1Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol. 18, No.4
Introduction to Mongolian Wrestling
Chang Jung-Sheng│MTAC Section Member
Abstract
Mongolian wrestling is a sport that truly reflects Mongol history, customs,
and humanities. It has a primitive, strong attraction. This paper begins with an
introduction to the origin and history of Mongolian wrestling, and goes on to explain
the changes in outfit, code of etiquettes, and rituals in the history of Mongolian
wrestling. Also featured in this paper are match techniques, rules, and criteria for
victory and defeat. The last part of the paper discusses the awards and titles that go
to the winners of wrestling games. In short, this paper is a brief but comprehensive
introduction to this age-long athletic game.
Key Words: Mongolian wrestling, Bökh, Three Manly Skills
Ⅰ. Introduction
Mongolian wrestling (also known as Bökh 1) is traditionally one of the “Three
Manly Skills” of the Mongols. This kind of folk wrestling has a long history in
Mongolia. It is a common form of recreation for children and young people, a way to
have fun on the way to school, during breaks, or in get-togethers. Mongolian
wrestling games are also held in Mongolian national Naadam or in Ovoo
worship ceremonies. Mongolian wrestling is an integral part of Mongol lifestyle
and culture.
Ⅱ. Origin and History
Mongolian wrestling can trace its roots to the era of the Xiongnu Empire. Two
topless wrestlers wearing tights and locked in a fight are depicted on a
rectangle-shaped bronze tablet unearthed in the Shanglin Garden of the Chinese Han
Dynasty in Keshengzhuang, Xian, Shanxi Province. The wrestler on the left holds his
opponent’s waist with his right hand and grabs the back side of his opponent’s thigh
1
This paper was submitted for review on May 14, 2009. It was approved for publication on July 24,
2009.
Bökh can mean wrestling, wrestler, or sturdiness and being strong. According to the book A Record of
the Cultures of Ordos, the Mongols begin their wrestling practice in childhood by carrying or kicking
wool pouches containing sands. Small amounts of sand are added to the pouch each day. Wrestlers
are considered ready for competition when they can easily lift the heavy pouch with their bare hands
or kick the pouch upside down. The book History and Cultures of Ordos also mentions some of the
more extreme ways of practicing, for example by lifting cattle overhead. Wrestlers
are considered ready for competition when they can easily lift the cattle overhead or toss the cattle
aside.
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Introduction to Mongolian Wrestling2
with his left hand. The wrestler on the right holds his opponent’s waist and leg with
his two hands. This piece of openwork depicts the two wrestlers as surrounded with
trees and horses, probably implying that the two men rode to the countryside
and suddenly decided to get off their horses and have a wrestling game. 2 A
large-sized rock wall carving found in Buton Maud Ditch in northwestern Dengkou
County of Bayannur League (now known as Bayannur City) is believed to be the work
of Xiongnu people, depicting “strong, naked wrestlers competing in mountain
wilderness” or “two men locked in a wrestling game; their limbs are intertwined.”
This style of wrestling bears resemblance to today’s Ordos wrestling, which proves
that wrestling were a common practice among the Xiongnu people.3
In ancient times, the Mongol culture came under the influence of the Qaraei
and the Naiman peoples in the west. The Qaraei and Naiman cultures were in
turned heavily influenced by the Qocho and the Kara-Khitan peoples in the west. The
mainstream style of wrestling for these peoples is what is known today as the
“freestyle” wrestling, in which wrestlers continue their fight even after falling to the
ground, and a wrestler is not considered defeated unless his shoulders touch the
ground.In his work Histoire des Mongols, D'Ohsson pointed out that Ögedei Khan
loved to watch wrestling games. The book also describes a wrestling match between
a Mongol wrestler and a Persian wrestler: “after Bilie was hurled to the ground by
the Mongol wrestler, he jokingly remarked, ‘you’d better make sure I can’t get up, or I
will break free.’ These words were barely out of his mouth before he pushed hard to
get up and hurled the Mongol wrestler to the ground.” Apparently just falling to the
ground does not mean defeat for a wrestler. The book Batuhan described a Naadam
Festival held by a Mongol army: “in three rounds of competition, wrestlers whose
shoulder never touched the ground would be granted the honorary title of Baturu
(which means “hero” in Mongol language).” Therefore, for a wrestler to be
deemed defeat, both of his shoulders have to touch the ground.4However, wrestling
matches can easily result in deaths for the wrestlers because wrestlers are looking to
subdue each other. As such, rulers in ancient times are known to have used wrestling
games for murder. According to the Book of Northern Qi, “the Prince of Nanyang was
a victim to Han Zhangluan’s instigations. Shortly before the Prince departed to
assume his new position as the Governor of Qi Zhou, Han had one of the Prince’s
2
Namjila, A History of the Customs of Chinese Yuan Dynasty, (Beijing: People's Publishing House, 1994),
p.239.Tuan Guang-jin, “A History of Mongolian Wrestling,” in Annuals of the Grasslands (Hohhot), Vol.2
(July 1987), p.225.
“A Preliminary Discussion of Similarities in Wrestling—On Bökh’s Origin in Xiongnu Wrestling,”
Mongol Culture Portal Site, 2009-4-6, http://www.mgwhw.com/sports/research/2005092411.asp.
4
Aqilatu, “Characteristics of Yuan Dynasty Mongolian Wrestling,” in Annuals of the Grasslands
(Hohhot), Vol.2 (July 1987), p.224.
3
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3Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol. 18, No.4
trusted aides spread rumors about the Prince’s conspiracy to revolt against the
Emperor. Han told the Emperor that the Prince should not be pardoned for so serious
a crime. The Emperor could not bear to order the Prince’s death, so he arranged for
one of his trusted aides, a Hu nationality by the name of He Wei-sa, to kill the Prince
in a wrestling match.5”According to The Secret History of the Mongols, Belgutei, a
younger brother of Genghis Khan, and Bulibeikuo of the Jurkin tribe were both
famous wrestlers. Belgutei was once defeated by Bulibeikuo, and was once slashed to
injuries by Bulibeikuo in a banquet. One day, Genghis Khan ordered a wrestling
match between the two. During the match, Bulibeikuo deliberately fell to the ground.
Belgutei had difficulty keeping his opponent to the ground, so he held his opponent’s
shoulders and sat on his opponent’s bottom. He then turned to look at Genghis Khan
and, seeing Genghis Khan biting his lip, he took the hint and broke Bulibeikuo’s
backbone by holding his neck with his hands and pulling backwards, while using his
knees to keep Bulibeikuo on the ground. Bulibeikuo’s last words were: “I am the
victim of my own weakness! I fell to the ground on purpose out of fear for Genghis
Khan, or Belgutei would never have defeated me! 6”
Mongolian wrestling was at first considered an important way to keep an army in
good physical shape and combat ready. Wrestlers were selected on the merit of
power and skill. It was in the peaceful days of Yuan Dynasty that the people
started to want more cultural nourishment. Wrestling became more like a social
entertainment. Emperor Renzong of Yuan created an imperial government agency for
wrestling management. Wrestlers had to wear specially designed outfits, and star
wrestlers were asked to referee wrestling matches in their spare time.7The History of
Yuan Dynasty says, “In June of the sixth year of the reign of Emperor Renzong, the
120 wrestlers were each awarded a thousand dollars.” This statement
indicated popularity of wrestling games back then. The statement
“wrestlers competing for glory in games sponsored by officials from across the
nation” found in Chronicles of Koubeisanting also points out wrestling as an
important form of entertainment in banquets. 8
In the days of Genghis Khan, Ögedei Khan, and Kublai Khan, Bökh was believed to
be the most popular type of wrestling, bearing a resemblance to what is known
today as freestyle wrestling. However, it gave way to the “Balisu” wrestling of the
Liao and the Jin peoples in the days of Temür Khan and Külüg Khan. “Balisu” is
Jin Qi-cong, “Archeological Evidence of the Relation between Chinese Wrestling and Mongol
and Khitan Peoples,” in Journal of Inner Mongolia University (philosophy and social science, Hohhot),
1979, No. 3 and 4, pp.234-235.
6
JagchidSechen, A New Annotated Translation of the Secret History of the Mongols, (Taipei: Linking
Publishing, 1979), pp.160-161, p.174.
7
Bai Ge-le, Wang Lu, Wu Jin, Mongols, (Beijing: the Ethnic Publishing House, 1991), p.192.
8
Aqilatu, “Characteristics of Yuan Dynasty Mongolian Wrestling,” pp.223-224.
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Introduction to Mongolian Wrestling4
Jurchen language for “wrestlers.” In his Additions to the History of Liao, Li E
quoted Zhang Shunmin of the Chinese Song Dynasty as saying, “The northerners
treated the envoys from the south with more than three hundred musicians. The
dancers made only small moves with their hands and feet to the music. There were
also wrestling games in which a wrestler was declared defeated when he fell to the
ground. Two wrestlers were locked in a long match as they tried unsuccessfully to
hurl each other to the ground. They had small pieces of fabric to cover their
bare chests. If their bare chests were exposed, they would bury their faces in their
hands and walk off in shame.” This passage reveals several key points. Firstly, the
rules were changed that falling to the ground would constitute defeat. Secondly, this
kind of wrestling is similar to Mongolian wrestling today in that wrestlers could be
locked in a stalemate for a long time. Thirdly, the hard piece of fabric wrestlers
used to cover their bare chests could very likely be made of leather. In his essay
“Wrestling of the Khitan Peoples,” Japanese Torii Ryūzō argued that paintings
depicting Khitan children wrestling, found on a white octagon pottery jar of Liao
Dynasty unearthed in a site in today’s Liaoning Province’s Liaoyang City in
1931, could provide accurate and reliable clues as to theoutfits of Khitan wrestlers
and their style of wrestling. He went on to explain that the first side of the jar depicts
two Khitan children squatting face-to-face, waiting for the match to begin,
and wearing something like an undergarment to cover their chest. The second side of
the jar depicts these children as raising their arms and moving their feet to ready
themselves for the match, wearing sleeveless tops and undergarments. On the
third side, the match begins, but the children still stand separately. Another two
persons looking like referees are holding flowers in their hands. On the fourth side,
the little wrestlers are fighting a fierce match. The child on the left side is holding his
opponent with both hands and using one leg to try to trip his opponent. From
these clues, one can easily imagine what an adult wrestling match might be like.
Firstly, the sleeveless tops are proofs that the Khitan people did wear tops in their
Balisu games. This kind of top could be the earliest version of Jodag worn by
Mongolian wrestlers today. Secondly, the undergarments worn by these
Khitan children could very well be the “small pieces of fabric covering their
bare chests” described by Zhang Shunmin. Or it could be that the Khitans wore
something else to cover their bare chests in addition to their wrestling outfit,
and later they decided to ditch the chest-covering fabric in favor of the sleeveless top,
which was very likely to have been made of leather. This sleeveless top then
evolved into the Jodag on Mongolian wrestlers. To sum up, Khitan wrestlers in Liao
Dynasty did wear short-sleeved tops in their Balisu games, and they did wear fabrics
to cover their bare chests. The rules of wrestling are similar to today’s Mongolian
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5Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol. 18, No.4
wrestling. The Jin people followed the same wrestling styles and wore the same
wrestling outfit as the people in Liao Dynasty. 9
There are a few possible explanations for wrestling’s evolution from Bökh to Balisu.
Firstly, the rulers of Yuan Dynasty constantly faced threats of invasion from Mongol
princes in the northwest. By the days of Kublai Khan, the rulers had severed all ties
with the four imperial houses and the tradition of freestyle wrestling. Secondly, the
revolts of princes in the northeast against the rulers were soon quelled. By this time,
Balisu had become so popular in the northeast that the Yuan rulers were forced to
adopt it. In the thirteenth chapter of his Narrative of the Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez de
Clavijo to the Court of Timour at Samarcand AD 1403-6, Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, a
Spanish envoy, wrote about his experience as a guest of the grandson of Timur in
Samarcand, the capital of Timurid Empire: “the Grandson of Timur lived in a red silk
tent. He sat on a short throne, and many sat close to him…...in front of him were two
strong men engaged in a wrestling game. Both of them were wearing sleeveless
leather tops, and were locked in a stalemate before the eyes of the Grandson, who
ordered them to finish the game off. So one of the wrestlers lifted up his opponent
then hurled him to the ground.” The wrestling outfit and wrestling style described in
this passage are similar to today’s Mongolian wrestling. However, this style of
wrestling was not popular in Central Asia at first. The rulers of Timurid Empire
probably thought the game they staged in the banquet was traditional Mongolian
wrestling. And they must have inherited it from the rulers of Ilkhanate, who
had inherited it from Yuan Dynasty rulers. Therefore, in mid-Yuan Dynasty era, this
type of wrestling came to be known as Bökh. Had later-generation Yuan Dynasty
rulers stuck with the old style of wrestling in the days of Genghis Khan and Ögedei
Khan, what is known as Mongolian Bökh today might have been completely
different. 10
Later in the Chinese Qing Dynasty era, Mongol captives taught the Manchu rulers
about Mongolian wrestling in military camps and in the imperial court. 11The rulers
attached great importance to wrestling and constantly held “Buku games” or “Buku
exercises” (the word “Buku” derived from the Mongol word Bökh, meaning wrestlers
or strong men 12). It was during this time that wrestlers such as Temudehei, Duerma,
Jin Qi-cong, “Archeological Evidence of the Relation between Chinese Wrestling and Mongol
and Khitan Peoples,” pp.230-233.
10
Jin Qi-cong, “Archeological Evidence of the Relation between Chinese Wrestling and Mongol
and Khitan Peoples,” p.237.
11
Oyunbilig, Cheng Chong-de, Zhang Yong-jiang, History of the Mongols, Vol.4 (Hohhot: Inner
Mongolia University Press, 1993), p.467.
12
Jin Qi-cong, “Archeological Evidence of the Relation between Chinese Wrestling and Mongol
and Khitan Peoples,” p.240.
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Introduction to Mongolian Wrestling6
and Mendu rose to stardom. 13According to Qing Dynasty Taizong’s Veritable Records,
in June of the sixth year of Emperor Taizong’s reign, “Temudehei fought against
Duerma in a wrestling match that ended with victory for Duerma. Mendu had a
wrestling match against Duerma that ended with victory for Mendu.”According to
Records from the Eastern Flower Gate, in January of the eighth year of Emperor
Taizong’s reign, “the Emperor ordered wrestlers under the command of Tüshiyetü
Khanate, Jasaghtu Khanate, and Zunghar Khanate to wrestle against minor wrestlers.
Selected wrestlers were then asked to wrestle against the famous Aersalan. Aersalan
impressed everybody present by lifting up and hurling all his opponents to the
ground one by one at lightning speed. 14”
Buku games in early Qing Dynasty era always had something to do with practicing
battle arrays. Later Shan Pu Ying (literally the Expert in Wrestling Unit) was set up as
an equivalent to the Wrestling Agency in Yuan Dynasty era. In the reign of Emperor
Qianlong, wrestling games were more like an entertainment. According to the Xiao
Ting Xu Lu, “the best warriors of the Eight Banners were selected to join the Shan Pu
Ying to be trained as wrestlers. They were asked to present wrestling games in royal
banquets, and sometimes they were asked to compete against wrestlers in the
service of princes. Winners of wrestling matches were given tea and silk fabrics as
prizes. Emperor Qianlong is a big fan of wrestling. Star wrestlers like Dawuge
and Haixiu were treated with great respect from the Emperor. Common soldiers were
promoted to high positions in the imperial court for being skilled wrestlers. When
Niohuru Heshen became Grand Secretary to the Emperor, he ordered the country’s
police officers to be trained as wrestlers. Later Wen Ning, Chief of the Imperial
Insignia Guard, successfully talked the Emperor out of asking his men to perform
wrestling games under the pretext that lowborn soldiers should not come too near to
the Emperor. Wen was widely complimented for making such a sensible
suggestion. 15”
In the days before Qing Dynasty, the Mongols had no formal venue for wrestling
games. In the days of Qing Dynasty, wrestling games were generally held in any flat
ground randomly chosen. However, venues were specifically prepared for formal
matches or on major festivals when wrestling matches were staged. An example of
formal wrestling venue is the one at Shan Pu Ying, a round-shaped pit 18 meters
wide and 3 meters deep. The bottom of the pit was paved with tree branches. On the
tree branches were a layer of wood shavings dipped in tung oil. This layer was
topped by a layer of sand and loess. Wrestlers stood on a mat on top of the
Bai Ge-le, Wang Lu, Wu Jin, Mongols, p.192.
Oyunbilig, Cheng Chong-de, Zhang Yong-jiang, History of the Mongols, Vol.4, p.467.
15
Jin Qi-cong, “Archeological Evidence of the Relation between Chinese Wrestling and Mongol
and Khitan Peoples,” pp.241-242.
13
14
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7Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol. 18, No.4
sand and loess. Wrestling matches in the imperial palace were usually held on
platforms paved with thick coir matting. Venues like these are still seen today. 16
Ⅲ. Wrestling Outfit
Mongolian (Outer Mongolian) wrestlers and Inner Mongolian wrestlers now wear
different outfit for the sport. As a rule, a Mongolian wrestler wears Mongolian
headpiece and a heavy-duty canvas jacket fastened at the front with a knotted string.
The jacket no longer has a bronze mirror attached to it. He also wears an
embroidered brief. An Inner Mongolian wrestler, by contrast, typically wears a pair of
large embroidered white pants, and has a large silk apron in the colors red, blue,
and yellow tied on his waist. Wrestlers also wear high and big boots. They often show
up with gold and silver decorations (symbolizing good luck) on their hats, jackets,
and boots for important matches or performances. A standard Mongolian wrestling
outfit contains the following parts: 17
1. Outer Mongolian Wrestling Outfit: 18
(1) Headpiece: The headpiece worn by Outer Mongolian wrestlers is a kind of
skullcap with the four pieces of rim turned up. A bead is sewn on the top of the
headpiece. Wrestlers in the ranks of “giant, lion, elephant, and eagle” have the
appropriate animal totems attached to the front of their headpiece. Holders of
“Honorary Giant” title have the totems of sacred bird, lion, elephant, and eagle
attached to the four sides of their headpiece.
(2) Jacket: The short jacket worn by wrestlers is known in Mongolian language as
“Jodag.” Traditionally made of wool, modern Outer Mongolian wrestlers
have changed to softer and sturdier materials sewn tightly with more pliable
threads. Two sturdy cords on the left and right sides of the jacket are fastened to
the belly to make sure the fabric adheres to the body of the wrestler.
(3) Brief: Known as Shuudag in Mongolian language, it is a tight-fitting brief made
with soft and sturdy thick fabric and decorated with beautiful embroidery
designs.
(4) Boots: Traditional style Mongolian wrestling boots are called “Gutal” and made
with quality materials. The vamp and the lining of the boots are usually
decorated with embroidery. The traditional style gutals are often
reinforced around the sides with leather strings for the purpose of wrestling.
Bai Ge-le, Wang Lu, Wu Jin, Mongols, p.193.Jin Qi-cong, “Archeological Evidence of the Relation
between Chinese Wrestling and Mongol and Khitan Peoples,” p.243.
17
Jin Hsao-shi, Chronicles of a Journey to Outer Mongolia (First Volume), (Taoyuan: Puchun Co. Ltd.,
2000), pp.99-100.
18
Bayala, “Wrestling in Outer Mongolia,” Mongolian and Tibetan Friendship Magazine (Taipei), No. 54
(October 1996), pp. 23-24. Wu Yen-Ju, “Differences between Inner Mongolian and Outer Mongolian
Wrestlers,”Mongolian and Tibetan Friendship Magazine (Taipei), No. 63 (December 1998), pp. 64-65.
16
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Introduction to Mongolian Wrestling8
2. Inner Mongolian Wrestling Outfit: 19
(1) Necklace (also known as talisman necklace): Inner Mongolian wrestlers may also
wear a jangga, a necklace decorated with strands of colorful silk ribbons. It is
awarded to those who have gained considerable renown through winning
prestigious Naadam contests. With each new victory, a new strand of colorful silk
ribbons would be added. The number of strands represents the number of victory
won by the wrestler. The strand of ribbon is awarded to victorious wrestler along
with prizes. Star wrestlers are awarded a triangle-shaped lucky cloth (half of a
whole piece of silk fabric) as champions of wrestling contests. Wrestlers are
awarded a silk scarf with ribbons known as Khata for winning a
128-wrestler contest.
(2) Jacket: In a wrestling contest, wrestlers would attempt to grab the jacket, or
jodag, of the opponent. The jacket is also worn for protective purposes. It is made
of four types of materials: cowhide, rough leather, felt, or cloth, and comes in
open or closed design. The tight-fitting, collarless, and short-sleeved design is
also called “butterfly jacket” or “winged jacket” for shaping like butterfly wings. It
is fastened at the back with a simple knotted string, and the front is cut away. In
all types of wrestling jacket, the neckline, sleeves, and the rim are always
reinforced with cowhide or rough leather and fastened with leather ribbon, silk
ribbon, or flax ribbon. Sturdy materials are used for the lining. Silver or bronze
rivets are attached to the neckline, sleeves, the rim, and the sides of the back
waist area of the jacket. A five-inch wide round-shaped or moon-shaped mirror
made with silver or bronze is also attached to the jacket. On the mirror are
engravings of dragon, phoenix, lion, tiger, elephant, or deer, as well as engravings
of other patterns or Mongolian seal scripts or Mongolian characters.
(3) Apron: The Mongolian “busule” is essentially a strand of red, yellow, and blue silk
ribbons or cloth ribbons fastened to a sturdy belt firmly tied at the waist. It is
reinforced with another layer during wrestling games in areas under the jacket,
on the belt, and on the waist.
(4) Pants and “Pant Covers”: Wrestling pants are called “banzele” in Mongolian
language. They are loose pants made of thick white cloth. The surface of the
pants is wrinkled like the stomach of a goat, which is believed to offer protection.
The “pant covers” are called “taochu,” a decoration on the pants made with
bright-colored satin and embroidered with colorful and gold and silver threads at
the edge. Patterns of dragon, phoenix, lion, tiger, bat, and the symbol of longevity
are embroidered on or attached to the satin. There are exquisite patterns of
Wu Yen-Ju, “Differences between Inner Mongolian and Outer Mongolian Wrestlers,” p. 65. Bökh
Outfit, Mongolian Culture Portal Site, 2009.04.06,
http://www.mgwhw.com/sports/boke/2005092304.asp.
19
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9Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol. 18, No.4
peacock feather, fire, and lucky symbols embroidered on the knees.
(5) Boots: The “gutals” are no different from the boots wrestlers wear in their
everyday lives. The boots are fastened with a six-meter long, 2-centimeter wide
solid leather belt. On one end of the belt is a bronze ring, an iron ring, or a fast
knot. The belt would circle the boots three to five times. Some wrestlers
would put bamboo clapper in their boots to prevent injuries. 20
Sometimes lamas would compete in Ovoo worship wrestling contests. Unlike
other wrestlers, they wear an outfit decorated with silver sequins from head to toe.21
Ⅳ. Match Courtesy
Mongolian wrestling also has certain codes of conduct that concern more with
good sportsmanship. Before a match begins, wrestlers stand in two rows on the left
and right sides of the arena, waiting to enter the arena. Upon hearing the referee’s
whistle, wrestlers stretch their arms majestically like an eagle and “hop”
around the circle of the arena to the music. They “fly” in this way to the platform
and salute first the host and honored guests then the audience by clasping their
hands, before returning to their original position to wait for the match to begin.
When it is time to enter the arena, they “hop” their way to the center of the arena
and, after sorting out their outfit, they begin the match at the instructions of the
referee. When the match ends, the winner is expected to help the loser to his feet,
and then the two of them would spread their arms and “fly” away from the arena
back to their positions in the formation of wrestlers. 22
Outer Mongolian wrestlers “hop” in three ways in a wrestling contest. On first
entering the arena, they lift their heads up and thrust out their chests, jogging at a
steady pace like a camel, their feet lifting and falling slowly. Halfway down the road,
they switch to another way of walking, clutching their hands into fists and swing their
fists violently back and forth, left and right, and up and down, with their feet lifting
high and falling steadily on the ground. In this way they approach the host, the
honored guests, and the audience at the platform, and upon arriving they relax their
fists and spread their arms moving slowly like a giant eagle flying, bending down
and hitting their bottom with the palm of their hands, like an eagle ready to surge
into sky. 23When they enter the arena for the second time to begin the match, they
spread their arms like an eagle and lift their heads and thrust out their chests as they
walk toward the referee, before circling the arena. Then the referee is supposed to
Zhao TseringJabo, Folk Customs of Yuan Dynasty Mongols (Hohhot: Baiyin Press, 2007), p.105.
Yang De-lin, Mongolian and Tibetan Folk Customs (Taipei: Chunghwa Books, 1990), p.56,
second edition.
22
Bai Ge-le, Wang Lu, Wu Jin, Mongols, p.194.
23
Jin Hsao-shi, Chronicles of a Journey to Outer Mongolia (First Volume), p.99.
20
21
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Introduction to Mongolian Wrestling10
remove the headpiece of the wrestlers and announce out loud the name and title of
the wrestlers. Then the wrestlers once again make the eagle-flying gesture, walking in
a left circle then stand still, before hitting twice on their thighs with their hands. This
signifies the official beginning of the match. The match is considered over when one
of the two wrestlers falls to the ground. The winner is expected to help the loser to
his feet then spreads his arms. The loser acknowledges defeat by removing his belt
and walking under the outstretched right arm of the winner. The winner takes back
his headpiece from the referee then makes the eagle-flying gesture again, before
walking toward the ritual stand with the large flag decorated with the tails of cows or
tail feathers of pheasant while the referee sings praises for him. The winner then
walks a circle around the ritual stand and leaves the arena in the eagle-flying gesture,
waiting for his next game. 24
Mongol wrestling dance has its original forms in shamanistic rituals where people
imitated movements of various animals. Today, apart from its aesthetic value, the
dance is also regarded as a warm-up and cool-down procedure before and after an
intense fight. 25During a wrestling match, the referee is seldom called for to intervene,
as wrestlers would automatically pause to give their opponents time to fix their loose
or damaged jacket, belt, or boots, or allow their opponents to get away from
obstacles or bumpy surface. Wrestlers would never allow themselves to win by taking
advantage of their opponents’ difficulties. Wrestlers would give their opponents time
to adjust their displaced necklace (jangga) or even help their opponents adjust the
necklace to make sure the opponents are not handicapped in any way. Wrestlers
attack gently, never resorting to extreme tactics, and wasting no time in helping a
defeated opponent to his feet. The very few wrestlers who don’t observe proper
wrestling etiquette would immediately draw criticism to themselves.26
It is a common practice in Inner Mongolia’s Ujimqin for retiring star wrestlers to
pass their wrestling jacket and “lucky belt” to promising novice wrestlers in a
public ceremony, usually in a large-scale rally (such as Naadam). In ceremonial games
like these, one or several pairs of retiring wrestlers about to be awarded the title of
honorary wrestler arrive at the arena dressed in full wrestling outfit. Each of them
would do three rounds of wrestling games for pure performance purposes, as these
games always end in ties. At the end of the games, they line up in front of the host
who would briefly introduce them and their achievements as wrestlers before
handing out prizes that are more or less the same prizes awarded to the champion of
Jin Hsao-shi, Chronicles of a Journey to Outer Mongolia (First Volume), pp. 100-101. Bayala,
“Wrestling in Outer Mongolia,” p. 23.
25
Mongolian wrestling, NationMaster, 2009.04.06,
http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Mongolianwrestling.
26
Social and Cultural Significance of Bökh, Mongolian Culture Portal Site, 2009.04.06,
http://www.mgwhw.com/sports/research/2005092406.asp.
24
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11Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol. 18, No.4
formal wrestling contests. The retiring wrestlers then have to remove their wrestling
jacket and lucky belt and hand them over to their chosen successors and wish them
every success in the future. This would be their last time on stage as wrestlers,
and also their last time to be awarded prizes as wrestlers. After the ceremonial
games are over, the formal wrestling games would begin. 27 Ceremonial games like
this are also held in Xulun Hoh Banner of Inner Mongolia’s Xilingol League. 28
However, in Inner Mongolia’s JuuUda League, before prizes and titles are
awarded to the champion and runner-up of a Naadam wrestling contest, two
aged wrestlers and “skillful hoppers” would first stage a normal wrestling contest. But
they would be separated before the match is declared over and seated next to other
wrestlers to receive the same sets of prizes. This is known as “jirigabukui” in the
region.29
Ⅴ. Wrestling Techniques and Match Rules
Basic Mongolian wrestling techniques include grabbing, pulling, holding, tearing,
pushing, tripping, tweaking, hurling, pressing, ducking, kicking, twitching, tackling,
marking, carrying, swinging, flashing, lifting, scooping, poking, and piercing.
Wrestlers have nearly a hundred tactics to choose from, including major tactics
and minor tactics. It is said the technique of tripping can evolve into“36 major tactics
and countless minor tactics. ”There are three major categories of wrestling:
long-distance wrestling, short-distance wrestling, and close-up wrestling: 30
1. Long-distance wrestling: The wrestlers have no physical contact, merely making
tentative attacks at first. When a wrestler sees a good chance of attack, he
immediately seizes it and attempts to unbalance his adversary by shoving or
tripping him.
2. Short-distance wrestling: The wrestlers grab each other while their bodies remain
apart, waiting for the perfect moment to strike and unbalance each other.
Short-distance wrestling usually involves techniques such as tweaking, tripping,
and hurling.
3. Close-up wrestling: The wrestlers are in close combat, trying to trip, lift and hurl,
or sit on each other.
Bökh Outfit, Mongolian Culture Portal Site,
2009.04.06,http://www.mgwhw.com/sports/boke/2005092304.asp.
28
Zhao TseringJabo, Folk Customs of Yuan Dynasty Mongols, p.105.
29
Hsu Shih-ming, Folk Customs of JuuUda (Beijing: China Literature and History Press, 1991), p.414.
30
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Editorial Group, A Study on History and Society of Daur People
(Hohhot: Inner Mongolia People's Publishing House, 1986), p.289. Baosier, A Record of the Cultures of
Ordos (Beijing: China Travel and Tourism Press, 1987), p.90.Bai Ge-le, Wang Lu, Wu Jin, Mongols, p.193.
Jin Hsao-shi, Chronicles of a Journey to Outer Mongolia (First Volume), p. 100. Bayala, “Wrestling in
Outer Mongolia,” p. 24.
27
11
Introduction to Mongolian Wrestling12
Contestants in a wrestling tournament must be even-numbered, for instance 8,
16, 32, 64……otherwise it would be impossible to pair up contestants. There are no
restrictions placed on nationality, age, body weight, and place of birth of contestants.
Wrestling contests may be held in any place, under any kind of weather, with no time
limit. Wrestlers may sign up days or hours before a contest. Tournaments are usually
knock-out tournaments, with half the number of contestants eliminated in one round.
Tournaments may be staged on any kind of open, soft ground large enough
to contain two wrestlers and one referee.31
In a Mongolian Naadam, wrestlers line up in two rows to the left and right of the
arena according to their titles. The organizers would decide on the pairing of
wrestlers for the first two rounds of the tournament. Usually veteran wrestlers
would be paired up against novice wrestlers first, though veteran wrestlers would be
free to choose their adversary in the third round and after.32 This is the pairing
system used by the people in Xulun Hoh Banner of Inner Mongolia’s Xilingol
League.33
Match rules followed by wrestlers in Inner Mongolia’s JuuUda League are as
follows: 34
1. A tie is declared and a rematch is called for when two wrestlers simultaneously
fall to the ground. Though in the ArHorqin Banner, wrestlers are
prohibited from tripping the adversary.
2. A wrestler is considered defeated when he falls to the ground. “Falling to the
ground” means having his head, shoulders, arms, knees, hip, or hands
stained with dirt.
3. Wrestlers are required to dress themselves in full wresting outfit, which includes
a jacket (jodag), a brief, and boots.
4. Wrestlers are expected to arrive on time for the match.
5. Wrestlers are not held accountable for casualties resulting from
wrestling contests. However, the wrestler responsible for the casualties
should turn in one of his boots and a three-year-old bull in compensation to
the victim.
6. Referees have the right to intervene in cases of match-fixing or other kinds of
illegal dealings.
In Mongolian wrestling contests, wrestlers are not supposed to attack by punching,
twisting the joints, or choking their adversary. Different locales have different rules in
Yang De-lin, Mongolian and Tibetan Folk Customs, pp.56-57.Bayala, “Wrestling in Outer Mongolia,” p.
23.
32
Bayala, “Wrestling in Outer Mongolia,” p. 23.
33
Zhao TseringJabo, Folk Customs of Yuan Dynasty Mongols, p.105.
34
Hsu Shih-ming, Folk Customs of JuuUda, p.414.
31
12
13Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol. 18, No.4
other aspects of wrestling. For example, Inner Mongolian wrestlers are
prohibited from attacking the necklace (jangga) of the adversary. 35 In Outer
Mongolia, wrestlers stand facing each other before a match begins. On the
instructions of the referee, they start to wrestle fiercely. They are allowed to touch
any part of the adversary’s body above waistline, but are not allowed to hold the
adversary’s legs. 36 Wrestlers in Inner Mongolia’s Hulunbuir may kick the adversary in
the leg, unlike wrestlers in other regions. Wrestlers in Inner Mongolia’s Ordos
and Oirat are required to hold each other tight at the beginning of a match. Yet
wrestlers in Hulunbuir and Ujimqin are not supposed to have physical contact at the
beginning of the match. An Oriat Mongol wrestler in Xinjiang
is considered defeated in a wrestling match once his shoulders touch the ground, as
in Turkish style wrestling and international freestyle wrestling.37 Match rules in
Ordos, Inner Mongolia forbid leg holding, kicking, and brief ripping. 38
A match is over when one of the two wrestlers has his knees, elbows, head, or back
touch the ground, or when one of the two wrestlers falls to the ground. A rematch
is called for when both wrestlers fall to the ground at the same time. 39Besides
the champion and the runner-up, the ranking of other contestants is determined by
their match results against the champion and the runner-up. For example, the
third place is someone who loses to the eventual champion, and the fourth place is
someone who loses to the eventual runner-up.40
As Mongolia is a country with a vast territory, different locales have
developed different styles of wrestling. Take Ordos wrestling for example. The
wrestlers are not required to wear special outfit. They compete in a match by first
removing their robes then by holding tightly to their belt, which is tightly
wrapped around the adversary’s torso between shoulders and the waist. The idea is
try to make the adversary lose his balance with waist twisting, arms moving, and legs
tripping.41Daur wrestlers have no regular wrestling outfit. They have wide obis tied to
their waist, and a match officially begins after wrestlers finish holding each other’s
obi. Adult wrestling tournaments are mostly know-out tournaments. After
one contestant is defeated in a single match, any of the onlookers may step up
to challenge the winner. A wrestler who remains undefeated in many matches will be
Bai Ge-le, Wang Lu, Wu Jin, Mongols, p.193.
Jin Hsao-shi, Chronicles of a Journey to Outer Mongolia (First Volume), p. 100.
37
Mongolian wrestling, NationMaster, 2009-4-6,
http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Mongolian-wrestling.
38
Baosier, A Record of the Cultures of Ordos, p.90.
39
Bayala, “Wrestling in Outer Mongolia,” p. 23.
40
Yang De-lin, Mongolian and Tibetan Folk Customs, p.58.
41
Yang Yong, Grassland Culture of Ordos (Hohhot: Inner Mongolia People's Publishing House, 2000),
p.138.
35
36
13
Introduction to Mongolian Wrestling14
the eventual champion. In a typical adolescent wrestling tournament,
the contestants are divided into two teams well-matched in strength. The first
persons in the two teams fight the first match. The defeated wrestler is replaced with
his teammate. The contest is over when all members of the same team are
defeated.42 The different rules reflect cultural diversity of Mongolia.
Ⅵ. Prizes and Titles
In the days of Chinese Qing Dynasty, the champion of a small-scale
wrestling contest in Naadam was awarded either a goat or several bricks of tea. The
prize for winners of larger-scale contests was a fully saddled horse. The champion in
league-level wrestling tournaments is awarded a silver-colored camel (the
animal carried 81 gifts including jewelry, satin, and silk, as well as wearing a silver cup
on the nose). 43
In today’s wrestling contests, the winner would hop all the way from the arena to
where the referee stands and tosscandies and dairy products to the audience to
share his joy of victory. 44Wrestlers in JuuUda are awarded the honorary title of
“master” after repeatedly winning the championship in the league. The champion
wrestler of banner-level Naadam is awarded the “99 prizes” (namely 81 prizes
including nine horses, nine cattle, nine camels, and nine bricks of tea). 45 In addition
to the champion, prizes are also awarded to the runner-up, the third place, the
fourth place, the “top eight,” the “second top eight,” the top sixteenth, the top
thirty-two, and top sixty-four etc.46Champion wrestlers in Ordos are often
rewarded with fine horses or quality saddles. 47 Even a bottom-placed wrestler in
Ordos is given prizes to encourage him to improve his skills. 48
Mongolian wrestlers have to win national wrestling tournaments to
be considered worthy of titles and honors. There are four types of titles: eagle,
elephant, lion, and giant. A wrestler is awarded “eagle” status for consecutively
winning five rounds of wrestling matches; “elephant” status for winning seven
rounds in a row; “lion” status for having a nine-round winning streak. To
be considered worthy of the highest honor of “giant” status, two Naadam
wrestling championships are required. Three-time Naadam wrestling champions
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Editorial Group, A Study on History and Society of Daur People,
p.289.
43
Ma Wuniwulan, “Origin and Development of Naadam,” in Annuals of the Grasslands (Hohhot), Vol.2
(July 1987), pp.221-222.
44
Baosier, A Record of the Cultures of Ordos, p.90.
45
Yang De-lin, Mongolian and Tibetan Folk Customs, p.58.
46
Hsu Shih-ming, Folk Customs of JuuUda, p.413.
47
Baosier, Yang Yong, TuoYa, History and Culture of Ordos (Beijing: Minzu University of China Press),
p.115.
48
Baosier, A Record of the Cultures of Ordos, p.90.
42
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15Mongolian and Tibetan Quarterly, Vol. 18, No.4
are called “national giants”. “Honorary giants” refer to four-time champions. A
“giant” wrestler has new fancy titles added to his existing title every time he wins a
Naadam wrestling tournament.49
Ⅶ. Conclusion
Mongolian wrestling is a competitive sport with a long history, a cultural heritage
of the Mongols. The fancy wrestling outfit, match etiquettes, dance, match rules,
and competition and sportsmanship of wrestlers all reflect the beauty of the sport
and the honesty of the Mongol people. However, as Mongolia comes head to
head with the trend of modernization and increased cross-cultural dialogue, it
would be interesting to see whether the century-old Mongol-style competitive sport
will survive and sustain not just in Mongolia but also in other countries while staying
true to its form and character. By presenting a brief introduction to Mongolian
wrestling, this paper hopes to inspire a more profound appreciation of the beauty
and culture of Mongolia.
Appendix
The Song of Praise for Wrestlers
He comes from qiboli waving his arms, sending shockwaves across the mountains;
he comes from baboli hopping on his feet, making the earth tremble beneath him.
The front of him reminds people of a spotted tiger; the back of him resembles a
ferocious tiger. He has the might of a lion and the build of a giant elephant. What a
marvel to behold, the skills of this wrestler! 50
Jin Hsao-shi, Chronicles of a Journey to Outer Mongolia (First Volume), p. 101. Bayala, “Wrestling in
Outer Mongolia,” p. 23.
50
Bai Ge-le, Wang Lu, Wu Jin, Mongols, p.194.
49
15