see Fig.
11,
Each m o k c h u n g b o as ts un a b a s h e d l y of his special
d a n c e prowess.
59cho,
" Pong-San Talchum:
I," op.
cit.,
p.
60.
50yoh, op. cit., p. 148.
5lMan-yong Han, "Korean Dance Repertories," The Korean
National Commission for UNESCO (Ed.), Korean Dance (Seoul:
S 1 — s a —y o n g —o — s a , I n c . , 1983), p. 8 .
63
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Lion's Da n c e
One li on is c o m p o s e d of two persons,
the o t h e r in th e rear.
The lion dances aro un d in a large
c i r c l e , a f t e r w h i c h he sits down, walks,
c ente r of th e stage,
b o d y .
62
or jumps in the
t u r ni n g his head from left to right,
b i t i n g at his b o d y lice,
his
one in front and
(gee Fig.
s w it ch in g his tail, or scrat ch in g
6 , p.
38.)
W h e n p e r f o r m i n g the di f f e r e n t m o v e m e n t patterns,
u s u a l l y d an c e unse lf co n sc io us ly ,
individually,
players
and freely.
T he m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g q u a l i t y of Ko re a n dance is m u t and
h e u n g . 6 3
C o m p a r e d to the decorative,
restr ai n ed Japa ne se
d a nc es w i t h thei r t i g h t l y c o nt ro l le d formalism,
are sp o n t a n e o u s and instinctive.
K o re an dances
The K o r e a n danc er is not
i n t e r e s t e d in e x te r na l aspects of a c r ob at ic phys ic al m o t i o n
but in e x p r e s s i n g m e t a p h y s i c a l
joy,
that is, m u t and heung.
C o m p a r a t i v e l y little of intere st is to be found in the
a c c o m p a n y i n g music, w h i c h is s ub se rv ie n t to the dance
m o v e m e n t s and w h o s e h é t é r o p h o n i e melo di es are repeated
t h r o u g h o u t by the
o r c h e s t r a . 64
The small orchestra for the
p r o d u c t i o n of this dra ma u s u a l l y is ma d e up of two
p i r i s , 6
5
62ibid., pp. 8-9.
63Translated by King, op. cit., p. 63 as "irepressible
joy from within, state of exhilaration from a deep sense of
beauty."
64Alan C. Heyman, "Korean Folk M u si c and Dance,"
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C u lt u ra l F o u n d a t i o n (Ed.), Folk C u lt ur e in
K o r e a (Seoul:
Si-sa-yo ng - o- sa , Inc., 1982), p. 101.
65Bamboo oboes.
64
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
a taegum,66
c ha ng g o , ^ ®
(Fig.
{Fig.
p e r f o rm a nc e,
the yombul,
12, p.
14, p.
66),
a haegum ,6 7
(pig.
6 8 ), and a barrel
drum.
1 3 ^ p.
D u ri ng a
the m u s i c i a n s p l a y a v a ri et y of tunes,
taryong,
and k ut ko r i , ® ^
67), a
i n c lu d in g
whi ch enables the
p l a y e r s to do a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t dances.
M ask s an d Costumes
M a s k s u s e d in the Po n g - S a n are ma de of paper.
mas ks are t u r ne d into ashes after a performance,
m a k e r s hav e to d e p e n d e n t i r e l y upo n memory.
Since
the m a s k
It theref or e is
p r e s u m e d t h a t m a s k shapes and ap pearances have chan ge d
c ontinu ou sl y.
Ma s k m a k i n g is e x pl a in ed as follows;
To m a k e a mask, first the cl a y arch et yp e was cre at ed
for each mask.
W h e n this clay a r ch et yp e dried, several
t hin layers of p ar c h m e n t pape r soaked in light glue w e r e
l aid on it one at a time.
Then the cla y ar ch e t y p e was
r e mo ve d fr om the pape r w h e n it had c om pl e t e l y dried.
A f t e r that, the m a s k was p a in te d a c co r d i n g to the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each individual, a dd i n g cer ta i n items
s uc h as fur eyebrows, beard, and m u s t a c h e if necessary.
B u t the lion masks, w h i c h w e r e the largest, wer e never
m a d e with paper.
The m a t er ia l for the c o n s t r u c t i o n of
these mas ks was u s u a l l y d r ie d w i l l o w branches.
Th en
the lion m as k s w e r e also covered with p a r ch me n t paper.
A fte r this process, they, too, wer e ready for painting.
66piute .
G ^ Ko re an t w o - s t r i n g e d fiddle.
6 8 T he yom bu l is a s i x- b ea t r h y th m in 6/4 time not u n l i k e
a B u d d h i s t invocation.
The t a ry on g is a 12-beat ball ad
r h y t h m in 12/8 ti me ac c e n t e d on the ninth beat.
The kutkori,
a ls o a 1 2 -be at r h y t h m in 1 2 / 8 time but wit h no e s p e c i a l l y
s h a r p a cc e n t executed, is p l a y e d in a smooth, r i p pl in g t em p o
s o m e w h a t like a waltz.
® ^ H o u r g l a s s - s h a p e d drum.
65
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Taeguin (large transverse (lute). T h e history of this large
transverse flu te dates back to the seventh century, during the U n i­
fied Silla Kingdom. Thetorgum has played an im portant role in court
orchestral music ensembles, and is s till used in both court and fo lk
music. The isntruinent measures tw o feet five inches in length,
tvhich is slightly longer than the fapanese ih aku hach i and the
Chinese ti. Since the laegum has an extra hole covered w ith a th in
m em brane— besides its blow ing hole and six finger holes— its
tim bre reveals uniquely Korean characteristics, producing a some­
w hat buzzing sound. T he vibration of the membrane gives the in ­
strum ent a beautiful and expressive tonal quality.
photo courtesyo f H a l Cohen
Figure 12, Taegum.
S ourc e
7.
66
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
photo courtesy o f H al Cohen
U
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1 C/5
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It)
Fig ür e 13.
Haegum.
Hacgum (two*strifiged fiddle). This is (he Korean counter­
part to the Chinese fiddle called hu -ch'in . The instrum ent is believed
to have been introduced into Korea from China during the Koryo
period (918-1392). Since then the fiddle has been used as an im ­
portant m elodic in stru m en t in Korean music (hyangak) ensembles,
and it is indispensable to court and folk music ensembles accom­
panying dance. T h e instru m en t has no fingerboard, but is played
vertically w ith a bow w hile being held on the left knee. T he tone
quality is quite nasal, and the sound of the instru m en t is rem arkably
penetrating. The haegum is always found in Korean court, chamber,
and folk m usic ensembles.
0)
Ü
3
0
W
67
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-P iH
-p
(0 (U
u p
cu 3
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-p 3
•H u
0)
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0)
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0
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photi! i.Y A - ir ( « jr of Hul 0 ’he:i
ChanRRO (hourglass drum ). T he hourglass drum is the
Korean counterpart of the Chinese c/tang-tr» and the fapanese ion no
ts u iu m i. but is larger than both. Ancient pictures are found in m ural
paintings in Koguryo tombs and are inscribed on the bodies of sari*
ous Buddhist bells of the U nified Silla Kingdom. Since the early
period of the Y i dynasty {1392-19101 thec/tanggo has been used in
court m usic performance, and today it is the most frequently used
accom panim ent instru m en t for almost all kinds of Korean music.
T h e th ic k skin of the left side is struck w ith the palm and gives out a
soft and low sound; the th in n er skin of the right side is struck w ith a
bamboo stick and sounds harder. The right side can be raised or
lowered in pitch by m oving the central belts that encircle the Vshaped laces to the right or left, thus tightening or loosening the
tension of the drum head.
F igu re 14.
Changgo.
S o u rc e
K e i t h P ra t t and B o n g - s o n g Song, "The Unique F l a vo r
o f K o r e a n Music," K o r e a n Cult ur e 1, No. 3 (Summer 1980)
11 .
68
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
W h e n it was completed, a piece of da r k cloth,
w h i c h was c a l l e d t'alpo, was sewed along the edge of
th e mask.
Thi s cloth was use d to cover the back of the
w e a r e r ' s head as we l l as to fasten the mask ar o u n d the
h e a d w i t h it.'O
A l t h o u g h the ch ar a c t e r s in the dram a numb er 34, only 26
m a s k s are m a d e b e c a u s e the masks
for the kosas are also used
for the m o k c h u n g s and the Somu mask is also us ed for Sadang
and Mudang.
T he mask s and c o s t um es of the characters follow:
Sang jw a
Mask.
This w h i t i s h ma s k for the young Buddh is t monk has
i n k - d r a w n hair and eyebrows.
the eyes.
The lips are rouged bright red.
Costume.
The p la y e r wear s a m on k ' s w h i t e dress and a
w h i t e p e a k e d nun's hat.
shoulder.
A thin ink-drawn line encircles
Re d wristlets,
A red sash is slung across the
whic h cover the hands,
to the sleeves of the coat.
(See Fig.
2, p.
are a t t ac he d
19).
Mokchunq
Mask.
This o r a n g e - c o l o r e d monk's mas k has numerous
b lac k spots on the lower half of the face.
h o r n - l i k e p r o t u b e r a n c e s on the face;
two b e t w e e n the eyebrows,
There are seven
two on the forehead,
two on the lower cheeks,
70cho,
"The M a s k Dance,"
op.
7lLee,
"Mask D a n c e Drama,"
cit.,
p.
op. cit.,
41.
p.
56.
69
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
and one on
the chin.
gold.
All the p r o t u b e r a n c e s are c o ve re d wi t h b e at en
T h e v e r t i c a l line of bla ck and w h i t e m a k e up the
eyebrows.
The p r o t u d i n g bla ck eyes are e n ci r c l e d w i t h w i d e
g i l d e d lines w h i c h are a g a in e nc i r c l e d by thin black lines.
Costume.
pants,
Th e p la y e r we a r s a jacket, a pair of short
a n d a m o n k ' s coat.
A bell is at t a c h e d to either knee
and a w i l l o w b r a n c h hangs from the lower back.
p.
61).
(See Fig.
The bell symbol iz es h yp o c r i s y and outward show.
11,
The
w i l l o w b r a n c h is us ed for hi d i n g one's face.
Nojanq
Mask.
The old monk ' s m a r o o n mas k has prin te d eyes with
g o l d e n c i r c l e d w i t h in k - d r a w n lines.
The p r o t r u d i n g lips are p a i nt ed rouge.
p r o t u be r an ce s:
The eyebrows are gray.
There are five
two on the space b e t we en the eyebrows and
t hr e e on the low e r chin.
These p r o t ub er an c es are c o v er ed
w i t h b e at en gold.
Costume.
The p la y e r we a r s a m o nk 's robe,
long ros a ry m a d e of 108 beads.
the shoulder.
fan.
(See Fig.
a hat,
A red sash is slung across
The p l ay e r covers his face w i t h a silk gauze
5, p.
36.)
Sinianqsu
Mask.
and a
The s h o e - s e l l e r 's s ki n - c o l o r e d m a s k has
i n k - d r a w n eyebr o ws a n d beard.
The lips are rouged.
70
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Costume.
pants.
Th e p l a y e r wea r s a black jacket and white
He c a r ri es a b un d l e of w r a p p e d m e r c h a n d i s e on his
back in w h i c h t h e m o n k e y is included.
(See Fig.
5, p.
36.)
C h wi ba li
Mask.
T he m a s k for
m okchungs' masks,
the old bachelor is similar to
b u t it is slightly longer.
p r o t u b e r a n c e s on th e face;
the eyebrows,
There are twelve
four on the forehead,
and two on either end of the mouth.
g r a y ha i r and a beard.
A
the
six b e t we en
It has
lock of g r a y hair hangs betwe en the
eyes to i n di c at e the b a ch el or is old.
Costume.
The p la y e r wear s a red jacket with green
s l e ev es a n d a p a i r of red pants.
A
He carries a w i l l o w branch.
large bell is f a st en ed to one of his knees.
p.
(See Fig.
10,
55.)
M iy a l
Mask.
red
The old w o m a n ' s dark
spots. The lips are
Costume.
blue m a s k has ma n y w h i t e and
rouged.
The p l a y e r w ea r s a whi te jacket and a skirt.
She also w ea r s a towel a r o u n d her head.
She carries a fan
and a bell.
Yonggam
Mask.
M i y al ' s h u s b a n d wears a w h it is h ma s k with
i n k - d r a w n e y eb r ow s and a gray beard.
71
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Costume.
trousers,
The p l a y e r w ea r s a white full-dress atti re and
leggings,
an d a d o g- fu r hat.
Domori
Mask.
Y o n g g a m ' s c on c u b i n e wears a wh i t i s h mask wi th
i n k —d r a w n hair and eyebrows.
The lips are rouged.
The
c h i g n o n - s t y l e hair is d e c o r a t e d with a red ribbon.
Costume.
The p l ay e r wear s a y e ll ow jacket and a red
skirt.
Mudanq
Mask.
Thi s w h i t i s h female shaman's ma s k has i nk - dr aw n
h a i r a n d eyebrows.
The lips are rouged bri g ht red.
There
are red spots on the f o r eh e ad and cheeks.
Costume.
The pla ye r w e a r s a blue jacket,
d a r k b l u e armour,
bell.
(See Fig.
and a felt hat.
15, p.
a red skirt,
She carries a fan and a
73.)
Saennim
Mask.
Th e old a r i s t o c r a s t wea rs a w h i t i s h mas k wit h a
fur b e a r d and eyebrows.
Under the nose there is a h or i zo nt al
red scar w hi c h reaches to the upper lip.
A horseh ai r
h e a d b a n d is ink-drawn.
Costume.
w h i t e trousers,
The p l a y er w ea r s a wh i t e full-dress attire,
w h i t e leggings,
and a m a n y - c o r n e r e d ho rs e t a i l
72
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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3
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F i g u r e 15.
Mudang, a female shaman, performs an e x o r c i s m w i t h a fan
and a bell.
N a m g g a n g Noin stands near her, listening to wh at she says
(kwajang 7).
{Photographed by Jin-Hi Kim)
hat.
He c a r r ie s a w h i t e fan in his left hand and holds a
bam b oo cane in his right hand.
(See Fig.
1,
p.
39.)
Sobangniro
Mask.
T he m a s k of the m i d d l e - a g e d aristo cr at is
b a s i c a l l y the sam e as Saenn i m' s except that it has a single
cleft palate.
Costume.
(See Fig.
p.
1,
The p l a y e r wea rs the same outfit as Saennim.
39.)
Toryonqnim
Mask.
The young,
un ma r r i e d arist oc ra t wears a soft pink
m a s k w i t h i n k - d r a w n hair p a r t e d in the center and eyebrows.
The lips are rouged.
The mou t h and nose are a s k e w to the
left.
Costume.
armour,
The pla ye r wear s a wh i t e dress w i t h blue
a d a r k bl ue he ad c o v e r made of cloth,
He carri e s a fan.
(See Fig.
7, p.
and leggings.
39.)
N a m q q a n q No i n
Mask.
Th e old m an ' s ma s k is identical to Yonggam's.
Costume.
The p la y e r wea rs a white,
and a h o r s e h a i r hat.
In C h i n e s e opera,
(See Fig.
15, p.
long coat,
trousers,
73.)
strict c o n v e nt i on s d e m an d that the
col o rs and cost u me styles c or re s p o n d wi t h the status of the
74
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c h a r a c t e r s .^^
D i f f e r e n t face colors repre se nt d i f fe re n t
characteristics.^^
By contrast, ma s k colors us e d in Korea
are sy m b o l i c of the five d i r e c t i o n s of the compass,
p r e v i o u s l y noted:
West,
blue for East,
bl a c k for North,
W h e n Nojang,
as
red for South, whit e for
a nd y e l l o w for
C e n t e r .
74
the old monk, wh o wears a black mask,
is
d e f e a t e d b y the licent i ou s old bachelor, Chwibali, who wears
a re d mask,
and w h e n old Miyal, wh o wears a black mask and is a
first wife,
is d e f e a t e d by the y ou n g concubine who wears a
w h i t e mask,
this is s y m bo li c of the Battle of Summer and
Winter,
hel d at season al
the ye a r to come.
f e a s t s ,
75 and of the blessings of
B u r n i n g the masks aft e r a performance,
the B a t t l e of Summer an d W i n t e r symbolism,
and
c onstitute elements
of r i t u al in this dra ma as di sc u s s e d in the next section.
Elements of Ritual
R i t u a l dr a m a is co ns id er ed the e a rl ie st form of drama.
The t h e a t e r d e v e l o p e d from rites in wh i c h p ri m i t i v e man
r e s o r t e d to magic.
Prim it iv e m a n was faced wi t h a w o r l d
7 2cec il ia S. L. Zung, Secret of the Chinese Drama
York:
B e n j a m i n Blom, Inc., 1964), p. 17.
(New
73ibid., p. 41; red signifies roya lt y and uprightness,
p u r p l e signi fi es the same as red but to a lesser degr ee
b e c a u s e of old age, black signifies si mp l i c i t y and
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d n e s s , blue s ignifies ob st i n a n c y and ferocity,
and y e l l o w signi fi es c ra ft i ne ss or cleverness.
74Lee,
"Mask Danc e Drama," op.
cit.,
p. 36.
75ibid.
75
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he k n e w a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t
of b i r t h ,
i n i t i a t i o n to m a n h o o d ,
well-known rites
of p a s s a g e )
realistic details
concerns
countries
fe rt i l i t y ,
were
fa r m o r e
of e v e r y d a y a c t i o n s .
still exist
American
but could not control,
in A s i a ,
and death
r it e s
(the
important than
T h e s e k i n d s of r i t u a l
in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d r a m a
as w e l l
thus
forms of m a n y
as a m o n g A f r i c a n t r i b e s a n d th e
I n d i a n s of t h e U n i t e d States.
K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e d r a m a is n o t an e x c e p t i o n .
originated
from Sonang-Je,
Having
as p a r t of v i l l a g e s h r i n e
c e r e m o n i e s , H a - h o e m a s k - d a n c e d r a m a r e t a i n s th e
Sonang-Je
p.
9).
trad iti on by using priests and priestesses
(see
D u r i n g t h e g o l d e n p e r i o d of K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e drama,
one m o n t h p r i o r to the Dano Festival,
all i n v o l v e d in the
p e r f o r m a n c e t o o k a h o l y b a t h a n d l o d g e d t o g e t h e r in a lo c a l
B u d d h i s t temple w hile rehearsing the play and making masks
and properties.
Elders
I n s t r u c t i o n of n e w p e r f o r m e r s was d o n e b y th e
of t h e grou p.
The instruction method was imitation.
O n c e a p e r f o r m a n c e b e g a n in t h e e ve ni ng ,
p l ay er s,
w e a r i n g d i f f e r e n t c o l o r e d m a s k s s y m b o l i c of t h e five
d i r e c t i o n s of t h e c o m p a s s ,
created a festival atmosphere that
l a s t e d u n t i l d a w n t h e n e x t day.
Battle
of S u m m e r a n d W i n t e r
e l e m e n t s — its o r i g i n ,
b y t h e El d e r s ,
W h a t they depicted was the
(see p.
75).
t h e h o l y baths,
These
communal
t h e B a t t l e of S u m m e r a n d W i n t e r ,
Sonang-Je
instruction
a n d the
f e s t i v a l a t m o s p h e r e of t h e a c t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e — all are
i n d i c a t i v e of t h e r i t u a l
character
roots and continuing ritual
of K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e drama.
76
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w i t h i n ritu al d r a m a s th e r e are m a n y common
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h have a high p r o b a b i l i t y of incidence in
all cultures.
M a n y of t h e s e c o mm on cha r ac te ri st ic s are
p r e s e n t in K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e dramas as d e t a i l e d below.
1.
R i t u a l pla ys qui t e ofte n are w r i t t e n in verse.
As
has b e e n s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y in this thesis,
Pong-San dra ma is
l i t e r a l l y c r a m m e d w i t h verse,
and qu otations
song lyrics,
fro m C h i n e s e verse.
2.
The usu al s e t t i n g for a ritual drama is an outdoor
stage w i t h n o n s c e n i c elements.
P o ng -S an drama h a bi t ua ll y has
bee n p e r f o r m e d outdoors an d has even less scenic elements
t h a n m o s t e x ta n t ritual dramas.
3.
R i t ua l dra ma includes d a n ci n g as an integral part of
the d r a m a performance.
r ep et it io us ,
Such d a nc in g often is slow,
and some wh at monotonous.
Korean m as k -d an ce
d r a m a has m u l t i t u d i n o u s examples of the above.
At times it
seems as t h ou g h there is mo r e d a nc in g than dialogue,
e s p e c i a l l y in the Po n g - S a n drama.
Even the costumes in
K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e d ra m a are g r a ce fu l extens io ns of the
p erformers'
d a n c e movements,
for example,
the elong at ed
slee ve s w h i c h e xt e n d well beyo nd their arms.
The super
slee ve s are s y m b o l i c of the d is pe ll in g of evils.
The lion
d a n c e al s o is a r i t u a l is t ic chas in g away of evil spirits.
4.
Several types of drum s are use d for sound an d musi c
in ritua l drama.
The changgo
(see p.
6 8 ) and a barrel
are u s e d in K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e dramas.
77
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drum
5.
T a l k i n g a n i m a l s of t e n are p ro m i n e n t in ritual drama.
In K o r ea n m a s k - d a n c e dramas,
however,
a lion listens but only
nods his hea d to w h a t a lion d r i v e r says instead of talking,
6.
C o s t u m i n g always is impor ta nt in ritual drama.
in all O r i e n t a l countries,
As
th e costu me s are d a z zl in gl y
c o lo rf ul in K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e dramas.
7.
E m p h a s i s u p o n situa ti on s c o m mo nl y takes prece de nc e
over c h a r a c t e r in ritual drama.
commoner,
m o n k v e r s u s commoner,
The yang- ba n versus
and commoner versus commoner
s i tu a t i o n s are m o r e impor ta nt than the individuals in Kor ea n
m a s k - d a n c e drama.
Thus s i t ua ti on is a mai n element in this
farce for m of drama.
8.
R i t u a l d r a m a m a k e s e x te ns iv e use of a changing,
speaking,
and s i n g i n g chorus.
( e n t e r ta in in g girl), kosas
In a d di ti o n to Sadang
(giants),
and musicians,
a singi n g
c h or us also is h ea r d in the P o n g- Sa n m as k- d a n c e drama
( kwajang 3).
9.
Rit ua l dra ma often contains a chara ct e r kno wn as a
spielman.
His role,
a l t ho ug h o s te ns ib ly that of a min or
character,
is real ly that of p r om pt e r and stage manager.
K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e dramas,
For instance,
Y onggam,
10.
sees,
In
a m u s i c i a n plays the spielman role.
in k w a j a n g 7 a m u s i c i a n talks to Miyal and
g o a d i n g t h e m to f o ll ow their own inclinations.
Ritual dr a m a creates a u n i f y i n g mood.
aft e r K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e performances,
One often
memb er s of the
a u d i e n c e d a n c i n g w i t h the p l a y e r s — e sp ec i a l l y in the rural
are as of Korea.
78
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11.
Ri tu a l d r a m a f e a tu re s m a n y p r o c e ss io ns as a regular
part of its t h e a t r i c a l
form,
w h e n an a u di en ce is assembled
for a m a s k - d a n c e p l a y to begin,
the four sangjwas enter and
p e r f o r m an o p e n i n g p r o c e s s i o n and ritual dance.
p r e v i o u s l y noted,
North,
South,
It is, as
a d a n c e d e d i c a t e d to the five directions.
East, West,
and the a l l - i m po rt an t Center.
Af t e r the sang jw a s dance,
and r e c i t e s poems.
each m o k c h u n g enters in turn
W h i l e dancing,
the second m ok c h u n g appears
a nd s t r i k e s the first one, d r i v i n g h i m away.
All the
m o k c h u n g s ente r and exit in the same manner,
one after
another.
This par t is t h o ug h t to be symbolic of dri vi ng out
ev il and,
therefore,
is a dance of e x o r c i s m . T h e
p r e v a i l i n g e r o t i c i s m an d scene d e pi ct in g c hildbirth can be
c o n s i d e r e d part of a f e rt il i ty rite and a symbolic act of
i n v o c a t i o n for a g o o d h a rv es t and other blessings in the year
to c o m e .
In the last scene of the play, Mudang,
to send M i y a l ' s de ad soul to paradise.
p e r f o r m an e x o r c i s m as she dances.
n e i g h b o r h o o d old man,
w h a t she says.
saying,
The shaman begins to
N a m g g a n g Noin,
stands near the shaman,
a
listen in g to
On ce in a w h i l e he responds to the shaman,
"That's right,
Mudang:
a shaman, enters
This is
This is
This is
F or the
7 6 i b i d . , p.
53.
7 ^ I b i d . , p.
36.
that's right"
{Fig.
a grave
a grave
a grave
w o m a n of a family
16, p. 77).
. . . .
79
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As—hâô—as—as
I t ’s a p i t y
It's a misery.
Here I am.
Here I am.
Af t e r I have pr a y e d for the mouth and body
Of the d e a d p e rs on
I a m here.
Her e I a m 0-0-0
W i t h o u t a c c o m p l i s h i n g her hopes.
She has beco me a guest in Hades . . . .
Y i - Yi -Y i
The spirit after Death
Ple a se send this poor dead soul
To paradise.
On the soul board, her soul.
On the spirit board, her spirit.
Send t h e m to the lotus bl o s s o m peak.
Olsa!
(She dances)
N a m g g a n g Noin:
T h at 's right, that's right.
Go to the paradise.
An exor c is m is
p e r f o r m e d to send you to the good p l a c e .
Go only to paradise.
(Mudang dances as she rings a bell;
after a while, she e x i t s ) '8
Thus the P o n g - S a n g drama ends.
w i n e is b r o u g h t to the stage.
m a s k s and properties,
A table wit h food and
All the players toss their
f r eq ue nt l y including their costumes,
into a b l a z i n g bo n f i r e as they repeat ed l y b o w solemnly w i t h
th e i r pa l m s t o g e t h e r .79
The m e a n i n g of b u r n i n g the masks and properties is
e x p l a i n e d as follows:
78cho,
"Pong - Sa ng Talchum:
I," op. cit.,
57.
79ibid.
80
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. . . The m a s k s a n d p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d
w i t h g r e a t l a b o u r a n d t i m e for the p e r f o r m a n c e t u r n e d
into a s h e s a n d s m o k e a f t e r a s i n g l e use.
They were
b u r n e d b e c a u s e t h e p e o p l e b e l i e v e d t h a t the m a s k s and
p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h w e r e o n c e u s e d for the p r o d u c t i o n of
this d r a m a w e r e s u p p o s e d l y b e d e v i l e d w i t h the d e m o n i c
spirits.
In o r d e r to g e t rid of d e v i l s and c l e a n s e the
p l a y e r s a n d a u d i e n c e , it w a s n e c e s s a r y for t h e m to bur n
the b e w i t c h e d m a s k s .
A l l t h e s e a s p e c t s of r i t ua l are p r o t e c t e d by othe r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h i s d r a m a
v a r i e t y of d a n c i n g ,
s e ri ou s r i t u a l
inter es t.
such as f a rc ic al qualities,
a n d songs.
W i t h o u t these elements,
s c e n e s on stage c o u l d no t k e e p an a u d i e n c e ' s
T h e s e s e c u l a r e l e m e n t s are rough and earthy:
C h w i b a l i 's o b s c e n i t y ,
the v u l g a r scene of sexual i n t e r c o u r s e
b e t w e e n Y o n g g a m a n d Miyal ,
o u t s p o k e n di al o g u e .
o b s c e n i t y are
and the servant Malttugi's
In this t h e a t e r form, v u l g a r i t y and
j o y o u s l y c o m i n g l e d for the audience.
D e s p i t e t h e s e ex c e p t i o n s ,
m a s k - d a n c e d r a m a was,
today,
it is clear t h a t K o r e a n
in its in ception,
a r i t u a l drama.
and is,
In a s t r i c t sense,
in p r a c t i c e
however,
it
is by
no m e a n s a f o r m of s a c r e d drama.
First, m u c h of the play,
as p r e v i o u s l y m e nt io n ed ,
i m p r o v i s e d f r o m a s c e n a r i o by the actors.
t h e o t h e r hand,
is
S a c r e d drama,
on
f e a t u r e s h o l y or m a g i c w o r d s that m u s t be
r e p e a t e d v e r b a t i m e a c h t i m e the d r a m a is performed.
Second,
s a c r e d d r a m a o f t e n f e a t u r e s the p u n i s h m e n t an d c o n v e r s i o n of
a p e r s o n w h o has b r o k e n the r e l i g i o u s tabo os of the c u l t u r e
w h i c h c r e a t e d t h e drama.
old monk who degenerates
su ch a s it u at io n.
S O i b i d . , p.
P o n g - S a n d r a m a ’s d e p i c t i o n of the
into a lecher, w o u l d s e e m to be
T h e m o n k is not,
however,
really a monk
41.
81
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(he is p l a y e d by an actor)
a n d he d e m o n s t r a t e s a b s o l u t e l y no
tendencies toward repentance.
Third,
t h e c a s t of a s a c r e d
d r a m a n o r m a l l y w i l l c o n t a i n m a n y p e r f o r m e r s w h o are a c t u a l l y
playing themselves
(e.g.,
t h e M u d a n g in th e final s c e n e of
the P o n g - S a n d r a m a is a p r o f e s s i o n a l M ud a ng ).
are i m p e r s o n a t i n g t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s
P e r f o r m e r s who
(actors),
while often
c a r r y i n g the m o s t i m p o r t a n t r o l e s in a s a c r e d drama,
d e c i d e d l y f e w in n u m b e r .
are
A r i t u a l d r a m a th a t has b e c o m e a
s e cu la r e n t e r t a i n m e n t r e v e r s e s the s i t u a t i o n a nd u t i l i z e s a
m a j o r i t y of a c t o r s .
in S e o u l City,
In P o n g - S a n d r a m a p ro du ct i on s,
t h e o n l y p e r f o r m e r s no t a c t o r s a r e t he M u d a n g
and the musicians.
A l l ot h e r p e r f o r m e r s ar e actors
i m p e r s o n a t i n g t h e role s t h e y play.
Finally,
d e s p i t e the fact
tha t t h e c o n c l u d i n g s c e n e of the P o n g - S a n d ra m a
for Miyal)
Mudang,
as seen
(the f u ne ra l
is a r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n y c o n d u c t e d by an actual
a u d i e n c e s r e s p o n d in a f a s h i o n tha t c l e a r l y in di c a t e s
t h a t t h e y k n o w it is n o t t o be t a k e n as a r e l i g i o u s ceremony.
T h e y l a u g h at t h e m i m e a n d d ialogue,
applaud what
p a r t i c u l a r l y p l e a s e s them, v i s i t a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s if
disinterested,
a n d g e n e r a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e a c o m p l e t e lack of
aw e or r e v e r e n c e for t h e sce ne onstage.
Therefore,
w h i l e K o r e a n m a s k - d a n c e d r a m a is s t r o n g l y
r i t u a l i s t i c a n d g a i n s p o w e r f r o m th a t quality,
is n o t sacred.
it n o n e t h e l e s s
Th i s p r e s e n t s t he p o s s i b i l i t y of m o d e r n
Korean theater professionals borrowing and adapting freely
f r o m t h e m a s k - d a n c e d r a m a in ord er to c r e a t e a c o n t e m p o r a r y
a n d u n i q u e K o r e a n theater.
82
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Chapter 6
CONCLUSIONS;
T H E P R E S E N T AND THE FUTURE
Summary
I n f us ed by S h a m a n i s t i c belief and i nfluenced by
B ud dh i s m ' s mora li t y,
m a s k - d a n c e dra m a was an annual event
p e r f o r m e d as par t of th e M a y 5 Dano Festival during the late
Yi D y n a s t y
(1382-1910).
The p e r f o r m a n c e started in the
e v en in g and l a s t e d till da wn the next day.
It also was
p e r f o r m e d in th e c e n t e r of a m a r k e t p l a c e duri ng the daytime.
The P o n g - S a n m a s k - d a n c e dra ma was p er f o r m e d m a i nl y in
P o n g - S a n city,
p r e s e n t l y part of Nor th Korea.
a fte r t h e K o r e a n War,
Since 1953,
this the at er was revived by refugees
f r o m N o r t h K o r e a and other i nt er e s t e d individuals.
C o m p a r e d to the m a s k - d a n c e plays of other regions,
the
P o n g - S a n d ra m a is c o n s i d e r e d the best in terms of drama t ic
unity.
Seven c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of this drama follow:
1.
Performance:
2.
Characters:
3.
Language:
outdo or s wi th no setting.
o n e- ti me appearance.
poetry,
n a rr at iv e songs,
and colloquial
d ialogue.
4.
Fa r c i c a l quality:
e a r t h i n e s s — even v u l g a r i t y — in
s i t u a t i o n s an d w o r d play.
5.
Improvisation:
d a n c in g and mimes.
83
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6.
Inconsistency:
dramatic structure and plot
development.
7.
Ritual.
In Orie nt al drama,
joyfulness.
o n e of its m o s t s t r i k i n g elements
is
F r o m its e a r l y o r i g i n s in da n c e and songs,
J a pa ne se d r a m a has p l a c e d m o r e e mp h a s i s upo n s p ec ta c le and
melody
(or music)
dramas.1
th a n u p o n the li t e r a r y q u a l i t y of the
A K a bu ki a u d i e n c e shows p l e a s u r e in an a c t o r ’s
p e r f o r m a n c e by s h o u t i n g his nam e or u tt e r i n g some other
s u i ta bl e cry w h e n he enters,
strikes a pose,
in a p a r t i c u l a r l y p l e a s i n g w a y .^
or speaks lines
C h i n e s e th ea te rg o er s go to
the t h e a t e r n o t to w a t c h a p l a y but to see and hear their
f a vo ri te a c to rs s h o w t h e ir mettle .^
W h i l e w a t c h i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of m a s k - d a n c e drama,
K o r e a n a u d i e n c e is n o t solemn and hushed.
drink,
eat,
and o f t e n shout,
a
The people talk,
"Cho-ta" or "Olsigu."^
This
i nt im at e a u d i e n c e - a c t o r r e l a t i o n s h i p creates a
r o u g h n e s s — salt,
sweat,
d e l i g h t are aroused.
noise,
and s m e l l ^ — and laughter and
Thus a sense of joy,
reflected
^Dor o th y Bla ir Shumer, "Asian Drama via A r i s t o t l e , "
W e s t e r n H u m a n i t y R e v i e w (Winter 1969), pp. 38-39.
2 l . C. Pronko, T h e a t e r East and West (Berkeley:
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a Press, 1967), p. 181.
3a . C. Scott, The Theat e r in Asia
P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1972), p. 148.
(New York:
Macmillan
^Bravo.
Ltd.,
Speter Brook, T h e Em p t y Space
1968), p. 73.
(New York:
Pengu in Books
84
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in a feeling of pa rt i c i p a t i o n ,
e x i s t s in m o s t O r i e n t a l
dramas.
Rapport b e tw ee n th e p l a y e r s an d a u d i e n c e in Ko r e a is
nowadays observed m o s t l y in rur al areas.
moder ni ze d a nd d e ve lo pe d,
e xist ed in K o r e a n art,
lost.
H a v i n g been
the v i t a l i t y and crude n es s w hi c h
i n c l u d i n g m a s k - d a n c e dramas,
Lik e ot h e r A s i a n people,
have been
Ko r e a n s have been i m p r e s s e d
and i n f l u e n c e d by W e s t e r n stag e t e ch n i q u e s wi th their
r e al i s t i c p o r t r a y a l s of c o n t e m p o r a r y events and society.
the r e a l i s t i c W e s t e r n - s t y l e pl a y s g a i n e d popularity,
comedy,
Kore an
in the t r a d i t i o n a l sense, a l mo st disappeared.
last 60 years,
As
In the
K o r e a n d r a m a has lacked the strong comic sense
and cr i t i c a l s p i r i t fou nd in the e a r l y m a s k - d a n c e plays.^
F ur thermore,
th e r i g i d i t y of the p o li t ic al situation,
w h i c h f r e e d o m of e x p r e s s i o n is limited,
in
prev en ts writ er s and
p r o d u c e r s from c r i t i c i z i n g r e a l i t y p o i n t - b l a n k .^
V i a d e v e l o p i n g and e m p h a s i z i n g the d if f e r e n t styles of
m u s i c a l p er f or ma nc e,
it seems that A m e r i c a n theater t o d a y is
t r y i n g to recov er the sense of joy w h i c h e x is t ed in the
E l i z a b e t h a n theater.
c u l t u r a l identity,
R e a l i z i n g the importance of recov er i ng
K o r e a n theat er also began,
in 1970,
to
i n j e c t K o r e a n t r a d i t i o n in the contents and forms of m o d e r n
^ S u k- Ke e Yoh,
2 (1971): 143-152.
"Korean M a s k Plays," Drama R ev i e w 15, No.
^ M in - Y o n g Yu, " Pr oj ec ti on of T ra d i t i o n in M o de rn Drama,"
T he K o r e a n N a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n for U N E S C O (Ed.), K o re a n
D a n c e (Seoul:
Si-sa-yo ng -o -s a , Inc, 1983), p. 154.
85
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d r a m a .8
Thanks to a g r o u p of y o u t h f u l p la y w r i t e r s ,
dramatic
creation now is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a h e a v y re l i a n c e on themes
and motifs drawn fro m t r a d i t i o n a l f o l k l o r e an d old
literature.^
Recommendations
A l t h o u g h n e w d i m e n s i o n s in K o r e a n t h e a t e r are bein g
explored,
the h i g h d e g r e e of co m i c sense and critical spirit
e x is ti ng in the f o r m e r p e r f o r m a n c e s of m a s k - d a n c e plays has
not been reached.
T h r o u g h r e c o n s t r u c t i n g tradi ti o na l dramas,
w h i l e r e m e m b e r i n g th a t u n c h a n g e d p e rf o r m a n c e s will not
s atis fy t h e a t e r g o e r s w h o are a c c u s t o m e d to seeing the W e s t e r n
stage,
p e r h a p s t h e i r n a t u r e and spirit can be recreated.
a c h i e v e this goal,
1.
To
five r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s follow:
E f fo rt s s h ou ld be e x p e n d e d to recover the mo od of
p l a y i n g m a s k - d a n c e dramas,
the n d e v e l o p i n g the m and solving
the d r a m a t i c p r o b l e m s u n f a v o r a b l e to a m o de rn audience.
S inc e the m a s k - d a n c e p l a y wa s an imp ro v is at io na l performance,
it s h o u l d be flexib le to change for the m o d er n audience.
2.
O u t d o o r stages should be built in big cities as well
as in rural areas.
in the 1920s
The same k i n d of stage as at Sari w on city
(see Fig.
8 , p.
42) w o u ld be better than the
t h r u s t - s t y l e stage r e c e n t l y built near the National Theater.
T he i n t i m a t e f e e li ng b e t w e e n players and audience via a
8 l b i d . , p.
156.
9 % b i d . , p.
155.
86
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r o u n d - f o r m stage is st r o n g e r t h a n t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d v i a a
rectangular thrust s t a g e .
3.
Dialogue an d p l o t p r o b l e m s s h o u l d be considered.
M a n y quotations b o r r o w e d f r o m C h i n e s e h i s t o r y are not
u nderstood by the a v e r a g e audie nc e.
T h e s e co u l d be r e mo ve d
or c h a n ge d to q u o t a t i o n s t h a t a m o d e r n a u d i e n c e could e a s i l y
understand.
4.
A l t h o u g h the lack of o r g a n i c s tr u c t u r e is one of the
i n t e r e s t i n g q u a l i t i e s in this d r a m a form,
the i n d e p en de nt
stories s ho u l d c a s u a l l y p r o g r e s s fro m scene to scene, t h e r e b y
c r e a t i n g m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g d r a m a t i c unity.
r e c i t i n g his poems,
m a s t e r Nojang,
For instance, w h i l e
a m o k c h u n g in k w a j a n g 2 coul d m e n t i o n his
an d ref er to a tri ck d e s i g n e d to tarnish
N o j a n g 's r eputation.
This w o u l d p r o v i d e a smooth co nn e c t i o n
to k w a j a n g s 4 a n d 5, N o j a n g ' s scene and the lion's dance
scene.
In this manner,
the scenes could be related from the
b e g i n n i n g to the end of the play.
5.
required.
S y s t e m a t i c a l l y tr a i n i n g the actors should be
Al t h o u g h the play er s dan ce be au t i f u l l y and
i m p r o v i s e fun n y gestures, m a n y m o m en ts need sensitive acting.
A w k w a r d n e s s is one of the qu al i t i e s required in this ki n d of
f arc e drama,
but too mu ch a wk w ar dn es s bores an audience.
O t h e r changes,
too,
could be effected,
little by little,
to m a k e this d r a m a form a grea t religious festival in this
m o d e r n period.
G r e a t t h e a t e r artists alre ad y have d r e a m e d of
c r e a t i n g a m o d e r n e q u i v a l e n t of the G re e k festival spirit.
J e a n G e n e t b e l i e v e d tha t dra ma creates bea ut y out of
87
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e x c r e m e n t by employing e l e m e n t s of ritual:
l angu ag e and gesture.
vulgar,
mass.^^
the horrible,
T h e a t e r should,
rich and rhythmic
therefore,
p r e s e n t the
a n d th e o b s c e n e w i t h the c e r e m o n y of a
This c o n c e p t is r e l a t e d to S c h e c k n e r ' s
idea of
greater freedom a g a i n s t r e s t r a i n t s in m o d e r n ritu al drama.
K orea n m a s k - d a n c e d r a m a s h a v e m a n y q u a l i t i e s t h a t can
be d e v e l o p e d into a g r e a t r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l - d r a m a form:
farce w i t h vulgar it y,
language,
etc.
i m p r o v i s a t i o n a l d a n c e a n d mimes,
ric h
R e c o v e r i n g th e m o o d of p l a y i n g and m a k i n g a
better t r a d i t i o n a l d r a m a f o r m w o u l d be g r e a t e x p e r i m e n t s in
this m o d e r n p e r i o d b e c a u s e th e r e is no p e r m a n e n t fixed art
form an d the p a s t o f t e n b e c o m e s the future.
York:
l ^ B a r n a r d Hewitt, H i st or y of the Theater fro m 1800
R a n d o m House, 1970), p. 163.
88
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(New
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Pratt, Keith and B o n g - s o n g Song.
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