UN Development
Programme Committee
2017 Study Guide
Yannick Somauroo &
Berta Roson
WELCOME LETTER
Honourable delegates,
It is with great pleasure that we’ll have you in our committee. As Chairs, we will do our
best to motivate and entertain this committee. Hence, we will do our best to share our
experience but also to transmit you our passion for such simulations which are more
than significant in a student’s life.
Allow us to begin by welcomingy ou to the United Nations Development Program
Committee. Our Committeeis a major « anchor » of the United Nations in several ways
which is elaborated furthermore in this guide.
It is with great pleasure that we do have you in our committee. Be assured that you are
in good hands. Both of us have for a long time been interested in negociations, debates
and diplomacy and no need to worry at all. A good preparation will be fine. But be
aware that the Rules of Procedures of the debates should be respected at any time !
The topic that will be discussed are :
-Ensuring inclusive and quality education in regions with armed conflicts, poverty and
other emergencies
-Women’s equal representation in major government and legislative bodies in light of
sustainable Development Goal.
Thus, this booklet will provide you the necessary tools to for the event.
Your Chairs,
Yannick SOMAUROO and Berta ROSON
INTRODUCTION
UNDP is the largest United Nations development organization and chair of the UN Development
Group(UNDG). UNDP has the most comprehensive mandate among all UN agencies, including a
unique and specific mandate on democratic governance and peace building and state-building in postconflict settings.
UNDP has the dual mandate of supporting countries in their individual development challenges and a
leadership role in ensuring a coherent and coordinated UN development system at country level. This is
consolidated in the UNDP Strategic Plan for 2014-2017, which states that UNDP will promote
sustainable human development through three strategic areas of work: Sustainable Development
Pathways, Inclusive and Effective Democratic Governance and Resilience-building. Working with
177 countries through a network of 129 country offices and six Regional Service Centres, UNDP
maintains the most extensive operational platform for development worldwide. UNDP is further
mandated to operationally underpin the functioning of the broader UN system through providing
services that include human resources, IT systems etc. In case no other agency is able to respond to
demands at country level, UNDP also has a mandate as ‘provider of last resort’1 and will deliver their
quested support. UNDP is funded entirely from voluntary contributions provided by bilateral and
multilateral partners and programme countries, which in 2013 totalled USD4.7 billion.
UNDP works on helping countries build and share solutions in three main areas:
·
Sustainable Development
·
Democratic governance and peace building
·
Climate and disaster resilence
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1
act at the last level if no other organizations is eligible
Additionally, UNDP works internationally to help countries achieve U.N Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs). UNDP is also currently one of the main UN agencies involved in the development of
framework of the Development Agenda. UNDP also administers the ‘UN Capital Development Fund’2
that helps developing countries grow their economies by supplementing existing sources of capital
assistance by means of grants and loans; and UN Volonteers, which fields over 6,000 volunteers
from160 countries in support of peace and development through volunteerism worldwide.
UNDP works to reduce the risk of armed conflicts or disasters, and promote early recovery after crisis
have occurred. UNDP works through its country offices to support local government in needs
assessment, capacity development, coordinated planning, and policy and standard setting. Examples of
UNDP risk education programs include efforts to control small arms proliferation, strategies to reduce
the impact of natural disasters, and programs to encourage use of diplomacy and prevent
violence.Recovery programs include disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants,
demining efforts, programs to reintegrate displaced persons, restoration of basic services, and
transitional justice systems for countries recovering from warfare.
Established in 1965 by the General Assembly Resolution 2029 and located in New York City, UNDP
advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and resources to help people to
build a better life. It provides expert advice, training, and grant support to developing countries, with
increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries.
The status of the UNDP is that of an executive board within the United Nations after the UnitedNations Secretary-General and Deputy Secretary-General.
____________________________________
2
For more informations :http://www.uncdf.org/
Topic 1 :Ensuring Inclusive and quality education in regions with armed conflicts, poverty and
other emergencies
A- Introduction
28 million children are out of school in conflict-affected countries, 42% of the world total3. Children in
conflict affected countries are twice as likely as children in other low income countries to die before
their fifth birthday. Refugees and internally displaced people face major barriers to education, and
conflict-affected countries have some of the largest gender inequalities and lowest literacy levels in the
world.
Education as a whole, remains a low priority in situations of conflict – it accounts for just 2% of
humanitarian aid and only 38% of emergency aid requests for education are met 4. Whilst development
assistance to basic education has doubled since 2002 to US$4.7 billion5, current aid levels fall far short
of the US$16 billion required annually to close the external financing gap in low-income countries. So
it need to understand and analyze why 21 of the world’s poorest developing countries continue to spend
more on military budgets than primary education – redirecting just 10% into education could put
almost 10 million additional children into school.
Conflict presents huge challenges for education provision, but there have been some encouraging
developments in the short time since the GMR report6 was published. The UN Secretary-General Ban
Ki-moon has launched an initiative and secured $1.5 billion to put Education First supported by an
impressive array of high profile advocates, including Special Envoy and former UK Prime Minister,
David Cameron. The initiative places a particular emphasis on securing the right to education for
children in conflict-affected countries, and argues that education should get at least 4% (up from 2%)
of humanitarian aid budgets.
______________________________________
3.
Education for all global monitoring report, 2011
4. UN Sochum Report, 2012
5. UNDP Factsheets, see bibliography for addition information
6. Global Education Monitoring Report, Unesco
Progress in such environments requires careful analysis of the drivers of conflict and the development
of education responses that progressively address challenges on three broad fronts:
The BASIC Role of Education :
• Education as a humanitarian response.
The challenges include the need to protect children during violent conflict and ensure their right
to education. Initiatives such as the Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack have
emerged. By maintaining a commitment to education during conflict we can not only protect
from physical, social and psychosocial damage, but also provide the means by which societies
can recover. Agencies such as UNHCR Education Strategy7have included an explicit
commitment to use conflict analysis as part of its response to displacement situations and
working with communities recovering from conflict.
• Conflict sensitive education.
The past decade has seen growing awareness of the ways in which education may be used and
abused to exacerbate conflict. Unequal access to education is often one of the most powerful
ways in which dominant groups maintain unequal access to power and wealth between
groups within conflict-affected societies – often reproduced from one generation to the
next. Tensions can be further exacerbated by exclusionary practices or policies related to
language of instruction and identity issues – many of these are structural features that could be
addressed as part of education reform processes. Since the GMR an increasing number of
agencies have made an explicit commitment to conflict-sensitive
_________________________________
7 UNHCR Statistics :http://www.unhcr.org/fr/
8 Ibid.
education, for example, one of the three goals of the new USAID Education Strategy will bring
considerable resources to bear on ‘increased equitable access to education in crisis and conflict
environments for 15 million learners by 2015’8.
• Education for peacebuilding.
In conflict-affected societies people want to see an end to violence that also brings benefits (so
called ‘peace dividends’), partly in terms of access to quality education provision, but also in
terms of greater safety and security, involvement in political processes that work for the public
good, an economic future that provides sustainable livelihoods and cooperative relations
between diverse groups within society. This is a transformative agenda, yet in many countries
education systems are geared to reproduce, rather than transform the conditions that generate
conflict. One new development is aUNICEF Peacebuilding, Education and Advocacy
Programmethat has received significant funding from the Netherlands to work on these
challenges in more than ten conflict-affected countries over the next four years.
On all of these fronts education can play a constructive role – whether it is by providing protection in
response to crisis and conflict, tackling inequalities in access or bias in education provision, or by
contributing to transformation and change as part of peacebuilding processes. However, it is clear that
these challenges will not be addressed successfully if we limit our efforts to solely to basic education.
The GMR highlighted research9 evidence that suggests a link between the risk of conflict and a high
youth population, especially unemployed youth with few years of secondary education. The Global
Partnership for Education (formerly the EFA Fast Track Initiative) has a particular role here since it is
the only multilateral mechanism focused on funding education from early primary through secondary
and this will become increasingly important post the current MDGs. However, the research tends to
emphasise youth as a ‘risk to conflict’, rather than a ‘resource for peacebuilding’ 10, which is why the
UNESCO IIEP Youth Policy Forum11, Plan With Youth12will explore how to engage constructively
with youth in conflict-affected countries. The event coincides with the launch of the 2012 GMR and
will examine the role of youth in peacebuilding, civic engagement and the development of skills for
employment and sustainable livelihoods.
9 GMR highlighted research, see point 6 (Global Education Monitoring Report, UNESCO)
B- Discussion of the problem
One main question that is usually argued is :Why education in emergencies matters?
For those working in education in emergencies, the fact that 2011’s EFA Global Monitoring
Report13was devoted to education in armed conflict was welcome if overdue recognition of the fact that
countries undergoing armed conflict are ‘among the farthest from reaching the Education for All goals,
yet their educational challenges go largely unreported’.
Twenty-eight million of the world’s 61 million out-of-school primary-school-aged children live in
conflict-affected poor countries. Violent conflict harms educational provision and attainment
profoundly. Not only are children in conflict-affected countries disproportionately unable to enroll in
primary school; their completion, secondary enrollment, literacy and mortality rates are much worse
than in other countries. These effects are observed with even relatively minor conflict shocks and most
severely impact girls, in part because of the widespread incidence and severity of sexual violence that
accompanies war14.
The nature of armed conflict has changed in the past century. Wars are now overwhelmingly
internal to nations, though foreign intervention plays a role in many such conflicts and they frequently
spill across borders. Armed forces are increasingly recruited and deployed by non- state actors. Civilian
populations are deliberately targeted. Most conflicts are very long lasting: UNHCR reported that at the
end of 201115, almost three-quarters of the refugees it was protecting and assisting were living in
protracted situations, i.e. of greater than five years’ duration – 7.1 million people in 26 countries16.
These facts have profound implications for the approach to be adopted towards provision of education.
Short-term humanitarian expedients, and the short-term funding that accompanies them, are inadequate
if the real educational needs of conflict-affected children are to be met. Disasters such as earthquakes,
floods and severe storms damage education systems, with intense local disruption but also often with
harmful effects upon large areas of a country, and across borders.
________________________________________
10
Important, see reference of Professor Domestici in his report 2012, Aix-en-Provence Journal (in French)
11
http://www.iiep.unesco.org/en/our-expertise/youth-participation
12
Ibid.
13
Education for all global monitoring report, 2011 (see pt. 1)
Pakistan’s catastrophic experiences of earthquake in 2005 and flooding in 2010 and the Indian Ocean
tsunami of 2004 illustrate this forcibly. Disasters tend to strike and harmconflict-affected areas
disproportionately, exacerbating the vulnerability of countries already harmed by conflict.
Whatever post-201717 development and education-specific goals are agreed upon, if they are to be truly
comprehensive, the education of children suffering through the effects of armed conflict and disasters
must be prioritized. This is not an easy challenge to meet, as the disruption, violence and political
sensitivity of emergencies does not make them ‘low-hanging fruit’ for providing access to quality
education.
But
the
difficulty
of
the
task
is
no
excuse
for
inaction
or
delay.
With education competing for post-MDG18 attention with other service sectors, and with strong
competition among sub-sectors of education for post-EFA priority19, what is the overwhelming
importance, the comparative advantage, of focussing attention on provision of education in
emergencies?
Above all, states and international agencies have a humanitarian imperative20. In emergencies,
education saves lives and education is a major factor in the protection of children, if properly delivered.
Children and adolescents who are not in school are at greater risk of violent attack and rape, and of
recruitment into fighting forces, prostitution and life-threatening, often criminal activities. During war
and displacement, formal and non-formal education provide opportunities to learn life-saving
information and survival skills, such as landmine awareness, protection from sexual abuse and
avoidance of HIV infection. In emergencies, education is a powerful tool against the pathologies that
kill both immediately and later down the line, such as infant mortality and mother-to-child HIV and
AIDS transmission.
________________________________________
14
Justino 2010; UNESCO 2011: 132-133
15
UNHCR Statistics
16
Ibid
17
UNDP 2014-2017 Program
Education not only saves lives in emergencies, it also sustains life by giving children a sense of the
restoration of normality, familiar routine and hope for the future, all of which are vital for mitigating
the psychosocial impact of violence and displacement for individuals and whole communities 21Good
quality education provided during wartime can counter the underlying causes of violence, by fostering
values of inclusion, tolerance, human rights and conflict resolution. This can do more than patch up the
damage caused by conflict; it can help with long-term processes of peace-building and strengthening
social cohesion. Moreover, Education has enormous value for its own sake and all children and young
people, including those affected by conflict, have the right to receive an education.
However, education is also needed in emergency settings to prepare societies for eventual post-conflict
or post-disaster reconstruction and social and economic development. The Kosovar and Serbian War in
1998 illustrate clearly this idea. Balanced development with economic growth requires that young
people of all social, ethnic, religious and political backgrounds are equipped with literacy, numeracy
and basic information technology and vocational skills to contribute to rebuilding of national
economies. This must include those affected by emergencies. Without the social capital constructed by
strong education, a country or region may remain dependent on the international community during and
for some time after an emergency. Young people also need up-to-date skills to earn a living in the
informal economies that spring up during wartime. Schooling is not automatically protective. State or
non-state authorities must ensure that education facilities, personnel and students are safe from attack.
Teachers’ conduct must be subject to agreed codes of conduct and monitored. School administrators
must enact policies to prevent bullying, abuse and exploitation, and enforce them.
In launching his Education First initiative in September 2012, the UN Secretary-General, Ban Kimoon, strongly endorsed the importance of education in conflict and disaster settings: “Growing up in
the Republic of Korea as it recovered from war, I had few school supplies and studied in the open air.
People today often ask about my country’s transformation from poverty to prosperity.
______________________________________
18
Millenium Development GOALs
19
Education for All Programme, UNESCO
20
X.Philippe, “Les impératifs du droit international humanitaire”,R. Dalloz, 2008
21
IIEP-UNESCO 2010: Ch. 3.5
Without hesitation, I answer that education was the key. In almost all my visits to areas ravaged by war
and disaster, the plea of survivors is the same: ‘Education first.’ Education helps to re-establish
normalcy for traumatized children and sets the stage for lasting stability. Education First aims to raise
the political profile of education, strengthen the global movement to achieve access to quality
education and generate additional and sufficient funding through sustained advocacy efforts. Many
governments, NGOs and all relevant UN agencies support it“22.
_______________________________________
22
http://www.globaleducationfirst.org/289.htm
Conflict-affected countries: 1999-2014
Afghanistan
Indonesia
Rwanda
Algeria
Angola
Burundi
Central AfricanRepublic
Chad
Colombia
DemocraticRepublic of the
Congo
Côte d’Ivoire
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Georgia
Guinea
India
Iran
Iraq
Liberia
Libya
Mali
Myanmar
Nepal
Niger
Nigeria
Pakistan
Palestinianterritory
Philippines
RussianFederation
Serbia
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Sudan
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Syria
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Turkey
Uganda
Yemen
Source: EFA Global Monitoring Report.
Key:
•
Black: 2011 list
•
Blue: 2011 list but no longer identified as conflict-affected in 2013
•
Red: Joinedlist in 2013.
•
Brown: Addedlist to list as 2014 update
Source: http://educateachild.org/explore/barriers-to-education/fragile-and-conflict-affected-situations/armedconflict
C- Timeline of Major Events
1900s
1966.'UNDPisborn'
1978.UNDPseverlaprojetsin
Palestine.Programmeofassitanceto
PalestinianPeople(PAPP)
1991.ExplosionofYugoslavia.
1994.RwandaGenocide.
2000s
1998-2000Kosovo-Serbian
War
2000.MDGfocussingequalaccesstoeducationforeveryone
2002-2010AfganistanandIraqConflit
2010.SocialGoodS
2011tillnow:SyrianConflit
2014.GlobalSurvey
2015.SustainableDevelopmentGoalsconfimingthe
significanceofeducation
D – Past UN actions
Major past UN actions in favor of education can be found on this link :
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/education-building-blocks/literacy/un-literacydecade/un-resolutions-and-other-related-documents/
Besides, it should be kept in mind that the Sustainable Development Goal of 2015 outlined Goal N° 4
as “Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning”23
E – Questions a Resolution must address
-
How to handle educational curriculum in conflicted areas?
-
A strategy to ensure safety or a specific program for people in conflicted or poor zone.
-
An emphasis on regional or international cooperation like student exchanges or solidarity
-
New forms of funding Revenue for UNDP
-
A concrete action plan for specifi regions
-
The Prevention of Conflict in ‘identified’ zone
-
The Inclusion of Regional or International Agency in the identified or elaborated ‘Action Plans’
F-To go further:
-http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/education/
-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G5ilrC06Cz8
-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_hLuEui6ww
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEIwRV49o-Q
G- Bibliography
-http://www.undp.org/fr/
- http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypage/results/fast_facts.html
-http://educateachild.org/explore/barriers-to-education/fragile-and-conflict-affectedsituations/armed-conflict
-https://www.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/story_id/000454.pdf
Jo Boyden with Paul Ryder Research
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programme_des_Nations_unies_pour_le_d%C3%A9veloppement
-http://www.unhcr.org/fr/
-http://www.iiep.unesco.org/en/our-expertise/youth-participation
-http://planwithyouth.org/home/
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/fr/home/librarypage/corporate/Changing_with_the_World_U
NDP_Strategic_Plan_2014_17.html
-http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-internationalagenda/education-for-all/
-http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ED/pdf/gmr2011-part2-ch3-fr.pdf
-J.L, Derouet, “Repenser la justice dans le domaine de l’educationet de la formation”, P. Lang,
2009
TOPIC B: WOMEN’S EQUAL REPRESENTATION IN MAJOR GOVERNMENT AND
LEGISLATIVE BODIES IN LIGHT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL 5
a) Introduction
According to the Sustainable Development Goal No. 5, it is urgent to achieve gender equality and
to empower all women and girls given that equality is a matter of human rights and a prerequisite for
social justice and peace. One of the fields in which women are currently underrepresented is in major
government and legislative bodies. This clearly affects the right of every person to take part in the
government of his/her country, which is fundamental to guarantee the functioning of democracy. In this
line, women find obstacles to participate in decisions and to include their perspective at all levels of
decision-making despite constituting at least half the electorate in most countries.
The importance of equal participation of men and women in decision-making has long been
recognised but is far from being achieved even if it is vital to ensure effective leadership. It is true that
there has been some progress in promoting the goal of gender balance. Indeed, in 46 countries, women
now hold more than 30% of seats in national parliament in at least one chamber1. Nevertheless, they
continue to be underrepresented in leadership positions. For that reason, it is still critical to design
proactive measures so as to increase the number of women in major government and legislative bodies
as well as to improve their status in positions of power within political parties or parliaments.
Between those measures, quotas are a relevant policy that has been implemented by different
countries around the globe. However, there are other possible mechanisms such as training programs or
financial aid for the campaigns as well as reconciliation policies. Nonetheless, it is important to bear in
mind that it is not just to achieve a high position but rather to set those conditions that enable women to
be effective in those positions.
Regarding the data, we should distinguish between women in parliaments and other domains of
government. According to UN Women (Facts and figures: Leadership and political participation)2
these are the facts:
-
Concerning women in parliaments:
1
“Gender equality and women’s empowerment.” United Nations. United Nations, Web. 13 Jan.
2017.<http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality/>
2
"Facts and figures: Leadership and political participation." UN Women. Web. 13 Jan. 2017.
<http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation/facts-and-figures#notes>.
o Only 22.8% of all national parliamentarians were women as of June 2016, a slow
increase from 11.3% in 1995.3
o As of January 2017, 10 women are serving as Head of State and 9 are serving as Head
of Government.4
o Rwanda had the highest number of women parliamentarians worldwide. Women there
have won 63.8% of seats in the lower house.5
o Globally, there are 38 States in which women account for less than 10% of
parliamentarians in single or lower houses, as of June 2016, including 4 chambers with
no women at all.6
-
Concerning other domains of government:
o As of January 2015, only 17% of government ministers were women, with the majority
overseeing social sectors, such as education and the family.7
o The global proportion of women elected to local government is currently unknown,
constituting a major knowledge gap.8
o Research on panchayats (local councils) in India discovered that the number of drinking
water projects in areas with women-led councils was 62% higher than in those with
men-led councils. Also, in Norway there exists a direct causal relationship between the
number of women in municipal councils and childcare coverage.9
3
"Women in Parliaments: World Classification. Single House or Lower House." Women in Parliaments: World
Classification. Inter-Parliamentary Union, Web. 13 Jan. 2017. <http://www.ipu.org/WMN-e/classif.htm>.
"Women in national parliaments"
4
UN Women calculation based on information provided to Permanent Missions to the United Nations.
5
Above note 3.
6
Ibid.
7
"Women in Politics: 2015” Women in Politics: 2015. Inter-Parliamentary Union and UN Women, Web. 13 Jan.
2017. <http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation/facts-and-figures#notes>.
8
UN Secretary-General’s Report on Women and Political Participation.“Measures taken and progress achieved
in the promotion of women and political participation”. Rep. A/68/184, 2013.
9
R. Chattopadhyay and E. Duflo, Women as Policy Makers: Evidence from a Randomized Policy Experiment in
India,” Econometrica 72(5), pp. 1409–1443; K. A. Bratton and L. P. Ray, 2002, “Descriptive Representation:
Policy Outcomes and Municipal Day-Care Coverage in Norway,” American Journal of Political Science, 46(2),
pp. 428–437.
b) Discussion of the problem
Women’s
visibility has
Source:http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation/facts-andfigures#notes
improved since 1995. However, there are still a lot of obstacles to obtain leadership positions –
especially in the male-dominated spheres of business– and there exist important regional fluctuations.
In fact, in national governments where women hold ministerial functions, their tasks are limited to
social, family and cultural affairs10.
According to the Report of the Expert Group Meeting (Equal Participation of Women and Men in
Decision-Making Processes, with Particular Emphasis on Political Participation and Leadership)
between the DAW11, DESA12, ECA13 and IPU14, there four concepts that is important to distinguish:
political participation, representation, leadership and accountability.
First, political participation implies the existence of women “taking part in politics” both in formal
and informal ways including lobbying and activism. Second, political representation implies the
presentation of political agendas in democratic societies by political parties, members of parliament,
social movements or other groups. Third, political leadership includes the previous ones, by giving key
individuals the task of shaping policies. Finally, political accountability requires representatives to be
responsible for their decisions. In this line, any measure directed to promote women representation
should take into account all these concepts that should be analysed together at different levels of
10
Participation of Women in Political Life: An assessment of developments in national parliaments, political
parties, governments and Inter-Parliamentary Union, five years after the Fourth World Conference on Women.
Series “Reports and Documents” No. 35, Inter-Parliamentary Union, Geneva 1999.
11
United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women.
12
Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
13
Economic Commission for Africa.
14
Inter-Parliamentary Union.
governance. The same panel of experts pointed out different factors that can be constituting obstacles
and that should be addressed by the delegates. For instance, electoral systems, the structure of political
parties, candidates’ selections, lack of self-confidence, lack of financial support and time in the
campaigning or conciliation.
Regarding all those factors, one of the systems that has been highly controversial is the
establishment of quotas. Even if before 1970 just five countries had used them, nowadays more than
one hundred countries have adopted them15. In 1990 the UN Economic and Social Council established
a target of 30% female representation in decision-making bodies by 1995 and as a consequence, quotas
began to gain prominence.
However, even if quotas are usually understood as a homogeneous system, include three different
types: a) reserved seats, b) party quotas and c) legislative quotas. Reserved seats are those that only
women can occupy. Party quotas are adopted by parties that decide to establish a determined proportion
of candidates to political office reserved to women. Therefore, they are focused on the nomination of
candidates. Finally, legislative quotas are a mandate to the political groups and regulate candidates’
lists for all parties. OF the countries that currently have gender quotas, 61% have voluntary quotas,
38% have legislated candidate quotas and 20% have reserved seats.16
As we mentioned, the establishment of quotas is a controversial issue and there are arguments both
in favour and against them. It is usually argued against its use that they go against the equal opportunity
principle and that they “impose” some candidates. Some even argue that they can be counterproductive,
creating the idea that women are chosen not because of their merits but because of their gender. Some
authors also argue that they may produce negative externalities reducing women’s incentives to invest
when they believe that their path has been made easier with the quota or even promoting persecution
against them if voters consider that their choices are being restricted.
On the other hand, those that are in favour of their use argue that it is a necessary mean to ensure a
good representation of the entire population, that women are as qualified as men and this is a way to
fight against their obstacles and even that they can address the problem of structural discrimination
because one women start working in areas they traditionally considered to be outside their field, they
15
Bush, Sarah Sunn. International Politics and the Spread of Quotas For Women in Legislatures. International
Organizations 65, no. 1 (2011): 103.
16
Pande, Rohini and Ford, Deanna. Gender Quotas and Female Leadership: A Review. Background Paper for
the World Development Report on Gender”, Harvard University (2011), p.8.
will increasingly do so.17 Moreover, some authors allege they can produce positive externalities by
creating the role model effect and improving women aspirations.
These strategies have been implemented and there is evidence of successful examples in different
societies and cultures from India to Morocco, South Africa, Pakistan, Jordan, Britain, Belgium and
Argentina.18 Nevertheless, the Nordic countries were the first ones that decided to establish quotas. It is
difficult to assess the effects of quotas because its adoption is usually correlated with positive attitudes
about women that already existed before within the country. However, they were randomly allocated in
India and its evidence demonstrates that they increase female leadership and influence policy
outcomes.19 On average, female representation stands at 22% in those countries where quotas exist and
just 13% in those where they do not exist20.
Another of the important features that we should bear in mind when deciding upon the potential
implementation of quotas, is how they may affect attitudes towards women. For instance, Beaman et al
(2009) has tried to analyse their impact among Indian population raising important conclusions.
Besides, attention should be paid to the possible crowd-out effect that they may produce both in
descriptive representation of marginalized groups and in policy outcomes.21
Different experts have pointed out that women’s participation in decision-making has implications
for promoting gender equality.22 In fact three different effects can be listed:
a) When women are represented, the work on gender equality by writing and amending
constitutions. For instance, this was experience in South Africa in the drafting of the
constitution after the apartheid.
b) Discriminatory regulations and provisions have also been amended and excluded from legal
codes in those countries that have established these kind of mechanisms.
c) The eradication of violence against women in both the domestic and public sphere is now on the
international agenda thanks to women leaders in decision-making positions.
17
Bacchi, Carol Lee. “Arguing For and Against Quotas: Theoretical Issues.” In Women, Quotas and Politics, ed.
DrudeDahlerup. New York: Routledge (2006).
18
Norris, Pippa. Increasing Women’s Representation in Government: What strategies would work best for
Afghanistan? Harvard Univeristy, p. 4.
19
Above note 16, abstract.
20
Data from the Quota Project Database and the Inter-Parliamentary Union database online.
21
Above note 16, p. 25.
22
Ibid, p. 23
Apart from the establishment of positive action strategies, other policies are directed towards the
promotion of equal opportunities measures. Those policies focus on skills training for candidates and
representatives, public speaking, financial aid or subsidies for candidates, maternity leaves, childcare
facilities etc.
c) Timeline of major events
1900s
1975.FirstUNWorld
Conference,MexicoCity
1979.Conventiononthe
EliminationofAllFormsof
DiscriminationAgainstWomen
1980.SecondUNWorld
Conference,Copenhaguen
1985.ThirdUNWorld
Conference,Nairobi
1995.FourthUNWorld
Conference,Beijing
2000s
BeijingPlatformforAction
2000.Women2000:GenderEquality,Development,andPeace
fortheTwenty-FirstCentury
2000.SecurityCouncilResolution1325onWomen,Peaceand
Security
2003.GeneralAssemblyresolution58/142regardingwomen
andpoliticalparticipations
2005.49thsessionoftheCommissionoftheStatusofWomen
2010.54thsessionoftheCommissionoftheStatusofWomen
2015.Beijing+20
d) Bloc positions
As it has already been mentioned, there are States that are reluctant to implement positive action
policies. However, other nations have decided to establish them in their respective legislations. Some
examples include the case of Belgium, France, Pakistan or Argentina.
Belgium:
In 1994, the Electoral Act of 24 May established the requirement that candidates of electoral lists of
the same sex could not exceed the target of two-thirds. It is established in a way in which the
requirement applies for both men and women. This Electoral Act was first applied in the 1999
European elections, where the proportion of women elected incremented from 18.5 to 23.3%.
France:
In 1999, the French legislative body decided through a constitutional amendment that parties should
set a percentage of 50% for women representation in their lists. It also incorporated financial
penalties for parties that did not comply with the requirement. Furthermore, in 2000 it passed an act
regulating elections to the National Assembly. In this case, the percentage was between 48 and 52%
and in case it was not fulfilled, the state’s financial contribution would be cut.
Pakistan:
From 2002, Pakistan opted for the reserved seats policies in the lower house of the parliament and
in the provincial assemblies. In its general elections, 60 women were granted the reserved seats and
12 won seats in concurrency out of 342 seats.
Argentina:
In 1991 Argentina established a compulsory quota system setting a minimum of 30% of women
candidates and in proportions with possibilities of being elected. The sanction of non-compliance
was to reject the party list. If the party was not able to correct the mistake, it could not compete in
that district’s elections.
Having studied some specific examples, it is important to bear in mind that the Nordic countries
were the first ones to establish quotas but they were introduced when female representation was already
high.23 In countries of the west of Europe, voluntary party quotas are also usual, contrary to nations in
Eastern Europe. However, the United States does not apply quotas. In Latin America they have been
commonly used, specially legislated candidate quotas. In the case of Africa, different types of quotas
23
Ballington, J. &Binda, F., The Implementation of Quotas: European Experiences, International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance (2005).
have been used but it is remarkable its implementation in the context of post-conflict. On the contrary,
in South Asia it is more common the implementation of reserved seats. Finally, in the Middle East
quotas don’t play an important role with the exception of Egypt, Jordan and Israel.24
WomeninParliamentbyRegion,1995-2005
Source:IPU,2005.WomeninPolitics:1945-2005
http://www.ipu.org/english/surveys.htm#45-05
e) Past UN actions
The UN has coordinated four global conferences regarding gender equality that were celebrated in
Mexico City (1975), Copenhagen (1980), Nairobi (1985) and Beijing (1995). Following this last
conference, there has been five-year reviews.25
In Mexico City, a World Plan of Action for the Implementation of the Objectives of the
International Women’s Year was adopted. It included a series of guidelines so as to improve women
empowerment until 1985. Ten years later, the Programme of Action was designed in Copenhagen
paying special attention to fields such as employment, health and education. But it was not until 1985
24
The Arab Quota Report: Selected Case Studies Quota Report Series. International Institute for Democracy and
Electoral Assistance, 39 International IDEA Reports (2007
25
"Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995." United Nations. United Nations, Web. 13 Jan. 2017.
<http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/>.
that the effectiveness of the implementation of the Mexico Conference were analysed in Nairobi. This
time, the focus was set on the national level and the promotion of women’s participation in peace
processes.
Nonetheless, the Beijing conference marked a turning point in the gender issue and served as a
basis for the Beijing Platform for Action (BPA), which was adopted unanimously by 189 countries.
Those instruments clearly state the necessity to work towards women’s empowerment in the field of
the decision-making process and access to power, which are considered to be fundamental for the
achievement of equality, development and peace. In this sense, as one of the twelve critical areas of
concern in the BPA, it was included a special section for “Women in Power and Decision-making”. In
the same Platform two strategies were designed: a) access and full participation in power structures and
decision-making (Strategic Objective G.1) and b) improvement of women’s capacity to participate
(Strategic Objective G.2). In fact, it underlined that “women’s equal participation in decision-making is
not only a demand for justice or democracy, but can also be seen as a necessary condition for women’s
interest to be taken into account. Without the perspective of women at all levels of decision-making, the
goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved” (para. 181).
Right after the Beijing Conference, starting with the first five-year review, the 23rd special session
of the General Assembly resolved to study the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action in
New York. As a result, it was celebrated the “Women 2000: Gender Equality, Development, and Peace
for the Twenty-First Century”. In its review, it acknowledged that some States had adopted positive
discrimination policies such as quota systems or leadership training. Nonetheless, at the ministerial and
sub-ministerial levels they continued to be underrepresented (G. 23).
Following this commitment that pursued a review each five years, in 2005 the 49th session of the
Commission of the Status of Women recognised that most Member States had introduced policies in
order to increase women participation and had been successful in ensuring them positions of power
(para. 327). Moreover, in 2010 a declaration was made within the Commission’s 54th session
recognising the need for additional measures. Finally, in 2015 a special session was held: Beijing+20.
This time, the States themselves were called to implement reviews both at a national and at a regional
level.
Furthermore, other different instruments support the idea that inequality is unsustainable. For
instance, the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW) that has been signed by 180 member countries. This Convention makes a special mention to
the participation of women in political and public life: it enshrines in art.7 their right to vote, to stand
for election and to hold public office at all levels of government. However, the Committee on the
Elimination of Discrimination against Women has raised concern over the low efficacy of this article as
well as the existence of persisting barriers to women’s participation.
In addition, the Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security of 2000
recognised the importance of women participation in decision-making in political affairs. Moreover,
the General Assembly (58th session in 2003) adopted resolution 58/142 regarding women and political
participation. It also called upon Governments, the UN itself and other different actors such as NGOs to
design policies fighting against the obstacles that women find when trying to obtain these positions.
f) Questions a resolution must address
-
What is the different role that government actors, political parties, electoral management
bodies, international actors and civil society should play?
-
Is it necessary to set a specific target regarding women representation? In practice, does it work
as a minimum or rather as a ceiling?
-
Should these targets be incremental time-bound?
-
What type of quotas should be established? Should they constitute a proportional representation
system or be organized in a way they amount to reserved seats?
-
What should be the effective sanctions for non-compliance?
-
How can equality be ensured during election campaigns?
-
Should the measures include positive action policies?
-
Should the reconciliation between work and family responsibilities be addressed?
-
Do leadership and gender awareness training work? Who should design them and how can they
improve?
-
Who should design the awareness raising campaigns?
g) Bibliography
-
Rosa Linda T. Miranda. "The Impact of Women's Participation and Leadership on Policy
Outcomes: A Focus on Women's Policy Machineries."International Knowledge Network of
Women in Politics. EGM/EPWD/2005/EP.7, 12 Dec. 2005. Web. 13 Jan. 2017.
<http://iknowpolitics.org/en/2008/08/impact-women%E2%80%99s-participation-andleadership-policy-outcomes-focus-women%E2%80%99s-policy-machineries>.
-
"Equal participation of women and men in decision-making processes, with particular
emphasis on political participation and leadership" - Expert Group Meeting." United
Nations. United Nations, Web. 13 Jan. 2017. <http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/eqlmen/#4>.
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<http://www.unwomen.org/en/how-we-work/intergovernmental-support/world-conferences-onwomen>.