
The ability to transfer strength to sports
performance.

Principle of Dynamic Correspondence – The
ability to use the means of special (sports
specific) strength preparation that
corresponds to the functioning of the
neuromuscular system in a given sport (Siff
2009).
Rate of force development (RFD) –
“explosive muscle strength”
 Power – The amount of force exerted
through a certain distance per unit of
time. Peak power is defined as the
highest power value achieved during the
task being performed.

 Power
= force x velocity
 There is an inverse relationship
between force and velocity

Force – velocity
curve.

Power – force curve.


First class lever – the
muscle force and
the resistive force act
on opposite sides of
the fulcrum
The moment arm is
the perpendicular
distance from the
line of action of force
to the fulcrum.

Second class lever –
the muscle force
and the resistive
force act on the
same side of the
fulcrum, MM being
greater than MR

Third class lever – the
muscle force and
the resistive force act
on the same side of
the fulcrum, MR
being greater than
MM
Human strength and power
 power = work / time
 power = force x velocity

“Power lifting” is more strength than
power
Strength – maximum force that can be
generated at a specific velocity.
 Acceleration – change in velocity per
unit of time.
 Biomechanical factors include neural
control, CSA, pennation, muscle length,
muscle attachments.

Strain – When the external changes in
size or shape are expressed compared
to the original form, these deformations
are called strains.
 Longitudinal strain

› Tension – tendons, ligaments, muscle, blood
vessels, nerves
› Compression – discs, vertebrae, cartilage

Shearing strain

Stress – Internal reaction forces within a
material are called stresses. Longitudinal
stress is perpendicular to the cross
section of the material.
Elasticity – A material that returns
immediately to its original form.
 Viscosity – A material where stress will
develop, but the strain will be delayed.
The greater the rate of loading, the
greater the stress developed. In a pure
viscous material, deformation is not
recoverable.


Viscoelasticity – A combination of the
two behaviors. A viscoelastic material
tends to deform slowly in a nonlinear
fashion. When the load is removed, the
original size and shape will tend to return
in a slow and nonlinear manner.

SOURCES OF RESISTANCE TO MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
› Gravity
› Weight stack machines
› Inertia
› Friction
› Fluid resistance
› Elasticity

LIFTING SAFETY
› Back injury
› Intra-abdominal pressure and lifting belts
› Shoulders
› Knees
› Compression garments
Escamilla et al. (2002)
 Examined the standard deadlift and the
sumo deadlift with, and without a belt
 The belt condition produced significantly
greater activity in the rectus abdominis,
and less activity in the external obliques


Walsh et al. (2007)
› Evaluated motion of the squat with 48
asymptomatic athletes
› The use of the belt did not significantly alter
spinal motion during the lift
› Many of the athletes felt that the belt
provided additional support compared to
the no belt condition
Are All Hip Extension Exercises
Created Equal?
Contreras BM, et al., Strength Cond J
2013;35(2):17-22
Exercise
90 degrees
135 degrees
180 degrees
Good morning
478
338
0
45 degree
back
extension
338
478
338
Horizontal
back
extension
0
338
478
Anaerobic training
 Resistance training
 Aerobic training
 Overtraining
 Recovery techniques
 Detraining

Anatomical differences
 Gender differences
 Maturity

 Individual
biomechanical differences
› Posture
› Size of individual
› Machines

Individual biomechanical differences
› Specific free-weight exercises
 Pulls from the floor
 Snatch
 Clean and jerk
 Squat
 Bench press
Anatomical differences
 Gender differences
 Maturity


MATURITY
› Maximum strength development
› Motor skills
› Chronological vs. biological age
 Tanner stages
 menarche
 MATURITY
› Movement ability
 Stabilizing
 Locomotor
 Manipulative
MATURITY
› Motor development
 Reflexive movement phase
 Rudimentary movement phase
 Fundamental movement phase
 Specialized movement phase

Early childhood (2-5)
› Limited fundamental skills and lack of balance – running,
swimming, tumbling, throwing, catching

Middle childhood (6-9)
› Posture and balance become more automatic, reaction
times are improved – add skiing, entry level soccer,
gymnastics, martial arts

Pre-pubescent (10-12)
› Most can master a complex skill but may have a
temporary decline in balance because of a growth spurt

Youth training guidelines
› 1-3 sets x 6-15 repetitions
› Multi-joint exercises can be used with proper
form
› 2-3 sessions/week
› Adult spotters
77% of reported injuries in the 8-13 year
old age group were categorized as
accidental.
 Young children are more likely to be
injured from home exercise equipment.


Children are more susceptible to central
fatigue so the volume of resistance
training needs to be carefully monitored.
Progressive resistance has to be
progressed in a manner as to prevent
overtraining.
Streckis V, et al., Muscle Nerve 2007;36:357-363.
LTAD is a theory without long term
evidence of success.
 Continuous development of fundamental
motor skills and strength.
 Evidence against early sports
specialization and classification of youth.

 MATURITY
› Aging process
 Osteoporosis
 Sarcopenia – Age associated loss
of muscle mass and functional
capacity.
There appears to be a greater loss of
type II fibers, as much as 25-50% in the
CSA of the muscle. Decreases of 1-25%
have been seen in type I fibers.
 Muscle protein synthesis rates are
substantially lower in older adults.
 There appears to be an increased fat
infiltration in the muscle during aging.

“Dynapenia” – a decline in muscle
strength.
 The rate of loss of muscle strength with
aging is much steeper compared to that
of muscle mass decline.

› Senechal M; MSSE Aug 2014.
Reduced power output with age cannot
be fully explained by muscle atrophy.
 Recent studies show a slowing of crossbridge kinetics.
 It has been proposed that resistance
training can partially correct these
deficits.

› Miller & Toth, Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2013;
41(2):93-99.
Resistance training has been shown to
be safe and effective for increasing
strength and lean muscle tissue in older
adults.
 There is little consensus on proper
training doses.


Administration of tests
› Supervision
› Warm-up
› Motivation
› Safety
Local muscular endurance
 Strength / Power
 Aerobic capacity
 Anaerobic capacity
 Agility
 Speed
 Body composition
 Flexibility

 LOCAL
MUSCULAR ENDURANCE
› Curl-ups
› Push-ups
› Abdominal endurance
› Back extensor endurance
› Lateral trunk endurance
 STRENGTH
/ POWER
› 1RM – bench press, squat
› 1RM – power clean
› Vertical jump, standing long jump
 AEROBIC
CAPACITY
› 1.5 mile run
› 12 minute run
 ANAEROBIC
CAPACITY
› 300 yard shuttle
 AGILITY
› T-test
› Pro agility test
 SPEED
› 40 yard sprint

40 yard sprint
› Drive – initial segment lasts 7 steps. Strongest
leg forward, weight on opposite hand.
Explode out and stay low at 45 degrees.
Takes about 1.45 seconds.
› Transition – Form is the key. Takes about 2
seconds.
› Finish – run through the finish and don’t lean.
Combine record is Chris Johnson in 2009,
4.24.
 BODY
COMPOSITION
› Hydrostatic weighing
› Skinfold measurements
 FLEXIBILITY

SOCCER
› Standing
›
›
›
›
17%
Walking
40%
Easy running
35%
Easy running (B) 1.3%
Hard running
8%

SOCCER
› Less than 2% of total distance is with the ball
› 1-2,000 bouts of action
› Activity transition every 5-6 sec, 3 sec rest
every 2 minutes
› Sprints have a 15 meter average, once every
90 sec

Day 1
› 2 mile run – under 12 min

Day 2
› Shuttle sprint (5-10-15-20-25) – 32sec
› 60 second sit-up test
› 60 second push-up test

Day 3
› Vertical jump
› BP (90% max)
Division III soccer
Overload principle
 S.A.I.D. principle
 Muscle actions: concentric,
eccentric, isometric
 Dynamic resistance: manual
resistance, free weight, machines,
isokinetics
 Metabolic training (Bioenergetic)

 Injury
prevention
 Muscle balance ratios
1 repetition maximum (1RM)
 Estimating 1RM
 Repetition continuum

› Power
› Strength
› Hypertrophy
› Endurance

Volume
› Physiological considerations
1-4 reps
1-6 reps
6-12 reps
12-20+ reps
 Rest
periods – energy systems
 Training frequency
› Sufficient recovery
› Maximal vs. submaximal resistance
› Lower body vs. upper body
› Eccentric vs. concentric
Snatch
 Power clean
 Hang clean
 Push press
 Push jerk
 Clean and jerk

Beginning position
 Upward movement

› Initial pull
› Transition (scoop)
› Second pull
Catch
 Downward movement phase
 breathing


SPOTTING
› Potential dangers
 Overhead
 Over the face
 Bar on the back
› Number of spotters
› Liftoff
› Specific exercises
 Hans
Selye
 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
› Alarm
› Adaptation
› Breakdown
Mateyev (1972)
 Macrocycle, Mesocycle, Microcycle
 Preparation phase – high vol., low inten.
 1st transition phase – mod vol., mod
inten.
 Competition phase – low vol., high inten.
 2nd transition phase – rec., low inten.


Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation
Theory (SFRA)
› Fatigue accumulates in proportion to the
strength and duration of a stimulus.
› After rest, fatigue dissipates and
supercompensation occurs.
Taper – reduce training to enhance
performance.
 Reduction in volume, intensity and/or
frequency.
 Dissipate fatigue.


Optimal taper (?) is 2 weeks in duration
and consists of reducing volume by 4161% while maintaining intensity and
frequency.
› Bosquet et al., MSSE 2007

Hypertrophy phase
› Super setting
› Compound setting
› Pre-exhaustion
Strength phase
 Power phase


Linear periodization
› Designed for peak performance at a specific
time

Undulating periodization
› Designed to maintain higher performance for
longer periods of time

Combination training – combining
strength and power training.
Traditionally, combination training often
referred to adding aerobic training for
anaerobic athletes – “cross training”.
 Complex
training – several sets of
heavy strength training repetitions
followed by lighter power movements.
 Contrast training – alternating strength
exercise with power movements.
% 1 RM
Reps per set
Rest
55
5
90 sec
70
3
90 sec
85
3
180 sec
85
3
180 sec
85
3
180 sec
Tuck jumps
Body weight
5
30 sec
Tuck jumps
Body weight
5
30 sec
Back squat
% of 1 RM
Reps per set
Rest
55
5
90 sec
70
3
90 sec
85
3
60 sec
Split squat
jump
Body weight
10
180 sec
Back squat
85
3
60 sec
Split squat
jump
Body weight
10
180 sec
Back squat
Increased excitability of CNS due to post
activation potentiation (PAP)
 Increased variety of training

Athletes must work at high intensities
Exercises should be biomechanically
similar
Volume should be low
An exercise or drill should relate to a
specific part of a skill.
 This can be general or sports specific.

OR

Just get strong any way you can, and
then practice your sport!

Exercises that enable a muscle to reach
maximal strength in as short a time as
possible. These exercises use the force
of gravity to store energy in the elastic
components of the muscle and then
combine with the energy of the muscular
contraction to exert maximal power.
Plyometrics has also been called jump
training, and stretch-shortening
exercises.

If ground contact exceeds 0.25 seconds,
then power production can be
significantly reduced.

Program factors
› Strength base
 Lower body – squat 1.5 x body weight
 Upper body – bench press 1 x body weight
- 5 clap push-ups
 Drop heights
- select drop height as low as 20 cm
- allow 5 jumps at each height
- increase the drop height
- increments of increase should not be
greater than 10 cm

If the drop height is too high for the
athlete’s strength, ground contact time
will increase.

There will be bilateral differences in peak
force and average force based on drop
jump (depth jump) height. Bilateral
differences are seen at 20 and 40 cm,
but not at a 60 cm starting height.
› Ball NB, Stock CG, Scurr JC. JSCR
2010;24(10):2762-2769.
 Equipment
› Footwear
› Surface
› Facilities
Jumps – triple extension
 Hops – paw mechanics
 Bounds – push mechanics


LEVEL I – Eccentrics
Landing mechanics – quiet landings
Minimal flexion at knees and hips
“Stick it”

LEVEL II – Low intensity
Minimize ground contact – jump height
unimportant
Ankling, skipping, etc.
Stay on the balls of the feet

LEVEL III – Increasing intensity
Minimizing ground contact and
maximizing force, horizontal and/or
vertical
Jumps in place
 Standing jumps
 Multiple hops/jumps
 Bounds
 Box drills
 Depth jumps


Program design
› Frequency – 2 days of high intensity/wk
› Volume
 Beginner
80-100
 Intermediate
100-120
 Advanced
120-140
› Intensity – 90-100% max
(100-150)
(150-250)
› Rest - 1:5 ratio
› Plyometrics and weight training

For children (8-14), current evidence
suggests that a program of 2x/week,
beginning at 50-60 jumps/session for 810 weeks results in the largest changes in
running and jumping performance.
› Johnson BA, Salzberg CL & Stevenson DA. J
Strength Cond Res. 2011:25(9);2623-2633.
Plyometric training had a large effect on
improving the ability to jump.
 The effects on running velocity were not
as consistent across the studies.
 There was also some improvement in
agility, and kicking distance in soccer
players.
 Every study addressed safety in a
satisfactory manner.






Focus of the exercise should be specific to
the desired outcome.
Progression should be to 90-100 jumps by
the end of the 10 weeks.
Sessions should be 10-25 minutes in
duration with appropriate warm-up and
cool-down.
Drills should last approx. 10s with 90s rest
between drills.
There should be a low instructor-to-student
ration (1:4-5).
Camps - The need for speed
Consistency
Increase total strength
 Dynamic warm-ups
 Technique, technique, technique
 Hill running
 Reduce body’s downward force by 5ms,
raise legs 5 ms quicker



 Loren Seagrave
STRIDE FREQUENCY – dependent on
metabolic systems
 STRIDE LENGTH – biomechanical
efficiency
 NEUROLOGICAL EFFICIENCY

MUSCLE ENERGY EXPENDED
 57% to accelerate body segments
 22% to decelerate body segments
 3% to balance gravitational forces
 18% against air resistance and friction

 SUPPORTING
PHASE
› Braking
› Amortization
 FLYING
PHASE
› Rising
› Falling
 Interaction
of stride frequency and
stride length
› Explosive horizontal push-off
› Minimal vertical displacement

SUPPORTING PHASE
› As leg touches down, knee should be slightly
flexed at approximately 170 degrees
› Angle of alignment between toe-hip line and
horizontal line is approximately 60-70
degrees

FLYING PHASE
› After takeoff, the backward moving leg
reaches maximal extension while the front
leg is in optimal flexed position
› When the back leg starts moving forward,
the knee flexors should hold the leg folded at
approximately 30 degrees
› Through the propulsion phase, the athlete
should bring the foot of the folded leg
through the cycle at the same level of the
supporting knee

TRIPLE EXTENSION – Extending the ankle,
knee and hip.

TRIPLE FLEXION – Flexing the ankle, knee
and hip.

IMPROVING PERFORMANCE
› Improve strength during the support phase;
strength against gravity, propulsive forces
› Improve swinging actions; speed of circular
movements, speed of reversal

IMPROVING PERFORMANCE
› Strength – weight training, plyometrics,
contrast training
› Contrast training- resistance, assistance

IMPROVING PERFORMANCE
› TECHNIQUE
› Leg drills – knee lift, triple extension, butt
kicks (recovery mechanics)
› Arm drills – standing and seated
 Elbows locked, movement at the shoulders
 “Chin to Pocket”
COMMON ERRORS
 “Sitting” – insufficient leg extension
 “Bouncing” – too much vertical
 Ineffective arm movement
 Head forward

Equipment/facilities
 Athletes
 Time
 Complexity
 Weighted implements
