OpenStax-CNX module: m57958
1
Human Biology Chapter 1.3:
∗
Functions of Human Life
Willy Cushwa
Based on Functions of Human Life† by
OpenStax
This work is produced by OpenStax-CNX and licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
‡
Abstract
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
Explain the importance of organization to the function of the human organism
Distinguish between metabolism, anabolism, and catabolism
Provide at least two examples of human responsiveness and human movement
Compare and contrast growth, dierentiation, and reproduction
•
•
•
•
The dierent organ systems each have dierent functions and therefore unique roles to perform in physiology.
These many functions can be summarized in terms of a few that we might consider denitive of
human life:
organization, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, adaptation, movement, development,
and reproduction.
1 Organization
A human body consists of trillions of cells organized in a way that maintains distinct internal compartments.
These compartments keep body cells separated from external environmental threats and keep the cells moist
and nourished.
They also separate internal body uids from the countless microorganisms that grow on
body surfaces, including the lining of certain tracts, or passageways. The intestinal tract, for example, is
home to even more bacteria cells than the total of all human cells in the body, yet these bacteria are outside
the body and cannot be allowed to circulate freely inside the body.
Cells, for example, have a cell membrane (also referred to as the plasma membrane) that keeps the
intracellular environmentthe uids and organellesseparate from the extracellular environment.
Blood
vessels keep blood inside a closed circulatory system, and nerves and muscles are wrapped in connective
tissue sheaths that separate them from surrounding structures.
In the chest and abdomen, a variety of
internal membranes keep major organs such as the lungs, heart, and kidneys separate from others.
The body's largest organ system is the integumentary system, which includes the skin and its associated
structures, such as hair and nails. The surface tissue of skin is a barrier that protects internal structures
and uids from potentially harmful microorganisms and other toxins.
∗ Version
1.2: Dec 1, 2015 2:14 am -0600
† http://cnx.org/content/m45986/1.5/
‡ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
http://cnx.org/content/m57958/1.2/
OpenStax-CNX module: m57958
2
2 Metabolism
The rst law of thermodynamics holds that energy can neither be created nor destroyedit can only change
form.
Your basic function as an organism is to consume (ingest) molecules in the foods you eat, convert
some of it into fuel for movement, sustain your body functions, and build and maintain your body structures.
There are two types of reactions that accomplish this:
•
anabolism and catabolism.
Anabolism is the process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger, more complex
substances. Your body can assemble, by utilizing energy, the complex chemicals it needs by combining
small molecules derived from the foods you eat
•
Catabolism
is the process by which larger more complex substances are broken down into smaller
simpler molecules. Catabolism releases energy. The complex molecules found in foods are broken down
so the body can use their parts to assemble the structures and substances needed for life.
Taken together, these two processes are called metabolism.
Metabolism
is the sum of all anabolic and
catabolic reactions that take place in the body (Figure 1 (Metabolism)). Both anabolism and catabolism
occur simultaneously and continuously to keep you alive.
Metabolism
Anabolic reactions are building reactions, and they consume energy. Catabolic reactions
break materials down and release energy. Metabolism includes both anabolic and catabolic reactions.
Figure 1:
Every cell in your body makes use of a chemical compound,
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to store
and release energy. Think of ATP as the energy "currency" of the cell. If energy is needed for something
http://cnx.org/content/m57958/1.2/
OpenStax-CNX module: m57958
3
to happen in the cell, then ATP is used to "pay the energy bill". The cell stores energy in the synthesis
(anabolism) of ATP, then moves the ATP molecules to the location where energy is needed to fuel cellular
activities. Then the ATP is broken down (catabolism) and a controlled amount of energy is released, which
is used by the cell to perform a particular job.
3 Responsiveness
Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its internal and external environments.
An example of responsiveness to external stimuli could include moving toward sources of food and water
and away from perceived dangers. Changes in an organism's internal environment, such as increased body
temperature, can cause the responses of sweating and the dilation of blood vessels in the skin in order to
decrease body temperature, as shown by the runners in Figure 2 (Marathon Runners).
4 Homeostasis
To function properly, cells require appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and concentrations
of diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to the next. Organisms are
able to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite environmental changes,
through a process called homeostasis or steady statethe ability of an organism to maintain constant
internal conditions. For example, many organisms regulate their body temperature in a process known as
thermoregulation. Organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar bear, have body structures that
help them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. In hot climates, organisms have methods
(such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat. As we discuss
organ systems, the concept of homeostasis will be critically important to remember.
5 Adaptation
All living organisms exhibit a t to their environment. Biologists refer to this t as adaptation and it is a
consequence of evolution by natural selection (i.e. survival of the ttest), which operates in every lineage of
reproducing organisms. Examples of adaptations are diverse and unique, from heat-resistant bacteria that
live in boiling hot springs to the tongue length of a nectar-feeding moth that matches the size of the ower
from which it feeds. All adaptations enhance the reproductive potential of the individual exhibiting them,
including their ability to survive to reproduce. Adaptations are not constant. As an environment changes,
natural selection causes the characteristics of the individuals in a population to track those changes.
6 Movement
Human movement includes not only actions at the joints of the body, but also the motion of individual
organs and even individual cells. As you read these words, red and white blood cells are moving throughout
your body, muscle cells are contracting and relaxing to maintain your posture and to focus your vision, and
glands are secreting chemicals to regulate body functions. Your body is coordinating the action of entire
muscle groups to enable you to move air into and out of your lungs, to push blood throughout your body,
and to propel the food you have eaten through your digestive tract. Consciously, of course, you contract
your skeletal muscles to move the bones of your skeleton to get from one place to another (as the runners
are doing in Figure 2 (Marathon Runners)), and to carry out all of the activities of your daily life.
http://cnx.org/content/m57958/1.2/
OpenStax-CNX module: m57958
4
Marathon Runners
Runners demonstrate two characteristics of living humansresponsiveness and movement.
Anatomic structures and physiological processes allow runners to coordinate the action of muscle groups
and sweat in response to rising internal body temperature. (credit: Phil Roeder/ickr)
Figure 2:
7 Development, growth and reproduction
Development is all of the changes the body goes through in life.
Development includes the processes of
dierentiation, growth, and renewal.
Growth is the increase in body size.
Humans, like all multicellular organisms, grow by increasing the
number of existing cells, increasing the amount of non-cellular material around cells (such as mineral deposits
in bone), and, within very narrow limits, increasing the size of existing cells.
Reproduction is the formation of a new organism from parent organisms.
In humans, reproduction is
carried out by the male and female reproductive systems. Because death will come to all complex organisms,
without reproduction, the line of organisms would end.
8 Chapter Review
Most processes that occur in the human body are not consciously controlled.
to build, maintain, and sustain life.
http://cnx.org/content/m57958/1.2/
They occur continuously
These processes include: organization, in terms of the maintenance
OpenStax-CNX module: m57958
5
of essential body boundaries; metabolism, including energy transfer via anabolic and catabolic reactions;
responsiveness; homeostasis; adaptation; movement; and growth, dierentiation, reproduction, and renewal.
9 Interactive Link Questions
Exercise 1
View this animation
(Solution on p. 6.)
1
to learn more about metabolic processes. What kind of catabolism occurs
in the heart?
10 Review Questions
Exercise 2
(Solution on p. 6.)
Metabolism can be dened as the ________.
a. adjustment by an organism to external or internal changes
b. process whereby all unspecialized cells become specialized to perform distinct functions
c. process whereby new cells are formed to replace worn-out cells
d. sum of all chemical reactions in an organism
Exercise 3
(Solution on p. 6.)
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an important molecule because it ________.
a. is the result of catabolism
b. releases energy in uncontrolled bursts
c. provides energy for use by body cells
d. All of the above
Exercise 4
(Solution on p. 6.)
Cancer cells can be characterized as generic cells that perform no specialized body function.
Thus cancer cells lack ________.
a. dierentiation
b. reproduction
c. responsiveness
d. both reproduction and responsiveness
11 CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS
Exercise 5
(Solution on p. 6.)
Explain why the smell of smoke when you are sitting at a campre does not trigger alarm, but the
smell of smoke in your residence hall does.
Exercise 6
Identify three dierent ways that growth can occur in the human body.
1 http://openstaxcollege.org/l/metabolic
http://cnx.org/content/m57958/1.2/
(Solution on p. 6.)
OpenStax-CNX module: m57958
6
Solutions to Exercises in this Module
to Exercise (p. 5)
Fatty acid catabolism.
to Exercise (p. 5)
D
to Exercise (p. 5)
C
to Exercise (p. 5)
A
to Exercise (p. 5)
When you are sitting at a campre, your sense of smell adapts to the smell of smoke. Only if that smell were
to suddenly and dramatically intensify would you be likely to notice and respond. In contrast, the smell of
even a trace of smoke would be new and highly unusual in your residence hall, and would be perceived as
danger.
to Exercise (p. 5)
Growth can occur by increasing the number of existing cells, increasing the size of existing cells, or increasing
the amount of non-cellular material around cells.
Glossary
Denition 1: anabolism
assembly of more complex molecules from simpler molecules
Denition 2: catabolism
breaking down of more complex molecules into simpler molecules
Denition 3: development
changes an organism goes through during its life
Denition 4: dierentiation
process by which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function
Denition 5: growth
process of increasing in size
Denition 6: metabolism
sum of all of the body's chemical reactions
Denition 7: renewal
process by which worn-out cells are replaced
Denition 8: reproduction
process by which new organisms are generated
Denition 9: responsiveness
ability of an organisms or a system to adjust to changes in conditions
http://cnx.org/content/m57958/1.2/