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Relevant Learning Objectives
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Know the layers of the Earth and understand the theory of plate tectonics.
Understand the complex processes of the water cycle and the basics of groundwater.
Understand how light can be reflected, refracted and absorbed.
Understand the basic structures of plant and animal cells and their functions.
Understand the characteristics all living things share.
Understand atoms and their components.
Understand the cause of the seasons.
Understand the conservation of matter.
Plan and conduct investigations using the scientific method.
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Know the layers of the Earth and understand the theory of plate tectonics.
Students should know the layers of the earth. They should also understand the processes and
results of the theory of plate tectonics as well as basic evidence that supports it.
Tutorial:
Layers of the Earth
The earth is made up of three main layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core. The crust is
the rocky outer layer that we live upon. It is the thinnest layer, just a few miles thick under
the ocean floor and about 20-40 miles thick under the continents. The earth’s solid crust
"floats" on the mantle, which is partially melted. The mantle is very thick compared to the
crust; at about 1800 miles deep, it makes up most of the earth’s volume. It is characterized
by extremely high temperatures and pressure. Below the mantle is the earth’s core, which is
composed of an outer layer of hot, liquid metal, and an inner core that is solid due to extreme
pressure. Its radius is about 2200 miles.
Activity 1: Modeling the Earth Layers
For this activity, you will need the following:
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Play dough or colored clay
Ask the student to use play dough or clay to make a model of the earth, representing the
relative thickness of the layers as accurately as possible. Have him or her cut the model in
half to observe the cross section. Discuss the characteristics of each of the different layers.
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
The theory of continental drift was proposed in the early 1900s. It stated that the
continents we know today were once one giant supercontinent called Pangaea. About 200
million years ago, it split, and the continents drifted apart. According to this theory, they have
been drifting apart ever since. This means that the continents are still moving today!
In later decades, as scientists gained new technology and knowledge, a new theory was
developed that incorporated the theory of continental drift. This new theory is called the
theory of plate tectonics. This theory describes how the earth’s crust and upper mantle are
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broken into ‘plates’ that are continuously moving atop the more mobile mantle below them.
Scientists have found evidence in support of these two theories. The student should be
familiar with the following:
1. Shape of Continents
Look at a globe or world map together. Observe how the shapes of the continents’
coastlines appear to roughly fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. For example,
examine South America and Africa. See if the student can find a way that all of the
continents would fit together. Below is a graphic of the proposed landmass, Pangaea.
Look at other ways that the continents offer evidence that they were once attached
besides their general shapes. For example, notice the locations of mountain ranges and
how some would line up if the continents were moved together.
2. Fossil Evidence
Scientists have also found similar fossils in areas of different continents separated by
oceans. It is unlikely that the organisms could have crossed the oceans, and their
presence in both locations could be explained if the continents were once joined as a
single landmass. Fossils of tropical plants have also been found in arctic regions, which
could be explained by this theory.
3. Natural Phenomena and Landforms Created at Plate Boundaries by Plate Movement
Evidence of the movement of plates can be seen at their boundaries due to the events
and land formations that occur there. For example, presently and throughout history,
volcanic and seismic (earthquake) activity consistently occur along the borders of the
earth’s plates. Mountains and trenches in the ocean are also formed where plates meet.
The actual movement of plates and the events and landforms that result are the focus of
the rest of this tutorial.
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Plate Boundaries and Movement
Where the plates of the earth meet, they must either move apart, together, or alongside one
another. There are two types of plates: oceanic and continental. The oceanic plates are
more dense than the continental ones. Depending on which types of plates interact at a
certain kind of boundary, we get different results. Have the student do the following activity to
learn the various effects.
Activity 2: Demonstrating Plate Movement
For this activity, you will need the following:
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Peanut butter
2 green apples
2 red apples
Cut the apples all the way through into flat slices about 1/2 inch thick so they retain their
shape without easily bending. Use the larger, round slices (instead of the small end pieces
that are covered with peel.) Cut some irregular edges on the slices, while leaving some peel to
differentiate between red and green apples.
Ask the student to place a large glob of peanut butter on a plate, and spread it to form a thick
layer. Explain that the peanut butter represents the earth’s mantle. Ask if he or she knows
what the apple slices will represent. (Answer: the earth’s plates) The more dense oceanic
plates will be represented by the red apple slices, and the less dense continental plates will
be represented by the green apple slices. As you discuss the three types of plate boundaries
and different ways the plates move, have the student use the Internet, encyclopedias, or the
diagrams given to help create a visual of what is happening. Then encourage him or her to
demonstrate each of these by moving the apple slices on the peanut butter in the appropriate
ways.
1. Convergent plate boundaries: These are what we call boundaries where plates move
toward each other. There are three kinds, based on the types of plates involved. The US
Geological Survey and About.com both have good diagrams of the various convergent
boundaries.
(www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/usgsnps/pltec/converge.html)
(http://geology.about.com/library/bl/blnutshell_convergence.htm)
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One continental and one oceanic (green-red): The denser oceanic plate
subducts (or moves) under the lighter continental plate, forcing it upward. Discuss
that the raised continental plate can form a mountain range, while the oceanic
plate creates a trench, that is, a steep walled valley, in the ocean floor. Ask the
student what he or she thinks happens as the plates grind against one another.
Earthquakes occur and friction causes rock to melt. As molten rock floats upward
and cools, volcanoes form in the mountain range above. This is how the Andes
Mountains formed. What sort of geographical location would characterize
mountains formed this way? (Hint: Find the Andes Mountains on a map.) They are
coastal, thus close to the ocean, because oceanic plates are involved in their
formation.
Two continental plates (green-green): When these plates collide, neither is
pushed down since both are relatively light. Therefore, instead, they may buckle
upward, fold (bend) or fault (crack) if they are bent too far. Ask the student to try
and demonstrate each of these actions. Explain that this is how many mountains
formed, including the Himalayas.
Two oceanic plates (red-red): These denser plates sink downward when they
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collide, forming a deep trench in the ocean floor. If one is forced under the other,
the friction can cause rock to melt, forming volcanoes on the upper plate in a
manner similar to the example above with continent and ocean plates. This is how
the Japanese Islands were formed.
2. Divergent plate boundaries: These are characterized by plates pulling apart. The student
should know when this occurs between two oceanic plates.
 Two oceanic plates (red-red): When oceanic plates move apart, a rift, or split,
forms in the earth’s crust and lava flows upward into the crack. When it cools and
hardens, new rock forms, adding to the ocean floor. The theory of sea floor
spreading explains how this happens at an area called a mid-ocean ridge. The
University of Wisconsin - Stevens Point has a Physical environment website that
has an animation of this process.
(www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/glossary/s_u/sea_flr_spread.html)
Have the student try to demonstrate this using a slice of red apple cracked down
the middle.
3. Transform plate boundaries: These occur where plates slide past one another. These
boundaries can occur when plates slide against each other in opposite directions, or
when they move in the same direction at different speeds. When they slip violently
against one another, earthquakes occur. The San Andreas fault is a transform plate
boundary—it is the site of many earthquakes along North America’s west coast.
 Various combinations of plates: Encourage the student to demonstrate
movement and transform plate boundaries using a combination of different types
of plates.
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In this activity, the student demonstrated different ways that movement can occur at plate
boundaries and the effects of these movements. Review the ways various landforms are
formed, and use the Internet or encyclopedias to look up photographs of some of the
examples of landforms listed above, such as the San Andreas fault shown above. This will help
him or her better visualize the effects of plate movement on the earth’s surface.
Review:
Describe the earth’s layers.
What is the theory of plate tectonics?
Give evidence of plate tectonics.
Explain the different types of plate movement.
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Understand the complex processes of the water cycle and the basics of
groundwater.
Students should understand the complex processes of the water cycle: transpiration, runoff,
and percolation. This includes knowing the basics of groundwater, including where it is found,
how it travels, and how it becomes polluted.
Tutorial:
The student has already learned about the basic water cycle - including evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation. Briefly review this basic cycle if necessary. Now he or she is
going to learn about three other processes involved in the water cycle: transpiration, runoff,
and percolation.
1. Transpiration
Plants release water vapor into the air through a process called transpiration. A plant
takes water in through its roots; the water travels up its stems and out its leaves into
the air. How much water a plant releases into the air depends on many factors (i.e. the
size of the plant, the humidity and temperature around the plant, etc.). A large oak tree
can transpire about 40,000 gallons of water in one year!
Activity 1: Demonstrating Transpiration
For this activity, you will need the following:
 A plant
 A clear plastic bag
 A tie for the plastic bag
In the morning, cover the plant or part of the plant that has leaves with a clear plastic
bag. Be careful not to crush the leaves. Securely fasten the bag around the stem or a
branch of the plant with a tie so that the water vapor cannot escape. Be sure that the
plant is watered and set it in a sunny location. At the end of the day, check the plant.
What do you notice? You should find water inside the plastic bag. Why? The water that
the leaves of the plant released through transpiration has been trapped and collected in
the bag.
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Ask the student how this process fits into what he or she already knows about the water
cycle. Point out that this process plays a similar role as evaporation since it also releases
water vapor into the atmosphere.
2. Runoff
When precipitation falls to the earth, it does not stop moving. Some of it, including
melted snow, flows on the surface of the earth. This water travels from high areas to low
areas eventually merging with streams, lakes, oceans, creeks, etc. This movement of
water is called runoff.
3. Percolation (also called infiltration or seepage)
Some of the precipitation and melted snow also seeps into the ground through soil and
rock. This process is called percolation. Water percolates through the ground by moving
along and through cracks in rocks and between spaces in sand and soil. It fills these
spaces in a way similar to how it fills the spaces in a sponge. Think of what would
happen if you poured water on a pile of sand. Where would the water go? It seeps into
the spaces between the particles of sand! This is how water gets into the ground for the
roots of plants to take in and also into our wells in the ground. Not all materials in the
ground have large enough spaces to let water through. Also, how quickly the water
moves through materials is affected by the size of the spaces as well as how well these
spaces are connected to one another. Once water is underground, it is called
groundwater. The rest of this tutorial will cover groundwater in more detail.
Groundwater
Sometimes groundwater will flow through the ground and eventually merge with other flowing
water, such as a stream or river. Other times it becomes stored underground in aquifers. An
aquifer consists of layers of soil, sand, and rocks that allow water to flow through them
(porous rock) such as gravel, sand, sandstone and limestone. Water in an aquifer is brought
to the surface of the earth in both natural ways, such as a spring, and manmade ways, such
as a well. Many people use groundwater for their drinking water or to irrigate crops. Review
the following graphic and terms related to aquifers with the student:
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Saturation Zone: The part of the aquifer that is filled with water.
Water table: The top of the saturation zone. In other words, the point to where the
groundwater fills the aquifer. The water table falls as the aquifer loses groundwater (i.e.
if water is drawn out of it through a well) and rises as more water is added to the
aquifer (i.e. after it is recharged or replenished with water from a rainstorm). The water
table can be just below the surface of the earth or it can be hundreds of feet below it.
Well: A hole drilled into an aquifer. A well removes water from an aquifer, either using a
pump or through natural pressures that force the water up. However, if the water table
of the aquifer falls below the well, the well will go dry.
Activity 2: Making an aquifer
For this activity, you will need the following:
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2 clear glasses
Sand
Gravel or aquarium rocks (It is best if these are cleaned and dried first to remove any
dust.)
A cleaned pump from an old bottle of soap, lotion, etc.
A small container to catch pumped water in
Have the student fill the bottom of each glass with a layer of sand. Then place a layer of
gravel on top of this. Create alternating layers of sand and gravel in this fashion until the
glass is about 3/4 full. Explain that this will represent an aquifer, which consists of layers of
porous materials such as sand, soil, gravel, and certain rocks. Now do the following steps
together:
1. Pour a little water slowly into the glass and have the student observe what happens. Ask
where the water goes. Help him or her recognize that it fills the spaces between the
particles of sand and the individual pieces of gravel. Now ask if the water travels faster
through the layers of sand or gravel? Why? He or she should note that it moves faster
through the gravel because there are larger spaces between the gravel pieces than
between the sand particles.
2. Continue adding water to the aquifer until the water level is about an inch below the top
of the sand and gravel layers. Ask the student where the water table and the saturation
zone are in this aquifer. He or she should point out that the water table is the top line of
the water and the saturation zone is the area below this line that is filled with water.
3. Drill a well using a cleaned pump from an old bottle of lotion, soap, etc. Push the pump
into the layers of sand and gravel until it is well below the water table. Have the student
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pump water out of the aquifer into a small container. Ask what happens to the water
table as he or she uses the "well." It goes down! This is what happens when we pump
water from our wells.
4. Now that you have depleted some of the water in the aquifer, ask the student how it will
be replenished. Precipitation or water from melted snow will do this. Have him or her
add more water to the aquifer, imagining that it is a heavy rainstorm, and then watch
how the groundwater is recharged or replenished by this action.
5. Have the student continue the "storm" until the water level is above the "aquifer." Ask
which water is surface water and which is groundwater. He or she should recognize that
the water above the aquifer (representing the surface of the earth) is surface water,
while that below is groundwater.
Polluting Groundwater
Groundwater can become polluted and therefore unsafe. This happens when contaminants
from above ground enter the soil and rock and seep below ground, eventually reaching an
aquifer and the groundwater stored there. For example, a farmer uses pesticides and
fertilizers to aid the growth of his crops. Later it rains on his or her fields, washing away these
chemicals. These chemicals eventually find their way to a source of groundwater.
Contaminated groundwater can cause poisoning and serious diseases, such as hepatitis. It
also can impact the health of wildlife. Once a source of groundwater is polluted, it is very
difficult and expensive to fix. It is best to take preventative steps to avoid contaminating our
groundwater.
Activity 3: Demonstrating the Contamination of Groundwater
For this activity, you will need the following:
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The aquifer created above
Powdered drink mix
Access to the Internet or encyclopedias
Have the student pump most of the water out of the aquifer used in activity one. Have him or
her sprinkle some powdered drink mix on top of the aquifer. This will represent a contaminant
on the surface of the earth. Have the student create another rainstorm by pouring some water
into the glass. What happens? The groundwater in the aquifer became polluted by the drink
mix.
Inform the student that groundwater is contaminated by both the careless use of and the
improper disposal of potential pollutants. Ask what kinds of things he or she thinks might
contaminate groundwater. After making some guesses, have the student research the most
common sources of groundwater contamination using the Internet or encyclopedias. Examples
are landfills, hazardous waste sites, septic systems, storage tanks (i.e. for gasoline, oil, etc.)
and widespread use of road salt, fertilizers, and pesticides. End by having him or her identify
activities or sites around the school that may pollute aquifers near you.
Review:
Describe transpiration, runoff, and percolation.
What is groundwater? Where is it stored? How does it become polluted?
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Understand how light can be reflected, refracted and absorbed.
Students should understand how light can be reflected, refracted and absorbed. This includes
knowing the composition of white light and how we see objects and colors.
Tutorial:
For this activity, you will need the following:
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A small flashlight (or a larger one and duct tape)
A mirror
A smooth glass
A pencil
A magnifying glass (optional)
Access to the Internet or encyclopedias (optional)
Briefly review with the student what he or she has learned in earlier grades about light: it is a
form of energy that travels in waves, it travels in a straight line until it hits something, and
some objects can reflect it or cause it to bounce back (i.e. a mirror or a shiny metal spoon).
Today the student will learn about three possible behaviors of light when it strikes an object:
it can be reflected by the object, it can pass through the object, and it can be absorbed by the
object. Let’s examine each of these in turn.
1. When light is reflected:
Though the student has already explored how some objects reflect or "bounce back" light in
earlier grades, he or she should now learn about the law of reflection. The student should
recall that light travels in waves and we often refer to a wave of light as a light ray. When
light strikes the surface of an object, its rays are reflected in a predictable manner described
by the law of reflection. This law states that the angle at which a light ray strikes an object,
called the angle of incidence, is equal to the angle at which the light ray is bounced away from
the mirror, called the angle of reflection. These two angles are measured with respect to an
imaginary perpendicular line drawn to the surface of the object as shown in the diagram
below:
Have the student explore this law with a small flashlight and a mirror by placing the mirror on
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a tabletop in a dark room. Then have him or her shine the flashlight at various angles onto the
mirror and note the resulting angle of reflection of the light off of the mirror. He or she can
test this by observing where the reflected light strikes the ceiling or wall. NOTE: This
experiment works best if the beam of light from the flashlight is relatively focused. If you only
have a large flashlight, try covering the front of the flashlight with duct tape, in effect,
blocking the light bulb. Then poke a hole in the duct tape to allow a small beam of light to
pass through.
Ask the student to think of ways that we use this predictable nature of light. A great example
is a periscope. We angle the mirrors inside a periscope in a specific way in order to control the
path of light so that we can see around corners. The boy below is using a simple periscope to
look at a bird’s nest over a fence.
2. When light passes through an object:
When light passes from air through an object, the light rays can be bent. This is called
refraction. When light travels from one type of substance into another, it changes speed. If
the light ray strikes the new material straight on and not at an angle, the light continues to
travel in the same direction, just at a different speed; however, if the light ray strikes the new
material at an angle, the change in speed causes the light ray to bend or change direction.
The student has probably experienced the effects of this phenomenon before. Has he or she
ever stood in the shallow end of a pool and looked at his or her legs and noticed that they
don’t look quite right? Or has the student ever been taking a bath and tried to pick up a toy
that was underwater and noticed that it wasn’t quite where he or she thought that it was?
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Such seeming mysteries are due to the refraction of light. Demonstrate one such effect of
refraction with the following experiment:
Fill a smooth glass about three-quarters full with water (A cut or angled glass will not
work). Place a pencil in the glass, allowing it to lean against the side of the glass. Part of
the pencil should be above the water line in the glass. If not, remove some of the water.
Have the student look at the pencil through the side of the glass. What does the student
notice? The pencil appears to be broken or bent right at the point where the water
meets the air. Why? When light traveling in the air enters the water, a new substance, it
slows down a little. For all of the light rays that enter the water at an angle instead of
straight on, this change of speed causes them to bend or change direction (to refract).
When the light changes direction, it affects the way we see things - like the pencil.
Refraction occurs any time light travels through one thing into another - one does not have to
be air; however, both things do have to allow light through. For example, since cardboard
does not allow light to pass through it, it will not be involved in refraction. Ask the student to
think of some materials that allow light to pass through. Air, water, cooking oil, and glass are
common examples.
Ask the student to think of tools that are designed to use the refraction of light. Things with
lenses are great examples, such as eyeglasses, telescopes, microscopes, and binoculars. For
example, we use a magnifying glass to make things appear bigger than they really are. If you
have one, have him or her examine the shape of the glass in a magnifying glass. It is thicker
in the middle and thinner at the edges. This shape results in the refraction of light that we
desire. If the student is interested in lenses, he or she can research the characteristics and
uses of convex and concave lenses on the Internet or in encyclopedias.
Rainbows: A special example of refraction
Refraction also explains why we see rainbows. If white light is bent or refracted enough, its
component colors will be separated out in a way that allows us to clearly see them.
White light is actually composed of light rays of all of the colors of the rainbow: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet (the acronym of these colors is known as ROY G BIV).
Each of these colors has a wave with a different wavelength. Therefore, when light passes
from one substance into another, the speed of the different colors or wavelengths of light is
affected differently, and each color bends a different amount. Usually this difference is
insignificant to our eyes. The colors are still close enough together that we cannot distinguish
them, and we still see white light. However, in some cases, the differences that the various
colors refract or bend are significant enough so that our eyes can clearly see all of the
different colors that compose white light -- and we see the spectrum or a rainbow. Scientists
use prisms, which are specially shaped and cut pieces of glass, to create rainbows as shown
below:
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If the conditions are right, raindrops are also able to refract sunlight enough so that their
component colors are separated in a way that allows us to clearly see them. This is when we
see a rainbow in the sky. How Stuff Works at
http://science.howstuffworks.com/rainbow2.htm, has a great website that describes this
phenomenon.
3. When light is absorbed:
When light strikes something, it can also be absorbed. When light is absorbed, its energy is
changed. It is transformed into heat energy. The color that something appears to us does not
come from the object itself but from which light rays it absorbs and which light rays it reflects.
As you learned above, white light is actually composed of the colors of the spectrum: red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. An object that appears red absorbs the rays
associated with the other colors of the spectrum but reflects the red ones. Therefore, only the
red rays "bounce off" the object and reach our eyes, so the object appears red.
Without any light to reflect, any object would appear black. Black is really the absence of any
of the colors of visible light. Have the student think of when he or she is looking into a dark
room before turning on the light. Everything in the room appears black even though the
student can see fine from his or her vantage point outside the room. This is because there is
no light in the room to reflect off the objects and enter his or her eyes. When the lights are
turned on in the dark room, everything changes and objects become colored now that light
can be reflected off them into his or her eyes.
Briefly check the student’s understanding by asking him or her to explain why grass appears
green. He or she should note that the grass is absorbing the waves of all of the other colors of
the spectrum, but reflecting the green ones. Now ask the student to think about why white
and black objects look the way they do. Guide him or her to the realization that black objects
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absorb all of the colors of the spectrum while white ones reflect them all. Think of when you
are walking barefoot on a sunny day. Which is hotter to walk on - a light-colored sidewalk or
the blacktop of a road? The blacktop will be hotter because it is absorbing all of the light rays
that are hitting it and converting these into heat. Meanwhile, the light-colored sidewalk is
reflecting the light rays that are hitting it and not getting this extra converted heat.
.
Review:
What is the law of reflection?
Explain what happens when light is refracted.
Why does a red shirt look red?
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Understand the basic structures of plant and animal cells and their functions.
Students should understand that the cell is the basic unit of life. They should be able to
identify the basic organelles of plant and animal cells and their functions. This includes
differentiating between plant and animal cells as well as between multicellular and unicellular
organisms.
Tutorial:
For this tutorial, you will need the following:
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Access to the Internet, encyclopedias, or biology textbooks
Paper and colored pencils for drawing cells and taking notes
If the student decides to build a model of a "cell city" or "cell factory" instead of drawing
one, you will need the appropriate materials
Discuss with the student that cells are the fundamental unit of life and that all living things are
made of cells. Some living things are unicellular, like bacteria, and have only one cell. Others,
like humans, are multicellular, or made up of more than one cell. However, all cells are not
the same. Plant and animal cells are the two types of cells about which the student is going to
learn. These cells have organelles, or distinct parts, that perform specific functions necessary
to the cell.
Have the student use the Internet, textbooks, or encyclopedias to accomplish the following
tasks:
Draw a picture of a plant cell and a picture of an animal cell, labeling the organelles listed
below that are found in each.
 Write a brief summary of the main function of each organelle.
 Note a few differences between plant and animal cells, such as organelles found in one and
not the other, or differences between organelles that are found in both plant and animal cells.
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The Cell Organelles:
cell membrane (the gatekeeper - it decides what goes in and out of the cell; surrounds
both cell types)
cell wall (supports and protects plant cells)
nucleus (control center in both cell types)
cytoplasm (includes all the organelles, except the nucleus, and the jelly-like substance,
called the cytosol, in which they ’float’; is found in both cell types)
chloroplast (where photosynthesis takes place; found only in plant cells)
vacuole (storage center; is found in both types of cells, but there is a large central
vacuole in plant cells)
lysosome (digests or breaks down old proteins, foreign substances, and waste; more
common in animal cells than plant cells)
mitochondria (provides energy that the cells need; found in both cell types)
ribosome (makes proteins in both cell types)
endoplasmic reticulum (packages materials to transport to other parts of the cell; is
found in both cell types)
golgi body, apparatus, or complex (is involved in making lipids and proteins as well as
transporting materials; is found in both cell types)
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Once the student has researched the basics, have him or her compare the cell to something
familiar, such as a city or a factory. He or she should think about which part or parts function
for a city or a factory as each cell organelle does for the cell. For example, ask, "What part of
the city is the control center of a city like the nucleus is in a cell?" The student may answer
the mayor or city hall. After he or she has made an appropriate analogy for each organelle
being studied, have him or her build or draw a model "cell city" or "cell factory" for either a
plant or an animal cell.
Suggested Resources:
 Cells Alive at www.cellsalive.com is a good resource for this grade level. It has clear visuals
of plant and animal cells and uses simpler language than many other biology sites.
 Wikipedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page is a free online encyclopedia that also
has good information about the cell.
Review:
What are the parts of an animal cell, and what is the function of each?
What are some differences between plant and animal cells?
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Understand the characteristics all living things share.
Students should know the characteristics that all living things share, such as obtaining and
using resources, growing, and reproducing. They should also be able to recognize how various
living things demonstrate these characteristics.
Tutorial:
For this tutorial, you will need the following:
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A piece of paper
A pen or pencil
Access to encyclopedias or the Internet
Have the student list five living things that are very different, such as a cow, a snake, a
cactus, moss, and bacteria. Now have him or her think of what characteristics all of these
things share that make them alive and then list his or her thoughts. Once this is completed,
explain that scientists do not completely agree on which characteristics all living things share.
However, let the student know that there are some generally accepted concepts, though they
may be phrased and categorized differently. Review the following concepts and compare them
to his or her thoughts.
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All living things are composed of cells.
All living things grow and develop. This sometimes includes the fact that at some point
in its life cycle, a living thing will die.
All living things reproduce, producing young that are similar to themselves.
All living things are aware of their environments and respond to them. For example,
bears hibernate during the winter, many plants grow towards light, we put on warmer
clothes when we are cold, etc. This characteristic of life is often called sensitivity or
responding to stimuli.
All living things obtain resources from their environments to get the energy they require
to stay alive. This can be worded in various ways, such as metabolism, require energy,
take in and use nutrients, etc. Scientists sometimes include exchanging gases with the
environment, such as respiration, in this category and sometimes treat it as its own
characteristic.
All living things remove waste from their bodies. For example, humans remove the liquid
waste, urine, from their bodies and exhale the waste gas carbon dioxide. The technical
term for such waste removal is excretion.
All living things are capable of movement. This can be internal and/or external
movement. An example of internal movement is a plant moving nutrients its roots have
obtained to its leaves. An example of external movement is a frog jumping from one lily
pad to another.
After you have reviewed and defined the characteristics that all living things share, mention
that for something to be considered alive, it must have all of the characteristics of life,
however they are defined. But, there are a wide variety of ways that living things portray
these characteristics. Reinforce this concept by having the student research examples of how
the five organisms that were listed earlier in the activity demonstrate each of these
characteristics. He or she can use encyclopedias or the Internet.
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Tell the student that it is also important to recognize that many nonliving things, such as
carpet and glass, have none of the characteristics of life, others may demonstrate a few of
them. For example, lava can move and a mountain can grow. The key is that nonliving things
will never have all of the characteristics of life.
Scientists are still debating whether viruses are living or nonliving. Have the student research
viruses and form his or her own opinion on the matter.
Review:
What characteristics do all living things share?
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Understand atoms and their components.
Students should understand the atomic model and the properties of protons, neutrons, and
electrons. They should also know the relationships among atoms, elements, and compounds.
Tutorial:
For this activity, you will need the following:


Access to encyclopedias or the Internet
Materials for a model of an atom (such as marshmallows, beads, string, and pipe
cleaners)
The Basics of Atomic Structure:
All matter is made of microscopic structures called atoms. An atom is made up of three
smaller particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons exist in the
center of the atom in what is called the nucleus. Electrons are in constant motion and move
around the nucleus in ’shells’. Each shell is defined by its distance from the nucleus and can
hold a given number of electrons. For example, the first shell is closest to the nucleus and can
hold two electrons. The second shell is next, and it can hold eight electrons. Electrons fill the
shell closest to the nucleus first, then fill the next one, and so on.
Each particle in an atom has a charge associated with it. A proton has a positive charge, an
electron has a negative charge, and a neutron is neutral, meaning it has no charge. In every
atom, the total charge is zero. Therefore, the number of electrons and protons need to be the
same. For example, if an atom has three protons, it will have three electrons.
Protons and neutrons are larger than electrons and have about the same mass. Their mass is
about 1800 times that of an electron. Therefore, most of the mass of an atom is in the
nucleus. However, the nucleus is a very tiny portion of the overall volume of the atom.
Elements and Compounds:
An element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances. They are made
up of atoms of one kind - identified by their unique number of protons. For example, all
oxygen atoms have eight protons. This gives each element unique properties as well.
A compound is a substance which is formed when atoms of two or more different elements
are chemically combined. Compounds have different properties than the elements of which
they are comprised. For example, water is made up of atoms of the elements hydrogen and
oxygen. Water is a liquid that cannot be set on fire. However, hydrogen is flammable, and
both oxygen and hydrogen are gases.
Activity:
Have the student find pictures of atomic structures and answer any other basic questions that
he or she has about atomic structure by reading encyclopedias or looking on the Internet.
Chem4kids at www.chemkids.com/files/atom_structure.html is a great site for this age level.
After the student has completed the research, have him or her select one of the first ten
elements: hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, or
neon. (These elements have a reasonable number of particles for the student’s model and use
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only the first two electron shells.) Then have him or her research how many protons,
electrons, and neutrons an atom of the chosen element has and how the electrons would be
arranged. The bottom of the elements page at Chem4kids has a list of the first 18 elements
and links that discuss their properties and structures.
Then have the student build a model of an atom of the selected element. Make sure he or she
chooses appropriate materials. For example, the materials that represent the protons and
neutrons should be about the same size, while those representing electrons should be smaller.
Different sized beads or large and mini marshmallows work well.
Those materials representing the protons and neutrons should be placed in a circle or sphere
which represents the nucleus. An outer ring, often made of pipe cleaners or string, should be
created to represent the edge of the first electron shell of the atom. Beads or marshmallows,
or whatever material the student is using as models of electrons, can be strung on this outer
edge or can be placed or hung in the space between the edge of the nucleus and the outer
ring to represent the electrons which exist in the first shell. If there are electrons in the
second shell in the atom, he or she should create another outer ring and place the appropriate
number of electrons in this shell in the same way.
Review:
What is the structure of an atom?
What are the properties of the smaller particles of which atoms are composed?
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Understand the cause of the seasons.
Students should know how the tilt of the Earth on its axis as it rotates causes the seasons.
Tutorial:
Remind the student that the Earth orbits around the sun - it takes a year to do one complete
orbit. The Earth also spins once every 24 hours. This is how we get night and day. Now share
with the student that the Earth is not straight up and down in relation to the sun as it moves;
it is tilted! This is why we experience seasons each year.
The Tilt of the Earth and the Seasons
Show the student the picture of the Earth below. Point out how the Earth is tilted. Imagine
drawing a line through the Earth from the North Pole to the South Pole. This line will not be
perpendicular to the orbit of the Earth. It is tilted to the side by about 23.5 degrees!
Now have the student look at the diagram of the Earth orbiting the sun (provided below).
Have him or her notice how the North Pole always points in the same direction. The Earth’s tilt
remains constant as it orbits the sun!
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Point out to the student that the northern hemisphere is the half of the Earth above the
equator, while the southern hemisphere is the half below the equator. Now ask him or her to
select where in the above diagram the northern hemisphere of the earth is leaning toward the
sun. He or she should realize that picture #1 shows this. Ask which season he or she thinks
people in this hemisphere are experiencing at this time. Summer! When the northern
hemisphere is leaning toward the sun, it receives more direct sunlight. Therefore, it is warmer
and the days are longer. Picture #1 actually represents the summer solstice in the northern
hemisphere - the first day of summer when the North Pole leans more directly toward the sun
than it does during any other day of the year.
Now ask the student which season the southern hemisphere is probably experiencing at this
same time. Winter! Since it is leaning away from the sun, it receives more indirect sunlight.
Therefore, it is cooler and the days are shorter. While one hemisphere is receiving direct
sunlight the other is receiving indirect sunlight. This is why the seasons in the northern and
southern hemispheres are opposite. Picture #1 actually represents the winter solstice in the
southern hemisphere - the first day of winter when the South Pole leans more directly away
from the sun than it does during any other day of the year.
Now ask the student to find the picture that represents when summer occurs in the southern
hemisphere and winter occurs in the northern hemisphere. Picture #3, which is six months
later, is the correct answer. It shows the winter solstice in the northern hemisphere and the
summer solstice in the southern hemisphere.
Fall and spring are really transition seasons between winter and summer. They begin at the
autumnal (fall) and vernal (spring) equinoxes, respectively. These occur when the sun
appears directly over the equator, despite the tilt of the Earth, and thus both hemispheres
receive equal solar energy. Have the student notice how in pictures #2 and #4 the poles of
the Earth are neither pointing toward or away from the sun! Picture #2 represents the
autumnal equinox for the northern hemisphere. As the Earth approaches picture #2 in its
orbit, the northern hemisphere is pointing toward the sun. As the Earth continues its orbit and
moves beyond picture #2, the northern hemisphere will be pointing away from the sun!
Therefore, picture number #2 is the transition point. The reverse is true for the southern
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hemisphere in picture #2. Picture #2 represents the vernal equinox for the southern
hemisphere. As the Earth approaches picture #2 in its orbit, the southern hemisphere is
pointing away from the sun. As the Earth continues its orbit and moves beyond picture #2,
the southern hemisphere will be pointing toward the sun!
Now ask the student what he or she thinks picture #4 represents for each hemisphere. The
student should realize that it represents the vernal equinox or the first day of spring for the
northern hemisphere and the autumnal equinox or the first day of fall for the southern
hemisphere.
Activity: Modeling the Seasons
For this activity, you will need the following:

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Light source, such as a lamp, light bulb, flashlight, etc.
A globe or ball
A writing utensil to mark the ball if necessary
Have the student use a fixed source of light (a lamp, light bulb, flashlight, etc.) to represent
the sun and a ball or globe to represent the Earth. If you do not have a globe, be sure that he
or she can mark appropriately the equator, northern hemisphere, southern hemisphere, North
Pole, and South Pole on the ball. Now ask him or her to model the movement of the Earth and
point out the seasons of each hemisphere while doing so. The student should be sure to keep
the Earth’s axis tilted appropriately while orbiting the "sun" (your light source). He or she
should also spin the Earth on its axis to represent the spin of the Earth that creates day and
night. This spinning should be quick relative to the yearly orbit of the Earth around the sun!
Fun Review
The student can test his or her new knowledge online. Have him or her identify the correct
positions of the Earth for seasons in the northern hemisphere on National Geographic’s
website . Web address in full:
National Geographic:
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/activities/07/popup/cosmic.html
Review:
What causes the seasons of the Earth?
Describe the placement of the Earth during each season for both hemispheres of the Earth.
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Understand the conservation of matter.
Students should understand and know how to demonstrate the conservation of matter.
Tutorial:
The Law of Conservation of Matter is the basis of more complicated chemistry in later grades
and is a concept that the student should understand. It states that matter cannot be created
or destroyed; it can only change forms. The student has already learned that matter can
change forms when the student studied chemical changes. Point out that a chemical change
occurs when materials react and new substances are formed. This represents matter changing
form.
The first part of the law (matter cannot be created or destroyed) means that during any
chemical reaction, the total mass of the materials before the reaction will be equal to the total
mass of the materials after the reaction is complete. If you had the appropriate materials, you
could prove this law. For example, let’s say that you measure 50 grams of baking soda and 50
grams of vinegar. Therefore, you are starting with 100 grams of material. Then you place a
glass on a balance and reset the balance to zero, so that you can disregard the mass of the
glass. Next, you mix the baking soda and vinegar in the glass and watch them interact and
bubble. After the chemical reaction is complete, you read the balance to record the mass of
the material left in the glass. Will it equal 100 grams? Actually, it won’t. You have to be sure
that you have measured the mass of all material that was part of the reaction - and at this
point we have not included the gas that "bubbled" and left the glass during the reaction. You
would have to trap this gas in a balloon as it left the glass and then be sure that you
accurately measured its mass. When you added this to the mass of the material left in the
glass, it would be 100 grams.
Although this law is easy to prove in a school science laboratory, it is difficult to successfully
do so at home. Certain methods and instruments are needed to get accurate measurements.
You must also remember to include all materials involved in a reaction, such as containers
used, that happened to react with the substances in them, and any invisible gases that are
produced. Sometimes this is not obvious.
We can also think of the Law of Conservation of Matter in terms of atoms instead of mass. If
matter is not destroyed or created, the number of atoms of each element should not be
affected by a chemical reaction - only how they are combined. It is the recombining or
rearranging of the atoms during a chemical reaction that allow new materials to be produced.
If we write a chemical reaction using atoms, we can balance the equation appropriately as
well as notice material we may have neglected to include, such as the gas in the baking soda
and vinegar example. Let’s look at a simple example: hydrogen peroxide breaking down into
water and oxygen.
Hydrogen peroxide is made of 2 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms. Water is 2 hydrogen
atoms and 1 oxygen atom. Oxygen gas is made up of only oxygen atoms. However, oxygen
atoms usually travel in pairs. So, oxygen is written as 2 oxygen atoms. When we write a
chemical equation, we put the materials we have before the reaction on the left and the
resulting materials on the right. The arrow in the middle indicates that a chemical change
occurred. Below is how the equation looks:
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Now, if we count the atoms, we can see that there are 2 hydrogen atoms on both sides of the
equation. However, there is a different number of oxygen atoms on the right and left sides of
the arrow. Therefore, something is wrong. If we add a 2 in front of the hydrogen peroxide and
the water molecule, everything balances:
Now that the equation is balanced, we know that for every 2 molecules of hydrogen peroxide,
2 of water and 1 of oxygen are created. What if we had originally forgotten to include the
oxygen gas in this equation? The equation would never have balanced. Try it. Remove the
oxygen from the equation and try various numbers to balance it. No matter what numbers
you add before the hydrogen peroxide and water molecules, the number of hydrogen and
oxygen atoms will not be equal on both sides. This would help you realize that something is
missing from the equation. Then you could go back and look closer at the reaction to find the
mistake.
Review:
What is the Law of Conservation of Matter?
How could you prove this law in a science lab?
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Plan and conduct investigations using the scientific method.
Students should plan and conduct investigations using the scientific method. This includes
doing research, identifying a problem, developing a hypothesis or experimental question,
designing an appropriate investigation, performing the investigation, and drawing a
conclusion.
Tutorial:
The student has already learned and practiced many inquiry skills, such as forming
hypotheses and gathering data. Now he or she is going to learn how these skills are part of
the scientific method.
As scientists attempt to learn more about the world around us, they use a certain process: the
scientific method. This process involves the following steps: research, identify a problem, form
a hypothesis, design an experiment, perform the experiment, and draw a conclusion.
1. Research
First, the student should select a topic that he or she is interested in exploring and
wants to address. In order to do this, the student needs to do research! A great way to
do this is to let personal experiences and observations guide him or her. For example,
maybe the student has noticed that many students in his or her first period class act
very differently when in fifth period class. He or she would then gather relevant
information about this topic, using as many resources as possible. In addition to
traditional resources (i.e. encyclopedias, books, the Internet, etc.), the student should
use his or her own preliminary observations. For example, after making more
observations, he or she may notice that it seems that the students who don’t eat lunch,
but instead buy snacks and soda from the vending machines, are much more rowdy in
fifth period than first period. NOTE: This step is an integral part of the scientific method
and continues as the student works through the method.
2. Identify a Problem
Point out that the student learned that asking a question to which he or she does not
know the answer is the first step of forming a hypothesis. It is also the next step in the
scientific method. Using the research the student has gathered about his or her topic, he
or she should identify a problem - the scientific question he or she wishes to address.
The problem should be something that requires experimentation to answer it, not just
research. For example, "What is a reptile?" could be answered by looking in an
encyclopedia. The problem should also be open-ended and not just require a "yes" or
"no" answer. An example of a poor problem would be, "Does Joey act differently after
lunch?" because this is a close-ended question. Finally, the problem should also be
focused enough so that the student can address it in a single experiment. For example,
the question, "Why do students act differently in fifth period?" is too broad. A more
focused problem would be, "How does the consumption of soda affect student behavior
in the classroom?"
3. Form a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess that scientists use to guide their investigations. The
student should use his or her research again, and do more if necessary, to make an
educated guess of the answer to his or her question - often this is a possible explanation
to what was observed. This is the hypothesis. Also, remind him or her that a strong
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hypothesis is not only testable, but also clearly states a cause and effect relationship.
Maybe his or her hypothesis to the sample problem above is as follows: Students who
have soda at lunch are more disruptive in their next class.
4. Design an Experiment
Once a scientist develops a hypothesis, he or she designs an experiment to test it. The
procedure of the student’s experiment must be very clear and detailed. It should
describe each thing he or she will do as well as list the materials necessary. Think of the
procedure as a guide, not only for the student to follow, but also one for other scientists
to use if they wish to repeat his or her experiment.
Be sure that the student is truly testing what he or she set out to test! Remind him or
her to think carefully about what observations and/or measurements will best test the
hypothesis. The student should then gather all relevant data and plan to repeat portions
of the experiments to verify the results when appropriate. Finally, he or she should be
sure the experiment is a fair one. Remind the student that he or she practiced designing
and conducting fair experiments in an earlier grade. These are experiments where only
the factor you wish to test is altered. Everything else in the experiment must be kept the
same.
5. Perform the Experiment
The student should gather the materials needed and carefully execute the steps of the
experiment he or she designed, being sure to make accurate observations and
measurements. The student should also have an organized system for recording his or
her data, such as a table.
6. Draw a Conclusion
Finally, the student should analyze the results of his or her experiment and draw a
conclusion. In the scientific method, the conclusion is not only a summary of the
experimental results but also must relate back to his or her hypothesis. Did the results
support his or her hypothesis or not? Remember, the experiment was not wrong or
performed incorrectly if the results do not support the hypothesis or are not what the
student expected. Whether or not the original idea is proven to be correct, any science
experiment teaches us something new. So, make sure that the student understands that
the hypothesis should never be changed, and the results should never be altered to
obtain the answer the student wants. However, if he or she does find that the results do
not support his or her hypothesis, in the conclusion, he or she should mention what new
knowledge was gained from the experiment as well as suggest ideas for further testing if
appropriate. For example, "How might you revise your hypothesis for your next
experiment?"
NOTE: The details of these steps can vary. For example, sometimes analyzing the
results is separated out from drawing a conclusion and is listed as its own step. Other
people may disregard the research step, or place it elsewhere in the order.
Activity
Have the student identify these steps for experiments he or she is doing at school or reads
about on-line. He or she could also research the experiments of famous scientists the student
learns about while studying science. For example, maybe the student recalls Ben Franklin’s
famous experiment with lightning. What was his problem and hypothesis in this case? What
were the procedures and results of his experiment? Did the results support his hypothesis?
Scientific journals and articles are also great resources for this activity.
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Then have the student practice the steps of the scientific method on his or her own. The
student can browse All Science Fair Projects at www.all-science-fair-projects.com for some
ideas. Review each step as he or she progresses, correcting any errors.
Review:
Name and describe the steps of the scientific method.
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