Integrated Guide to the Text’s Resources (Instructor’s Resource Manual)
Chapter 20 - National Security Policymaking
Table of Contents
I. Chapter Overview
A. Learning Objectives
B. Chapter Summary
II. Student Assignments – Pre-Lecture
III. Lecture Resources
A. Lecture Slides
B. Additional Lecture Suggestions
IV. Student Assignments – Post-Lecture
A. Class Discussion Questions
B. Class Activities
C. Research Assignments
V. Quantitative Assessment
VI. Resources for Further Study
A. Books
B. Articles
C. Media
D. Web Resources
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1
I. Chapter Overview
A.
Learning Objectives
¾20.1 Identify the major instruments and actors in making national security policy
¾20.2 Outline the evolution of and major issues in American foreign policy through the end of
the Cold War
¾20.3 Explain the major obstacles to success in the war on terrorism
¾20.4 Identify the major elements of U.S. defense policy
¾20.5 Analyze the evolving challenges for U.S. national security policy
¾20.6 Assess the role of democratic politics in making national security policy and the role of
national security policy in expanding government
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B.
Chapter Summary
The end of the cold war in the early 1990s brought with it many questions regarding the
future of international politics, from what the nature of threat is, to what new alliances are
needed, to what the changing role of “superpowers” might be in the new global scene. As of
September 11, 2001, our foreign policy goals suddenly changed to ending terrorism. This chapter
reviews cold war policies and politics from a historical perspective, as well as new issues
concerning terrorism and global inequality.
American Foreign Policy: Instruments, Actors, and Policymakers
Foreign policy involves making choices about relations with the rest of the world. The
instruments of foreign policy are different from those of domestic policy. Foreign policies
depend ultimately on three types of tools: military, economic, and diplomatic. Among the oldest
instruments of foreign policy are war and the threat of war. Economic instruments are becoming
weapons almost as potent as those of war. Diplomacy is the quietest instrument of foreign policy;
it may involve meetings of world leaders at summit conferences, but more often involves quiet
negotiations by less prominent officials.
Most of the challenges in international relations require the cooperation of many nations,
thus, international organizations play an increasingly important role on the world stage. The
United Nations (UN), created in 1945, is the most important international organization today. In
addition to its peacekeeping function, the UN runs a number of programs focused on economic
development, health, education, and welfare concerns. Regional organizations are organizations
of several nations bound by a treaty, often for military reasons. For example, members of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) agreed to combine military forces and to treat a
war against one as a war against all. By contrast, the European Union (EU) is a transnational
government of the major European nations. It grew from a post-World War II trading alliance
into a political institution now encompassing most of Europe. Today, the EU government
coordinates monetary, trade, immigration, labor policies, and much more.
Much of the world’s industrial output and 10 percent of the entire global economy comes
from multinational corporations (MNCs). MNCs are sometimes more powerful (and often
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2
much wealthier) than the governments under which they operate. Groups such as churches and
labor unions have long had international interests and activities. Even individuals are
international actors; the recent explosion of tourism affects the international economic system.
The president is the main force behind foreign policy: as chief diplomat, the president
negotiates treaties; as commander in chief, the president deploys American troops abroad.
Presidents are aided (and sometimes thwarted) by a huge national security bureaucracy.
Congress also wields considerable clout in the foreign policy arena. Other foreign policy
decision makers include diplomats (such as the secretary of state and special assistants for
national security affairs) and the national security establishment (including the Department of
Defense, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the National Security Council, and the Central Intelligence
Agency).
The U.S. Congress shares with the president constitutional authority over foreign and
defense policy. Congress has sole authority, for example, to declare war, raise and organize the
armed forces, and appropriate funds for national security activities.
American Foreign Policy through the Cold War
The United States followed a foreign policy of isolationism throughout most of its
history. The Monroe Doctrine reaffirmed America’s inattention to Europe’s problems, but
warned European nations to stay out of Latin America. In the wake of World War I, President
Woodrow Wilson urged the United States to join the League of Nations, but the Senate refused
to ratify the treaty, indicating the country was not ready to abandon isolationism.
Pearl Harbor dealt the death-blow to American isolationism. At the end of World War II,
the United States was the dominant world power, both economically and militarily—only the
United States possessed nuclear weapons. The charter for the United Nations was signed in San
Francisco in 1945, with the United States as an original signatory. NATO was created in 1949,
affirming the mutual military interests of the United States and Western Europe.
All of Eastern Europe fell under Soviet domination as World War II ended. In 1946,
Winston Churchill warned that the Russians had sealed off Eastern Europe with an “iron
curtain.” The United States poured billions of dollars into war-ravaged European nations through
the Marshall Plan. Writing in Foreign Affairs in 1947 (under the pseudonym “X”), George F.
Kennan proposed a policy of “containment.” His containment doctrine called for the United
States to isolate the Soviet Union and to “contain” its advances and resist its encroachments. The
Truman Doctrine was developed to help other nations oppose communism.
The Soviet Union closed off land access to Berlin with the Berlin Blockade (1948–1949),
which was countered by a massive airlift of food, fuel, and other necessities by the United States
and its allies. The fall of China to Mao Zedong’s Communist-led forces in 1949 and the
development of Soviet nuclear capability seemed to confirm American fears. The invasion of
pro-American South Korea by Communist North Korea in 1950 further fueled American fears.
The Korean War began when President Truman sent American troops to Korea under United
Nations auspices.
The cold war was at its height in the 1950s. Eisenhower’s secretary of state, John Foster
Dulles, proclaimed a policy of “brinkmanship” in which the United States was to be prepared to
use nuclear weapons in order to deter the Soviet Union and Communist China from taking
aggressive action. In the era of McCarthyism, domestic policy was deeply affected by the cold
war and by anticommunist fears. With containment came a massive buildup of the military
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3
apparatus, resulting in the military-industrial complex (a phrase that was coined by President
Dwight D. Eisenhower to refer to the interests shared by the armed services and defense
contractors). Economist Seymour Melman wrote about Pentagon capitalism, linking the
military’s drive to expand with the profit motives of private industry. The 1950s ushered in an
arms race between the Soviet Union and the United States; eventually, a point of mutual assured
destruction (MAD) was reached in which each side could destroy the other.
In 1950, President Truman decided to aid the French effort to retain France’s colonial
possessions in Southeast Asia—the beginning of American involvement in Vietnam. In 1954, the
French were defeated by the Viet Minh (led by Ho Chi Minh) in a battle at Dien Bien Phu.
Although it was a party to agreements in 1954 among participants in Geneva, Switzerland, the
United States never accepted the Geneva agreement to hold national elections in Vietnam in
1956; instead, it began supporting one non-communist leader after another in South Vietnam.
Vietnam first became an election-year issue in 1964. Since Truman’s time, the United
States had sent military “advisors” to South Vietnam, which was in the midst of a civil war
spurred by the Viet Cong (National Liberation Front). Senator Barry Goldwater was a foreign
policy hard-liner who advocated tough action in Vietnam; President Lyndon Johnson promised
that he would not “send American boys to do an Asian boy’s job” of defending the pro-American
regime in South Vietnam. Despite his election-year promise, Johnson sent in American troops
when we were unable to contain the forces of the Viet Cong and North Vietnam with American
advisors.
American troops and massive firepower failed to contain the North Vietnamese. At home,
widespread protests against the war contributed to Johnson’s decision not to run for reelection in
1968 and to begin peace negotiations. The new Nixon administration prosecuted the war
vigorously, but also worked to negotiate a peace treaty with the Viet Cong and North Vietnam.
Even while the Vietnam War was being waged, President Nixon supported a new policy
of détente. Popularized by Nixon’s national security assistant (and later secretary of state), Henry
Kissinger, détente sought a relaxation of tensions between the superpowers, coupled with firm
guarantees of mutual security. One major initiative that came out of détente was the Strategic
Arms Limitation Talks (SALT). These talks represented an effort by the United States and the
Soviet Union to agree to scale down their nuclear capabilities, with each power maintaining
sufficient nuclear weapons to deter a surprise attack by the other. President Nixon signed the first
SALT treaty in 1972. A second SALT treaty (SALT II) was signed and sent to the Senate by
President Carter in 1979, but the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan that year caused Carter to
withdraw the treaty from Senate consideration. However, he and President Reagan nevertheless
insisted that they would be committed to its arms limitations.
The philosophy of détente was applied to the People’s Republic of China as well as to the
Soviet Union. President Nixon visited the People’s Republic and sent an American mission
there. President Carter extended formal diplomatic recognition in November 1978.
From the mid-1950s to 1981, the defense budget had generally been declining as a
percentage of both the total federal budget and the gross national product (with the exception of
the Vietnam War). The decline in defense spending became a major issue in Ronald Reagan’s
presidential campaign. During the campaign, Reagan said America faced a “window of
vulnerability” because the Soviet Union was pulling ahead of the United States in military
spending. President Carter’s last budget had proposed a large increase in defense spending, and
the Reagan administration proposed adding $32 billion on top of that. However, concern over
huge budget deficits brought defense spending to a standstill in the second Reagan term. In 1983
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President Reagan added another element to his defense policy a new plan for defense against
missiles, the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI).
Forces of change sparked by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev led to a staggering wave
of upheavals that shattered communist regimes and the postwar barriers between Eastern and
Western Europe. The Berlin Wall was brought down, and East and West Germany formed a
unified, democratic republic. The former Soviet Union split into 15 separate nations; noncommunist governments formed in most of them. On May 12, 1989, President Bush announced a
new era in American foreign policy that he termed “beyond containment.”
In 1989, reform seemed on the verge of occurring in China as well as in Eastern Europe.
Thousands of students held protests on behalf of democratization in Tiananmen Square (the
central meeting place in Beijing). However, on the night of June 3, the army violently crushed
the democracy movement, killing hundreds—perhaps thousands—of protesters and beginning a
wave of executions, arrests, and repression.
American Foreign Policy and the War on Terrorism
Perhaps the most troublesome issue in the national security area is the spread of
terrorism—the use of violence to demoralize and frighten a country’s population or government.
Despite its risks and uncertainties, the cold war was characterized by a stable and predictable set
of relations among the great powers. Now international relations have entered an era of
improvisation as nations struggle to develop creative responses to changes in the global balance
of power and the new challenges that have emerged.
After September 11, 2001, the United States launched an attack on the Taliban regime
that had been harboring terrorists in Afghanistan. President George W. Bush made the war on
terrorism the highest priority of his administration. In 2003 the United States led an attack on
Iraq which led to the downfall of Saddam Hussein. Iraq soon became the frontline in the war on
terrorism. Many observers argue that relying primarily on the use of force to combat terrorism is
responding to a tactic rather than to the forces that generate it.
In 2007, President Bush ordered a troop “surge” in Iraq to quell violence and give Iraqis
the opportunity to establish a democratic government, train forces to assume police and defense
responsibilities, and engage in national reconciliation among the major religious and ethnic
groups. The first goal was met, as violence was reduced. Progress on the other goals has been
much slower, however. In 2009, President Obama announced an increase of 30,000 U.S. troops
in Afghanistan. Although his goal was to begin removing them after a short period, success has
been elusive.
Defense Policy
Defense spending comprises about one-fifth of the federal budget. Domestic political
concerns, budgetary limitations, and ideology all have a role in influencing decisions regarding
the structure of defense policy. Conservatives fight deep cuts in defense spending, pointing out
that many nations retain potent military capability and insisting that America maintain its
readiness at a high level. Liberals, while supporting the war on terrorism, maintain that the
Pentagon wastes money and that the United States buys too many guns and too little butter.
Whatever its cause, the lessening of East–West tensions has given momentum to
significant reductions in defense spending, what some call the peace dividend. Changing
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5
spending patterns is not easy, however. The trend of reductions in defense spending was reversed
abruptly in 2001 following the September 11 terrorist attacks.
The structure of America’s defense has been based on a large standing military force and
a battery of strategic nuclear weapons. The United States has more than 1.4 million men and
women on active duty and nearly 845,000 million in the National Guard and Reserves.
To deter an aggressor’s attack, the United States has relied on a triad of nuclear weapons:
ground-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic missiles
(SLBMs), and strategic bombers. These weapons, like troops, are costly (each Stealth bomber
costs over $2 billion dollars), and they pose obvious dangers to human survival.
During the May 1988 Moscow summit meeting, President Reagan and President
Gorbachev exchanged ratified copies of a new treaty eliminating intermediate-range nuclear
forces (INF).On November 19, 1990, the leaders of 22 countries signed a treaty, cutting
conventional arms in Europe.In 1991, the Warsaw Pact (the military alliance tying Eastern
Europe to the Soviet Union) was dissolved.On July 31, 1991, Gorbachev and President Bush
signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty following nine years of negotiations.
The democratization of Eastern Europe, the restructuring of the Soviet Union, and the
deterioration of the Soviet economy substantially diminished Russia’s inclination and potential
to threaten the interests of the United States and its allies. In the fall of 1991, President Bush
broke new ground with his decision to unilaterally dismantle some U.S. nuclear weapons;
President Gorbachev followed suit shortly afterward. Presidents Bush and Yeltsin later signed an
agreement to sharply reduce the U.S. and Russian nuclear arsenals.
Despite these changes, high-tech weapons systems will continue to play an important role
in America’s defense posture. The perception that space-age technology helped win the Gulf War
in “100 hours” and with few American casualties provides support for high-tech systems.
The New National Security Agenda
By whatever standards one uses, the United States is the world’s mightiest power, but for
Americans, merely being big and powerful is no guarantee of dominance. This is especially true
since access to petroleum in the Middle East and global environmental issues have become
increasingly important. Although the United States has great military power, many of the world’s
issues today are not military ones. Further, the United States is affected by events all over the
world that it cannot control unilaterally. Interconnected issues of equality, economics, energy,
and the environment have become important.
Military force is become less effective in today’s international world. Military power is
evolving, to different uses, such as humanitarian interventions. Economics is increasingly used
as a powerful foreign policy instrument. For example, trade sanctions, when they are broadly
supported by the international community, can bring pressure to bear without military force.
The United States, and much of the international community, is concerned about the
spread of nuclear weapons technology beyond the eight countries that currently possess them
(United States, Russia, the UK, France, China, India, Israel, and Pakistan) to other countries.
North Korea claims to have nuclear weapons now, and Iran is seeking to develop them. Others
may be not far behind, although many countries have renounced their plans.
Today’s international economy is illustrated by interdependency. The health of the
American economy, for example, depends increasingly on the prosperity of its trading partners
and on the smooth flow of trade and finance across borders. Since the era of the Great
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Depression, the world economy has moved away from high tariffs and protectionism toward
lower tariffs and freer trade. President Bush signed the North American Free Trade
Agreement in 1992 with Canada and Mexico, and it was approved by Congress in 1993. In 1994
Congress approved the GATT agreement. Nontariff barriers such as quotas, subsidies, or quality
specifications for imported products are common means of limiting imports today; such policies
may temporarily “save” American jobs in targeted industries, but they also raise prices on
products that Americans use and make the overall economy less efficient—which hurts other
workers.
For a number of years, America has experienced a balance of trade deficit; the excess of
imports over exports decreases the dollar’s buying power against other currencies, making
Americans pay more for goods they buy from other nations. On the plus side, this decline in the
dollar also makes American products cheaper abroad, thereby increasing our exports. In 2009,
the trade deficit was $379 billion.
More than half of the world’s recoverable reserves of oil lie in the Middle East. The
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) controls the price of oil and the
amount of oil its members produce and sell to other nations. America imports more than half of
its annual consumption of oil from other countries. America’s decision to respond to Iraq’s
invasion of Kuwait in 1990 was based in large part on this dependence.
Presidents of both parties have pressed for aid to nations in the developing world—
sometimes from humanitarian concern, sometimes out of a desire to stabilize friendly nations.
Foreign aid has taken a variety of forms: Sometimes it has been given in the form of grants, but
it often has taken the form of credits and loan guarantees to purchase American goods, assistance
with agricultural modernization, loans at favorable interest rates, and forgiveness of previous
loans; preferential trade agreements have sometimes been granted for the sale of foreign goods
here. A substantial percentage of foreign aid is in the form of military assistance and is targeted
to a few countries that are considered to be of vital strategic significance. Foreign aid has never
been very popular with Americans. Although the United States donates more total aid than any
other country, it devotes a smaller share of its GDP to foreign economic development than any
other developed nation.
Understanding National Security Policy Making
The themes that have guided students’ understanding of American politics throughout
Government in America—democracy and the scope of government—also pertain to the topic of
international relations. Treaty obligations, the nation’s economic interests in an interdependent
global economy, and other questions on the global agenda guarantee that the national
government will be active in international relations. When the American people hold strong
opinions regarding international relations as, when they first supported and later opposed the war
in Vietnam, policymakers are usually responsive. A wide range of interests are represented in the
making of foreign policy. As the United States remains a superpower and continues to have
interests to defend around the world, the scope of American government in foreign and defense
policy will be substantial.
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II. Student Assignments—Pre-Lecture
A.
B.
Student required reading: Chapter 20 – National Security Policy Making
Administer Reading Comprehension Quiz (see Test Bank, Chapter 20)
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8
III. Lecture Resources
A.
Lecture Slides
Slide 1
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Slide 2
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 3
Brief Contents of Chapter 20: National Security
Policymaking
Chapter 20: National Security
Policymaking
• American Foreign Policy: Instruments, Actors,
and Policymakers
• American Foreign Policy Through the Cold
War
• American Foreign Policy and the War on
Terrorism
• Defense Policy
• The New National Security Agenda
• Understanding National Security Policymaking
• Summary
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9
Slide 4
Chapter Outline and Learning
Objectives
• American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• LO 20.1: Identify the major instruments and
actors in making national security policy.
Lecture Tips and Suggestions For In-Class
Activities
For class discussion, have students debate the value
of American involvement in UN peacekeeping
efforts. In particular, have them examine the costs
and benefits of this policy to American taxpayers.
Ask them what exactly they would propose instead
of American participation in these efforts.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 5
Chapter Outline and Learning
Objectives
• American Foreign Policy Through the
Cold War
• LO 20.2: Outline the evolution of and major
issues in American foreign policy through
the end of the Cold War.
For an in-class activity, ask students to write an
essay that answers the following questions. What
goals were pursued during the era of détente and
during the Reagan rearmament? Briefly describe
the situation and major issues in these two time
periods. What foreign policy actors and tools were
especially involved in these eras and what role did
they play?
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Slide 6
Chapter Outline and Learning
Objectives
• American Foreign Policy and the War on
Terrorism
• LO 20.3: Explain the major obstacles to
success in the war on terrorism.
• Defense Policy
• LO 20.4: Identify the major elements of U.S.
defense policy.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 7
Ask the students to write down the purpose(s) the
Bush administration had in going to war with Iraq.
Then have them reveal their answers, and discuss
why they differ from one another. What are the
consequences of the war, and have any of these
objectives/goals been achieved? You may also
find that some believe Iraq to be responsible for
9/11, even years after the Bush administration has
declared this to be untrue.
For an in-class activity, ask to write an essay that
answers the following questions. How have
defense policy experts suggested that the U.S.
military be reformed? Explain the various factors
that have led to these suggestions.
Public opinion polls find that Americans today are
more likely to perceive threats to their security in
economic competition from allies than from
military rivalry with potential adversaries. As a
library project, challenge your students to contrast
the positions of the United States and Japan with
regard to both defense expenditures and protective
economic policies. Divide the class into several
research groups for this project, and have them
allocate some division of responsibility among
themselves.
Chapter Outline and Learning
Objectives
• The New National Security Agenda
• LO 20.5: Analyze the evolving challenges
for U.S. national security policy.
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10
Slide 8
For an in-class activity, ask students to write an
essay that answers the following questions. How
does national security policy contribute to an
expanded scope of government? Can you think of
any ways to reduce spending on national defense?
In your opinion, would it be wise to do so? Why or
why not?
Chapter Outline and Learning
Objectives
• Understanding National Security
Policymaking
• LO 20.6: Assess the role of democratic
politics in making national security policy
and the role of national security policy in
expanding government.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 9
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
LO 20.1: Identify the major instruments and
actors in making national security policy.
• Foreign Policy
• Policy that involves choice taking about
relations with the rest of the world.
• President is the chief initiator of U.S.
foreign policy.
To Learning Objectives
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Slide 10
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
American Foreign Policy: Instruments, Actors, and
Policymakers
Foreign policy, like domestic policy, involves
making choices—but the choices involved are
about relations with the rest of the world.
Because the president is the main force behind
foreign policy, every morning the White House
receives a highly confidential intelligence briefing
that might cover monetary transactions in Tokyo,
last night’s events in some trouble spot on the
globe, or Fidel Castro’s health.
The briefing is part of the massive informational
arsenal the president uses to manage American
foreign policy.
It is so very important to identify the major
instruments and actors in making national security
policy.
• Instruments of Foreign Policy
• Actors on the World Stage
• The Policymakers
To Learning Objectives
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Slide 11
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• Instruments of Foreign Policy
• Military – War, threat of war, and military force.
• Economic – Control of oil, trade regulations,
tariff policies, and monetary policies.
• Diplomacy – Summit talks and treaties provide
relationships.
To Learning Objectives
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Instruments of Foreign Policy
Foreign policies depend ultimately on three types
of tools: military, economic, and diplomatic.
Military
Among the oldest instruments of foreign policy are
war and the threat of war.
The United States has been involved in only a few
full-scale wars.
It has often employed force to influence actions in
other countries, however.
Economic
The control of oil can be as important as the
control of guns.
Trade regulations, tariff policies, and monetary
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11
policies are other economic instruments of foreign
policy.
A number of studies have called attention to the
importance of a country’s economic vitality to its
long-term national security.
Diplomacy
Diplomacy is the process by which nations carry
on relationships with each other.
Although diplomacy often evokes images of
ambassadors at chic cocktail parties, the diplomatic
game is played for high stakes.
Sometimes national leaders meet in summit talks.
More often, less prominent negotiators work out
treaties covering all kinds of national contracts,
from economic relations to aid for stranded
tourists.
Slide 12
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• Actors on the World Stage
• United Nations – Created in 1945 and
today has 192 member nations with
peacekeeping missions and programs in
areas such as economic development,
health, education, and welfare.
• Security Council has real power.
To Learning Objectives
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Actors on the World Stage
Most of the challenges in international relations,
ranging from peacekeeping and controlling
weapons of mass destruction to protecting the
environment and maintaining stable trade and
financial networks, require the cooperation of
many nations.
The best-known international organization is the
United Nations (UN).
The UN was created in 1945 and has its
headquarters in New York.
Its members agree to renounce war and to respect
certain human and economic freedoms (although
they sometimes fail to keep these promises).
In addition to its peacekeeping function, the UN
runs programs in areas including economic
development and health, education, and welfare.
The UN General Assembly is composed of 192
member nations, each with one vote.
Although not legally binding, General Assembly
resolutions can achieve a measure of collective
legitimization when a broad international
consensus is formed on some matter concerning
relations among states.
(cont.)
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Slide 13
LO 20.1
To Learning Objectives
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Slide 14
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• Actors on the World Stage (cont.)
• International Monetary Fund regulates
international finance.
• World Bank finances development
projects in new nations.
• World Trade Organization regulates
international trade.
• Universal Postal Union helps get mail
from country to country.
It is the Security Council, however, that is the seat
of real power in the UN.
Five of its 15 members (the United States, Great
Britain, China, France, and Russia) are permanent
members; the others are chosen from session to
session by the General Assembly.
Each permanent member has a veto over Security
Council decisions, including any decisions that
would commit the UN to a military peacekeeping
operation.
The Secretariat is the executive arm of the UN and
directs the administration of UN programs.
Composed of about 9,000 international civil
servants, it is headed by the secretary-general.
--LO 20.1 Image: The most prominent international
organization is the United Nations.
Actors on the World Stage
International Organizations
The International Monetary Fund, for example,
helps regulate the chaotic world of international
finance; the World Bank finances development
projects in new nations; the World Trade
Organization attempts to regulate international
trade; and the Universal Postal Union helps get the
mail from one country to another.
To Learning Objectives
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13
Slide 15
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• Actors on the World Stage (cont.)
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization – A
regional organization created in 1949 by
nations including the United States,
Canada, and most Western European
nations for mutual defense and has been
expanded.
To Learning Objectives
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Slide 16
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• Actors on the World Stage (cont.)
• European Union – A transnational
government composed of most European
nations to coordinate monetary, trade,
immigration, and labor policies, making its
members one economic unit.
To Learning Objectives
Actors on the World Stage
The post–World War II era has seen a proliferation
of regional organizations—organizations of
several nations bound by a treaty, often for military
reasons.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) was created in 1949.
Its members—the United States, Canada, most
Western European nations, and Turkey—agreed to
combine military forces and to treat a war against
one as a war against all.
During the Cold War, more than a million NATO
troops (including about 325,000 Americans) were
spread from West Germany to Portugal as a
deterrent to foreign aggression.
To counter the NATO alliance, the Soviet Union
and its Eastern European allies formed the Warsaw
Pact.
With the thawing of the Cold War, however, the
Warsaw Pact was dissolved and the role of NATO
changed dramatically.
In 1999, Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic,
former members of the Warsaw Pact, became
members of NATO.
Since then, eight additional Eastern European
countries—Slovakia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania,
Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, and Croatia—have
joined the alliance
Actors on the World Stage
Regional Organizations
Regional organizations can have economic as well
as military and political functions.
The European Union (EU) is a transnational
government composed of most European nations.
The EU coordinates monetary, trade, immigration,
and labor policies so that its members have become
one economic unit, just as the 50 states of the
United States are an economic unit.
Most EU nations have adopted a common
currency, the euro.
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14
Slide 17
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• Actors on the World Stage (cont.)
• Multinational corporations are large and
account for more than one-tenth of the
global economy and one-third of world
exports.
• They have voiced strong opinions about
governments, taxes, and business
regulations.
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Slide 18
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• Actors on the World Stage (cont.)
• Nongovernmental organizations are groups
not connected with governments, such as
churches and labor unions, environmental
and wildlife groups, and human rights
groups.
Actors on the World Stage
Multinational Corporations
Today, a large portion of the world’s industrial
output comes from these corporations, and they
account for more than one-tenth of the global
economy and one- third of world exports.
Sometimes more powerful (and often much
wealthier) than the governments under which they
operate, MNCs have voiced strong opinions about
governments, taxes, and business regulations.
They have even linked forces with agencies such as
the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to overturn
governments they disliked.
In the 1970s, for example, several U.S.-based
multinationals worked with the CIA to
“destabilize” the democratically elected Marxist
government in Chile, which Chile’s military then
overthrew in 1973.
Actors on the World Stage
Nongovernmental Organizations
Groups that are not connected with governments,
known as nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),
are also actors on the global stage.
Churches and labor unions have long had
international interests and activities.
Today, environmental and wildlife groups, such as
Greenpeace, have also proliferated internationally,
as have groups interested in protecting human
rights, such as Amnesty International.
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Slide 19
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• Actors on the World Stage (cont.)
• Terrorists operating around the world are
committed to overthrow specific
governments.
• Terrorism – Airplane highjackings,
assassinations, and bombings.
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Actors on the World Stage
Terrorists
Not all groups, however, are committed to saving
whales, oceans, or even people.
Some are committed to the overthrow of particular
governments and operate as terrorists around the
world.
Airplane hijackings, and assassinations, bombings,
and similar terrorist attacks have made the world a
more unsettled place.
Conflicts within a nation or region may spill over
into world politics.
Terrorism in the Middle East, for example, affects
the price of oil in Tokyo, New York, and Berlin.
Civil war in southeastern Europe may strain
relations between the West and Russia.
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15
Slide 20
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• Actors on the World Stage (cont.)
• Tourism can affect international relations
and economic system, and it may enhance
friendship and understanding among
nations.
• Students, immigrants, and refugees carry
ideas/ideologies, and demand new public
services.
To Learning Objectives
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Slide 21
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The Policymakers
• The President is the main force behind
foreign policy.
• Chief Diplomat – President negotiates
treaties and makes executive agreements.
• Commander in Chief – President deploys
American troops abroad.
Actors on the World Stage
Individuals
Finally, individuals are international actors.
Tourism sends Americans everywhere and brings
to America legions of tourists from around the
world.
Tourism creates its own costs and benefits and thus
can affect international relations and the
international economic system.
It may enhance friendship and understanding
among nations.
However, more tourists traveling out of the country
than arriving in the country can create problems
with a country’s balance of payments.
In addition to tourists, growing numbers of
students are going to and coming from other
nations; they are carriers of ideas and ideologies.
So are immigrants and refugees, who also place
new demands on public services.
The Policymakers
The President
The president is the main force behind foreign
policy.
As chief diplomat, the president negotiates treaties;
as commander in chief of the armed forces, the
president deploys American troops abroad.
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16
Slide 22
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The Policymakers (cont.)
• Presidents appoint ambassadors and the
heads of executive departments (with
consent of the Senate); accord recognition
to other countries; and receive or not
receive representatives of other nations.
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Slide 23
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The Policymakers (cont.)
• Secretary of State – The head of the
State Department and key foreign policy
adviser to the president.
• State Department staffs over 300 U.S.
embassies, consulates, and other posts,
representing the interests of Americans.
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The Policymakers
The President
The president also appoints U.S. ambassadors and
the heads of executive departments (with the
consent of the Senate), and has the sole power to
accord official recognition to other countries and
receive (or refuse to receive) their representatives.
Presidents make some foreign policy through the
formal mechanisms of treaties or executive
agreements.
Both are written accords in which the parties agree
to specific actions and both have legal standing, but
only treaties require Senate ratification.
Thus, presidents usually find it more convenient to
use executive agreements.
Since the end of World War II, presidents have
negotiated thousands of executive agreements but
only about 800 treaties.
Most executive agreements deal with routine and
noncontroversial matters, but they have also been
used for matters of significance, as in the case of
the agreement ending the Vietnam War and arms
control agreements.
The Policymakers
The Diplomats
The State Department is the foreign policy arm of
the U.S. government. Its head is the secretary of
state (Thomas Jefferson was the first).
Traditionally, the secretary of state has been the
key adviser to the president on foreign policy
matters.
In countries from Albania to Zimbabwe, the State
Department staffs over 300 U.S. embassies,
consulates, and other posts, representing the
interests of Americans.
The approximately 34,000 State Department
employees are organized into functional areas
(such as economic and business affairs and human
rights and humanitarian affairs) and area specialties
(a section on Middle Eastern affairs, one on
European affairs, and so on), each nation being
handled by a “country desk.”
The political appointees who occupy the top
positions in the department and the highly select
members of the Foreign Service who compose
most of the department are heavily involved in
formulating and executing American foreign
policy.
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17
Slide 24
LO 20.1
LO 20.1 Image: The secretary of state is usually
the president’s principal advisor on foreign policy.
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Slide 25
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The Policymakers (cont.)
• Secretary of Defense – The head of the
Department of Defense and the president’s
key adviser on military policy and, as such,
a key foreign policy actor.
• Defense Department – Army, Navy,
Marines, and Air Force together.
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Slide 26
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The Policymakers (cont.)
• Joint Chiefs of Staff – A group that
consists of the commanding officers of
each of the armed services, a chairperson,
and a vice chairperson, and advises the
president on military policy.
The Policymakers
The National Security Establishment
Foreign policy and military policy are closely
linked.
Thus, a key foreign policy actor is the Department
of Defense, often called “the Pentagon” after the
five-sided building in which it is located.
Created by Congress after World War II, the
department collected together the U.S. Army,
Navy, and Air Force.
The services have never been thoroughly
integrated, however, and critics contend that they
continue to plan and operate too independently of
one another, although reforms made under the
Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reorganization Act of
1986 increased inter-service cooperation and
centralization of the military hierarchy.
The secretary of defense manages a budget larger
than the entire budget of most nations and is the
president’s main civilian adviser on national
defense matters.
The Policymakers
The National Security Establishment
The Joint Chiefs of Staff is made up of the
commanding officers of each of the services, along
with a chairperson and vice chairperson.
American military leaders are sometimes portrayed
as aggressive hawks in policymaking.
However, Richard Betts carefully examined the
Joint Chiefs’ advice to the president in many crises
and found them to be no more likely than civilian
advisers to push an aggressive military policy.
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18
Slide 27
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The Policymakers (cont.)
• National Security Council was created in
1947 to coordinate foreign and military
policies.
• Composed of the president’s national
security assistant (head), state and
defense secretaries, vice president, and
president.
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Slide 28
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The Policymakers (cont.)
• Central Intelligence Agency – An agency
created after World War II to coordinate
American intelligence activities abroad and
to collect, analyze, and evaluate
intelligence.
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Slide 29
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The Policymakers (cont.)
• National Reconnaissance Office uses
imagery satellites to view missile sites and
military activities around the world.
• The National Security Agency has
electronic eavesdropping capabilities and
protects our national security information.
To Learning Objectives
The Policymakers
The National Security Establishment
High-ranking officials are supposed to coordinate
American foreign and military policies.
Congress formed the National Security Council
(NSC) in 1947 for this purpose.
The NSC is composed of the president, the vice
president, the secretary of defense, and the
secretary of state.
The president’s assistant for national security—a
position that first gained public prominence with
the flamboyant, globe-trotting Henry Kissinger
during President Nixon’s first term—manages the
NSC staff.
The Policymakers
The National Security Establishment
All policymakers require information to make good
decisions.
Information on the capabilities and intentions of
other nations is often difficult to obtain.
As a result, governments resort to intelligence
agencies to obtain and interpret such information.
Congress created the Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA) after World War II to coordinate American
information- and data-gathering intelligence
activities abroad and to collect, analyze, and
evaluate its own intelligence.
The CIA plays a vital role in providing information
and analysis necessary for effective development
and implementation of national security policy.
Most of its activities are uncontroversial because
the bulk of the material it collects and analyzes
comes from readily available sources, such as
government reports and newspapers.
Also generally accepted is its use of espionage to
collect information—when the espionage is
directed against foreign adversaries.
The Policymakers
The National Security Establishment
National Reconnaissance Office uses imagery
satellites to monitor missile sites and other military
activities around the world.
The National Security Agency (NSA) is on the
cutting edge of electronic eavesdropping
capabilities and produces foreign signals
intelligence.
It also works to protect against foreign adversaries’
gaining access to sensitive or classified national
security information.
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19
Slide 30
LO 20.1
LO 20.1 Image: Diplomatic, defense, and
intelligence officials are key players in the national
security establishment.
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Slide 31
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The Policymakers (cont.)
• Congress shares with president
constitutional authority over foreign and
defense policy.
• Congress has sole authority to declare
war, raise and organize armed forces, and
fund national security activities.
The Policymakers
Congress
The U.S. Congress shares with the president
constitutional authority over foreign and defense
policy.
Congress has sole authority, for example, to
declare war, raise and organize the armed forces,
and appropriate funds for national security
activities.
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Slide 32
LO 20.1
American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The Policymakers (cont.)
• Senate must ratify treaties and confirm
ambassadorial and cabinet nominations.
• Power of the purse and oversight of
executive branch give Congress
considerable clout over defense budget
authorizations.
The Policymakers
Congress
The Senate determines whether treaties will be
ratified and ambassadorial and cabinet nominations
confirmed.
The “power of the purse” and responsibilities for
oversight of the executive branch give Congress
considerable clout, and each year senators and
representatives carefully examine defense budget
authorizations.
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Slide 33
It is so very important to outline the evolution of
and major issues in American foreign policy
through the end of the Cold War.
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
LO 20.2: Outline the evolution of and major
issues in American foreign policy through
the end of the Cold War.
• Isolationism
• The Cold War
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20
Slide 34
LO 20.2
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
• Isolationism
• U.S. foreign policy most of its history
whereby it tried to stay out of other nations’
conflicts, particularly European wars.
• Monroe Doctrine – Reaffirmed America’s
intention to stay out of Europe’s affairs but
warned European nations to stay out of
Latin America.
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Slide 35
LO 20.2
Isolationism
Throughout most of its history, the United States
followed a foreign policy course called
isolationism.
This policy, articulated by George Washington in
his farewell address, directed the country to stay
out of other nations’ conflicts, particularly
European wars.
The famous Monroe Doctrine, enunciated by
President James Monroe, reaffirmed America’s
intention to stay out of Europe’s affairs but warned
European nations to stay out of Latin America.
The United States—believing that its own political
backyard included the Caribbean and Central and
South America—did not hesitate to send marines,
gunboats, or both to intervene in Central American
and Caribbean affairs.
When European nations were at war, however,
Americans relished their distance from the
conflicts.
So it was until World War I (1914–1918).
Figure 20.1 U.S. Military Interventions in Central
America and the Caribbean Since 1900
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Slide 36
LO 20.2
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
• Isolationism (cont.)
• Entering World War I and then not joining
the League of Nations continued American
isolationism.
• Entering World War II and then joining the
United Nations put an end to American
isolationism.
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Isolationism
In the wake of World War I, President Woodrow
Wilson urged the United States to join the League
of Nations, a forerunner to the UN.
The U.S. Senate refused to ratify the League of
Nations treaty, indicating that the country was not
ready to abandon the long-standing American habit
of isolationism, and that the Senate was not ready
to relinquish any of its war-making authority to an
international body.
It was World War II, which forced the United
States into a global conflict, that dealt a deathblow
to American isolationism.
Most nations signed a charter for the UN at a
conference in San Francisco in 1945.
The United States was an original signatory and
soon donated land to house the UN permanently in
New York City.
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21
Slide 37
LO 20.2
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
• The Cold War
• Containment Doctrine – George Kennan
called for United States to isolate the
Soviet Union, contain its advances, and
resist its encroachments by peaceful
means if possible or force if needed.
• Truman Doctrine – United States
declared it would help other nations
oppose communism.
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Slide 38
LO 20.2
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
• The Cold War (cont.)
• Cold War – Hostility between the United
States and Soviet Union from the end of
World War II until the collapse of the Soviet
Union and Eastern European communist
regimes in 1989 and 1991.
• Korean War (1950-1953) – Put
containment into practice involving China
and North Korea.
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The Cold War
Containment
All of Eastern Europe fell under Soviet domination
as World War II ended.
In 1946, Winston Churchill warned that the
Russians had sealed off Eastern Europe with an
“iron curtain.”
Communist support of a revolt in Greece in 1946
compounded fears of Soviet aggression.
Writing in Foreign Affairs in 1947, foreign policy
strategist George F. Kennan proposed a policy of
“containment.”
His containment doctrine called for the United
States to isolate the Soviet Union—to “contain” its
advances and resist its encroachments—by
peaceful means if possible but with force if
necessary.
When economic problems forced Great Britain to
decrease its support of Greece, the United States
stepped in based on the newly proclaimed Truman
Doctrine, in which the United States declared it
would help other nations oppose communism.
The Cold War
Containment
The fall of China to Mao Zedong’s communist-led
forces in 1949 seemed to confirm American fears
that communism was a cancer spreading over the
“free world.”
In the same year, the Soviet Union exploded its
first atomic bomb.
The invasion of pro-American South Korea by
communist North Korea in 1950 further fueled
American fears of Soviet imperialism.
President Truman said bluntly, “We’ve got to stop
the Russians now,” and sent American troops to
Korea under UN auspices.
The Korean War was a chance to put containment
into practice.
Involving China as well as North Korea, the war
dragged on until July 27, 1953.
The 1950s were the height of the Cold War;
though hostilities never quite erupted into armed
battle between them, the United States and the
Soviet Union were often on the brink of war.
John Foster Dulles, secretary of state under
Eisenhower, proclaimed a policy often referred to
as “brinkmanship,” in which the United States was
to be prepared to use nuclear weapons in order to
deter the Soviet Union and communist China from
taking aggressive actions.
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22
Slide 39
LO 20.2
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
• The Cold War (cont.)
• Arms Race – Relationship started in the
1950s between the Soviet Union and
United States whereby one side’s
weaponry caused the other side to get
more weaponry.
• Mutual Assured Destruction – The result
of arms race by mid-1960s in which each
side had ability to annihilate the other after
absorbing a surprise attack.
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Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 40
LO 20.2
The Cold War
Containment
By the 1950s, the Soviet Union and the United
States were engaged in an arms race.
One side’s weaponry goaded the other side to
procure yet more weaponry, as one missile led to
another.
By the mid-1960s, the result of the arms race was a
point of mutual assured destruction (MAD), in
which each side had the ability to annihilate the
other even after absorbing a surprise attack.
These nuclear capabilities also served to deter the
use of nuclear weapons.
LO 20.2 Image: President John F. Kennedy looks
over the Berlin Wall in 1963. The Soviet Union
built the wall to separate communist East Berlin
from the western sectors of the city. It stood as the
most palpable symbol of the Cold War for almost
30 years until it was torn down in 1989.
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Slide 41
LO 20.2
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
• The Cold War (cont.)
• Vietnam War – Johnson sent over
500,000 troops to contain Vietnamese
communists.
• Nixon waged war in Cambodia and
Vietnam, but negotiated with Vietnamese
communists.
• 1973 Peace Treaty ends war, but in 1975
Vietnam was reunited into a single nation.
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The Cold War
The Vietnam War
Unable to contain the forces of the communist
guerillas and the North Vietnamese army with
American military advisers, President Lyndon
Johnson sent in American troops—more than
500,000 at the peak of the undeclared war.
He dropped more bombs on communist North
Vietnam than the United States had dropped on
Germany in all of World War II.
These American troops and massive firepower
failed to contain the North Vietnamese, however.
At home, widespread protests against the war
contributed to Johnson’s decisions not to run for
reelection in 1968 and to begin peace negotiations.
The new Nixon administration prosecuted the war
vigorously, in Cambodia as well as in Vietnam, but
also negotiated with the Vietnamese communists.
A peace treaty was signed in 1973, but few
expected it to hold.
South Vietnam’s capital, Saigon, finally fell to the
North Vietnamese army in 1975.
South and North Vietnam were reunited into a
single nation, and Saigon was renamed Ho Chi
Minh City in honor of the late leader of communist
North Vietnam.
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23
Slide 42
LO 20.2
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
• The Cold War (cont.)
• The Era of Détente – A policy, beginning
in the early 1970s, that sought a relaxation
of tensions between the United States and
the Soviet Union, coupled with firm
guarantees of mutual security.
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Slide 43
LO 20.2
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
• The Cold War (cont.)
• Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)
was a mutual effort by the United States
and Soviet Union to limit the growth of their
nuclear capabilities, with each power
maintaining sufficient nuclear weapons to
deter a surprise attack by the other.
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The Cold War
The Era of Détente
Even while the United States was waging the
Vietnam War, Richard Nixon—a veteran fighter of
the Cold War—supported a new policy that came
to be called détente.
The term was popularized by Nixon’s national
security adviser and later secretary of state, Henry
Kissinger.
Détente represented a slow transformation from
conflict thinking to cooperative thinking in foreign
policy strategy.
It sought a relaxation of tensions between the
superpowers, coupled with firm guarantees of
mutual security.
The policy assumed that the United States and the
Soviet Union had no permanent, immutable
sources of conflict; that both had an interest in
peace and world stability; and that a nuclear war
was—and should be—unthinkable.
Thus, foreign policy battles between the United
States and the Soviet Union were to be waged with
diplomatic, economic, and propaganda weapons;
the threat of force was downplayed.
The Cold War
The Era of Détente
One major initiative emerging from détente was the
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT).
These talks represented a mutual effort by the
United States and the Soviet Union to limit the
growth of their nuclear capabilities, with each
power maintaining sufficient nuclear weapons to
deter a surprise attack by the other.
Nixon signed the first SALT accord in 1972, and
negotiations for a second agreement, SALT II,
soon followed.
After six years of laborious negotiations, President
Carter finally signed the agreement and sent it to
the Senate in 1979.
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan that year
caused Carter to withdraw the treaty from Senate
consideration, however, even though both he and
Ronald Reagan insisted that they would remain
committed to the agreement’s limitations on
nuclear weaponry.
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24
Slide 44
LO 20.2
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
• The Cold War (cont.)
• Reagan Rearmament – Proposed a fiveyear defense buildup costing $1.5 trillion
and defense officials were ordered to find
places to spend money.
• Strategic Defense Initiative in 1983 to let
computers scan the skies and use hightech devices to destroy invading missiles.
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Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 45
LO 20.2
American Foreign Policy Through
the Cold War
• The Cold War (cont.)
• Final Thaw in Cold War – Soviet leader
Gorbachev’s changes helped end
communist regimes and postwar barriers
between Eastern and Western Europe in
1989.
• In 1991, the Soviet Union split into 15
separate nations, and noncommunist
governments formed in most of them.
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The Cold War
The Reagan Rearmament
Reagan proposed the largest peacetime defense
spending increase in American history: a five-year
defense buildup costing $1.5 trillion.
Defense officials were ordered to find places to
spend more money.
These heady days for the Pentagon lasted only
through the first term of Reagan’s presidency,
however.
In his second term, concern over huge budget
deficits brought defense spending to a standstill.
Once inflation is taken into account, Congress
appropriated no increase in defense spending at all
from 1985 to 1988.
In 1983 President Reagan added another element to
his defense policy—a new plan for defense against
missiles.
He called it the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI);
critics quickly renamed it “Star Wars.”
Reagan’s plans for SDI proposed creating a global
umbrella in space wherein computers would scan
the skies and use various high-tech devices to
destroy invading missiles.
The Cold War
The Final Thaw in the Cold War
On May 12, 1989, in a commencement address at
Texas A&M University, President George H.W.
Bush announced a new era in American foreign
policy.
He termed this an era “beyond containment” and
declared the goal of the United States would shift
from containing Soviet expansion to seeking the
integration of the Soviet Union into the community
of nations.
The Cold War ended as few had anticipated —
spontaneously.
Suddenly, the elusive objective of 40 years of post–
World War II U.S. foreign policy—freedom and
self-determination for Eastern Europeans and
Soviet peoples and the reduction of the military
threat from the East—was achieved.
Forces of change sparked by Soviet leader Mikhail
Gorbachev led to a staggering wave of upheaval
that shattered communist regimes and the postwar
barriers between Eastern and Western Europe.
The Berlin Wall, the most prominent symbol of
oppression in Eastern Europe, came tumbling down
on November 9, 1989, and East and West Germany
formed a unified, democratic republic.
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25
Slide 46
LO 20.2
The Soviet Union split into 15 separate nations,
and noncommunist governments formed in most of
them. Poland, Czechoslovakia (soon splitting into
the Czech Republic and Slovakia), and Hungary
established democratic governments, and reformers
overthrew the old-line communist leaders in
Bulgaria and Romania.
--LO 20.2 Image: Beginning in 1989, communism in
the Soviet Union and in Eastern Europe suddenly
began to crumble.
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Slide 47
It is so very important to explain the major
obstacles to success in the war on terrorism.
American Foreign Policy and the War
on Terrorism
LO 20.3: Explain the major obstacles to
success in the war on terrorism.
• The Spread of Terrorism
• Afghanistan and Iraq
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 48
LO 20.3
American Foreign Policy and the
War on Terrorism
• The Spread of Terrorism
• Terrorism – Use of violence to demoralize and
frighten populations or governments.
• Forms of Terrorism – Bombing of buildings
and ships; kidnapping of diplomats and
civilians; and assassinating political leaders.
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The Spread of Terrorism
Perhaps the most troublesome issue in the national
security area is the spread of terrorism—the use of
violence to demoralize and frighten a country’s
population or government.
Terrorism takes many forms, including the
bombing of buildings (such as the attacks on the
World Trade Center and the Pentagon on
September 11, 2001; on the American embassy in
Kenya in 1998; and on the World Trade Center in
1993) and ships (such as the USS Cole in Yemen
in 2000), the assassinations of political leaders (as
when Iraq attempted to kill former president
George Bush in 1993), and the kidnappings of
diplomats and civilians (as when Iranians took
Americans hostage in 1979).
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26
Slide 49
LO 20.3
LO 20.3 Image: Terrorism takes many forms,
including the bombing of buildings and ships.
Shown here are terrorist attacks on the World
Trade Center in New York in 2001, the American
embassy in Kenya in 1998, and the USS Cole in
Yemen in 2000.
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Slide 50
LO 20.3
American Foreign Policy and the
War on Terrorism
• The Spread of Terrorism (cont.)
• Terrorism is difficult to defend against
because terrorists have the advantage of
stealth and surprise and of a willingness to
die for their cause.
• Defend – Better intelligence gathering and
security measures and punishing
governments and organizations that
engage in terrorist activities.
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Slide 51
LO 20.3
American Foreign Policy and the
War on Terrorism
• Afghanistan and Iraq
• U.S. declared war on terrorism after the 9-112001 attacks.
• Bush attacked bin Laden and al Qaeda and the
Taliban regime that had been harboring them.
• The Taliban fell in short order although many
suspected members of al Qaeda escaped.
The Spread of Terrorism
It is difficult to defend against terrorism, especially
in an open society.
Terrorists have the advantage of stealth and
surprise and, often, of a willingness to die for their
cause.
Improved security measures and better intelligence
gathering can help.
So, perhaps, can punishing governments and
organizations that engage in terrorist activities.
In 1986, the United States launched an air attack on
Libya in response to Libyan supported acts of
terrorism; in 1993, the United States struck at
Iraq’s intelligence center in response to a foiled
plot to assassinate former president George Bush;
and in 1998, the United States launched an attack
in Afghanistan on Osama bin Laden, the leader of
the terrorist organization al Qaeda.
Afghanistan and Iraq
Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, the
United States declared war on terrorism.
President George W. Bush made the war the
highest priority of his administration, and the
United States launched an attack on bin Laden and
al Qaeda and on the Taliban regime that had been
harboring them.
The Taliban fell in short order, although many
suspected members of al Qaeda escaped.
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27
Slide 52
LO 20.3
American Foreign Policy and the
War on Terrorism
• Afghanistan and Iraq (cont.)
• Axis of Evil – Iran, Iraq, and North Korea as
declared by Bush.
• In 2003, a U.S. led coalition removed Hussein
from power.
• Win war on terror – End support of ideology
and strategy used by terrorists out to destroy
the United States and its allies.
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Slide 53
LO 20.3
American Foreign Policy and the
War on Terrorism
• Afghanistan and Iraq (cont.)
• In 2007, Bush ordered a troop surge in Iraq to
slow violence and let Iraqis develop a
democratic government, train police and
defense forces, and engage in national
reconciliation of major religious and ethnic
groups.
• Obama has been substantially reducing U.S.
troop levels.
Afghanistan and Iraq
In the meantime, the president declared that Iran,
Iraq, and North Korea formed an “axis of evil” and
began laying plans to remove Iraqi president
Saddam Hussein from power.
In 2003, a U.S.-led coalition toppled Hussein.
In contrast, winning the war on terror, involving as
it does terrorist groups and not enemy states, will
require political changes that erode and ultimately
undermine support for the ideology and strategy of
those determined to destroy the United States and
its allies.
The war will be won not when Washington and its
allies kill or capture all terrorists or potential
terrorists but when the ideology the terrorists
espouse is discredited; when their tactics are seen
to have failed; and when potential terrorists find
more promising paths to the dignity, respect, and
opportunities they crave.
Afghanistan and Iraq
In 2007, President Bush ordered a troop “surge” in
Iraq.
It was designed to quell violence and give Iraqis
the opportunity to establish a democratic
government, train forces to assume police and
defense responsibilities, and engage in national
reconciliation among the major religious and ethnic
groups.
President Obama has been substantially reducing
U.S. troop levels.
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Slide 54
LO 20.3
American Foreign Policy and the
War on Terrorism
• Afghanistan and Iraq (cont.)
• Afghanistan goals – Legitimate and
effective governance; relief assistance; and
countering the surge in narcotics
cultivation.
• In 2009, 30,000 more U.S. troops were
sent to Afghanistan to help achieve these
goals, but success has been elusive.
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Afghanistan and Iraq
Obama has turned America’s attention to
Afghanistan, which continues to be threatened by
Taliban insurgents and religious extremists, some
of whom are linked to al Qaeda and to sponsors
outside the country.
Ensuring legitimate and effective governance in
Afghanistan, delivering relief assistance, and
countering the surge in narcotics cultivation remain
major challenges for the international community.
In 2009, President Obama announced an increase
of 30,000 U.S. troops in Afghanistan.
Although his goal was to begin removing them
after a short period, success has been elusive.
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28
Slide 55
It is so very important to identify the major
elements of U.S. defense policy.
Defense Policy
LO 20.4: Identify the major elements of U.S.
defense policy.
•
•
•
•
Defense Spending
Personnel
Weapons
Reforming Defense Policy
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Slide 56
LO 20.4
Defense Policy
• Defense Spending
• Defense spending makes up about onefifth of the federal budget, which is $600
billion per year.
• This is more than the next 15 or 20 biggest
spenders combined.
• Results – Nuclear superiority, dominant air
force, navy with worldwide operations, and
power around the globe.
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Slide 57
LO 20.4
Defense Spending
Defense spending now makes up about one-fifth of
the federal budget..
Still, at more than $600 billion per year (counting
the cost of the occupation of Iraq), it remains a
significant sum, one over which battles continue to
be fought in Congress.
Whatever the proper level of spending, there is no
question that the United States spends more on
defense than the next 15 or 20 biggest spenders
combined.
The United States has overwhelming nuclear
superiority, the world’s dominant air force, the
only navy with worldwide operations (which also
has impressive airpower), and a unique capability
to project power around the globe.
America has exploited the military applications of
advanced communications and information
technology and has developed the ability to
coordinate and process information about the
battlefield and to destroy targets from afar with
extraordinary precision.
Figure 20.2 Trends in Defense Spending
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29
Slide 58
LO 20.4
Defense Policy
• Personnel
• The United States has about 1.4 million
men and women on active duty and about
845,000 in the National Guard and
reserves.
• About 300,000 active duty troops are
deployed abroad and many of them serve
in Iraq, Afghanistan, Europe, Japan, and
South Korea.
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Slide 59
LO 20.4
Personnel
Crucial to the structure of America’s defense is a
large standing military force.
The United States has about 1.4 million men and
women on active duty and about 845,000 in the
National Guard and reserves.
There are about 300,000 active duty troops
deployed abroad; many of these troops are serving
in Iraq and Afghanistan, although there is also a
substantial U.S. presence in Europe, Japan, and
South Korea.
This is a very costly enterprise and the ongoing
wars in particular frequently evoke calls to bring
the troops home.
As demands have increased on active-duty
personnel, the military now relies much more
heavily on National Guard and reserve units to
maintain national security; National Guard and
reserve units have served for extended periods in
Iraq and Afghanistan.
Figure 20.3 Size of the Armed Forces
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Slide 60
LO 20.4
Defense Policy
• Weapons
• Nuclear weapons – Ground-based
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs),
submarine launched ballistic missiles, and
strategic bombers.
• Stealth bomber costs over $2 billion, and
the total cost of building nuclear weapons
has been $5.5 trillion.
Weapons
To deter an aggressor’s attack, the United States
has relied on possession of a triad of nuclear
weapons: ground-based intercontinental ballistic
missiles (ICBMs), submarine launched ballistic
missiles, and strategic bombers.
Each stealth bomber costs over $2 billion; the total
cost of building nuclear weapons has been $5.5
trillion.
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Slide 61
LO 20.4
LO 20.4 Image: President Reagan and Soviet
President Mikhail Gorbachev signed a treaty
eliminating intermediate-range nuclear missiles
from Europe.
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Slide 62
LO 20.4
Defense Policy
• Weapons (cont.)
• Other weapons – Jet fighters, aircraft
carriers, and tanks.
• Space-age technology helped win the Gulf
War and topple the Taliban regime in
Afghanistan and Saddam Hussein in Iraq.
• Producing expensive weapons also
provides jobs for U.S. workers.
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Slide 63
LO 20.4
Defense Policy
• Reforming Defense Policy
• Reevaluate weapons systems; make
armed forces lighter, faster, and more
flexible; effectively coupling intelligence
with an agile military; and use Special
Forces to conduct specialized operations
like reconnaissance, unconventional
warfare, and counterterrorism actions.
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Weapons
Nuclear weapons are the most destructive in
America’s arsenal, but they are by no means the
only weapons.
Jet fighters, aircraft carriers, and even tanks are
extraordinarily complex as well as extraordinarily
costly.
The perception that space-age technology helped
win the Gulf War in “100 hours” and topple the
Taliban regime in Afghanistan and Saddam
Hussein in Iraq with few American casualties,
along with the fact that producing expensive
weapons provides jobs for American workers,
mean that high-tech weapons systems will continue
to play an important role in America’s defense
posture.
Reforming Defense Policy
The rethinking of national security policy that has
been prompted by the changing nature of threats to
America’s security has led to a reforming of the
nation’s military.
Reevaluating weapons systems is part of this effort.
So is changing the force structure to make the
armed forces lighter, faster, and more flexible.
Yet other changes include more effectively
coupling intelligence with an increasingly agile
military and a greater use of Special Forces, elite,
highly trained tactical teams that conduct
specialized operations such as reconnaissance,
unconventional warfare, and counterterrorism
actions.
New approaches to military conflict inevitably
follow from such transformations.
Although the United States has unsurpassed
military strength, many international matters
clamor for attention. Even the mightiest nation can
be mired in intractable issues.
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31
Slide 64
It is so very important to analyze the evolving
challenges for U.S. national security policy.
The New National Security Agenda
LO 20.5: Analyze the evolving challenges for
U.S. national security policy.
•
•
•
•
•
The Changing Role of Military Power
Nuclear Proliferation
The International Economy
Energy
Foreign Aid
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Slide 65
LO 20.5
The New National Security Agenda
• The Changing Role of Military Power
• Force is often not appropriate for achieving
all goals.
• Soft power – Nation persuades others to
do what it wants without force or coercion.
• National security hinges as much on
winning hearts and minds as it does on
winning wars.
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The Changing Role of Military Power
Although the United States is the world’s mightiest
military power, there are limits to what military
strength can achieve.
Moreover, force is often not an appropriate way of
achieving other goals—such as economic and
ecological welfare—that are becoming more
important in world affairs.
Economic conflicts do not yield to high-tech
weapons.
America cannot persuade nations to sell it cheap
oil, or prop up the textile industry’s position in
world trade, by resorting to military might.
According to Joseph Nye, it is “soft power”—the
ability of a country to persuade others to do what it
wants without force or coercion—that is often
crucial to national security.
Countries need to be able to exert this soft power
as well as hard power; that is, security hinges as
much on winning hearts and minds as it does on
winning wars.
Indeed, American culture, ideals, and values have
been important to helping Washington attract
partners and supporters, to shaping long-term
attitudes and preferences in a way that is favorable
to the United States.
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Slide 66
LO 20.5
The New National Security Agenda
• The Changing Role of Military Power
(cont.)
• United States and its allies have used
military force to accomplish humanitarian
ends.
• 1999 – Protect ethnic Albanians in Kosovo
by bombing Serbs.
• 2010 – Provide food, housing, and medical
care in Haiti after a severe earthquake.
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Slide 67
LO 20.5
The New National Security Agenda
• The Changing Role of Military Power
(cont.)
• Economic Sanctions – Nonmilitary
penalties imposed on nation.
• Penalties – No aid; ban military sales;
restrict imports; or a total trade embargo.
• Goals – Stop terrorism, unfair trading,
human rights abuse, and drug trafficking;
and promote environmental initiatives.
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The Changing Role of Military Power
Humanitarian Interventions
On various occasions in recent decades, the United
States and its allies have used military force to
accomplish humanitarian ends.
Notable examples include the efforts to distribute
food and then oust a ruthless and unprincipled
warlord in Somalia in 1992 and 1993; restore the
elected leader of Haiti in 1994; stop the ethnic
warfare in Bosnia by bombing the Serbs in 1995;
protect ethnic Albanians in Kosovo by bombing
Serbs in 1999; and provide food, housing, and
medical care in the aftermath of a severe
earthquake in Haiti in 2010.
Such interventions are often controversial, because
they may involve violating a nation’s sovereignty
with the use of force.
And the United States is usually hesitant to
intervene, as American lives may be lost and there
may be no clear ending point for the mission.
The Changing Role of Military Power
Economic Sanctions
An ancient tool of diplomacy, sanctions are
nonmilitary penalties imposed on a foreign
government in an attempt to modify its behavior.
A wide range of penalties are possible—for
example, a cutoff of aid, a ban on military sales,
restrictions on imports, or a total trade embargo.
The implied power behind sanctions that the
United States imposes is U.S. economic muscle
and access to U.S. markets.
These groups and government officials, in seeking
sanctions, may want to curb unfair trade practices,
end human rights abuses and drug trafficking,
promote environmental initiatives, or stop
terrorism.
Some economic sanctions have accomplished their
intended goals; for example, sanctions levied
against South Africa in the mid-1980s contributed
to the demise of apartheid.
To succeed, sanctions generally must have broad
international support, which is rare.
Unilateral sanctions are doomed to failure.
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33
Slide 68
LO 20.5
The New National Security Agenda
• Nuclear Proliferation
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968)
– Nations agreed to not acquire or test
nuclear weapons.
• United States, Russia, Britain, France,
China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea
have declared that they have nuclear
weapons.
• North Korea and Iran are now developing
nuclear weapons and U.S. policymakers
are concerned.
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Slide 69
LO 20.5
Nuclear Proliferation
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, signed in 1968.
The primary means of accomplishing this goal has
been to encourage nations to agree that they would
not acquire— or, at least, would not test—nuclear
weapons.
Only eight countries have declared that they have
nuclear weapons capacities: the United States,
Russia, Britain, France, China, India, Pakistan, and
North Korea. Israel is widely suspected of having
nuclear weapons.
Currently, policymakers are most concerned about
North Korea and about Iran, which is actively
developing nuclear weapons capabilities.
These nations pose serious threats to their
neighbors and perhaps to the United States as well.
Over the last two decades, the United States has
promised a range of aid and other benefits to North
Korea in return for ending its nuclear weapons
program.
These incentives have not worked, as North Korea
tested a nuclear weapon in 2006 and now possesses
a few nuclear weapons.
Iran does not yet possess nuclear weapons,
although it has taken a defiant stance and refused to
cooperate fully with international weapons
inspectors.
In response, the U.S. has aggressively pushed for
economic sanctions against Iran to encourage it to
end its pursuit of nuclear weapons.
Figure 20.4 The Spread of Nuclear Weapons
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Slide 70
LO 20.5
The New National Security Agenda
• The International Economy
• Interdependency – Nations’ actions affect
economic well-being of people in other
nations.
• International Monetary Fund is an
international organization of 185 countries
meant to stabilize the exchange of
currencies and the world economy.
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Slide 71
LO 20.5
The New National Security Agenda
• The International Economy (cont.)
• Tariff – Tax added to imported goods to
raise price.
• Agreements have lowered trade barriers
– 1993 North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA), 1994 General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
and 2005 Central American–Dominican
Republic Free Trade Agreement.
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The International Economy
At one time, nations’ international economic
policymaking centered largely on erecting high
barriers to fend off foreign products.
Such economic isolationism would no longer be
feasible in today’s international economy,
characterized above all by interdependency, a
mutual reliance in which actions in a country
reverberate and affect the economic well-being of
people in other countries.
The health of the American economy depends
increasingly on the prosperity of its trading
partners and on the smooth flow of trade and
finance across borders.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a
cooperative international organization of 185
countries intended to stabilize the exchange of
currencies and the world economy.
From 1997-1998, the decline of currencies in a
number of Asian countries, including South Korea,
Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines threatened
to force these nations to default on their debts and
throw the global economy into turmoil.
To stabilize these currencies, the IMF, to which the
United States is by far the largest contributor,
arranged for loans and credits of more than $100
billion.
The IMF’s intervention seems to have been
successful, but the necessity of making the loans
dramatically illustrates the world’s economic
interdependence.
The International Economy
International Trade
Since the end of World War II, trade among nations
has grown rapidly.
American exports and imports have increased
twenty-fold since 1970 alone.
Among the largest U.S. exporters are grain farmers,
producers of computer hardware and software,
aircraft manufacturers, moviemakers, heavy
construction companies, and purveyors of
accounting and consulting services.
The main instrument of international economic
policy was the tariff, a special tax added to the cost
of imported goods.
Tariffs are intended to raise the price of imported
goods and thereby protect the country’s businesses
and workers from foreign competition.
Tariff making, though, is a game everyone can play.
In recent decades, various agreements have lowered
barriers to trade, including the 1993 North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Canada and
Mexico, the 1994 General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT), and the 2005 Central American–
Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement.
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35
Slide 72
LO 20.5
LO 20.5 Image: International trade is a
controversial subject.
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Slide 73
LO 20.5
LO 20.5 Image: U.S. Employment of Foreign
Multinational Companies*
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Slide 74
LO 20.5
The New National Security Agenda
• The International Economy
• Balance of Trade – The ratio of what is
paid for imports to what is earned from
exports.
• Balance-of-trade deficit – When more is
paid than earned; it was $379 billion in
2009; and it can lead to a decline in the
value of a nation’s currency.
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The International Economy
Balance of Trade
A country’s balance of trade is the ratio of what a
country pays for imports to what it earns from
exports.
When a country imports more than it exports, it has
a balance-of-trade deficit.
In 2009, for example, the deficit for the balance of
trade was $379 billion.
$1.6 trillion in 2009 in exports account for about
10 percent of the GDP.
About 5 percent of all civilian employment in the
United States is related to manufacturing exports.
A substantial amount of white-collar
employment—in the area of financial services, for
example—is also directly tied to exports.
A balance of trade deficit can lead to a decline in
the value of a nation’s currency.
If the dollar’s buying power declines against other
currencies, Americans pay more for goods that
they buy from other nations.
This decline in the value of the dollar, however,
also makes American products cheaper abroad,
thereby increasing our exports.
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Slide 75
LO 20.5
The New National Security Agenda
• Energy
• Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries – Primarily Middle Eastern
nations seeking to control the price and
amount of oil its members produce and sell
to other nations.
• America imports more than half of its
annual consumption of oil from other
nations, particularly from Middle Eastern
countries.
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Slide 76
LO 20.5
The New National Security Agenda
• Foreign Aid
• Congress appropriates less than 1% of
budget for foreign aid in areas of economic
development and military assistance.
• U.S. donates more total aid than any other
country, it devotes a smaller share of its
GDP to foreign economic development
than any other developed nation.
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Energy
In 1973, the Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) responded to
American support of Israel in its war against Egypt
that year by embargoing oil shipments to the
United States and Western European nations.
The fuel shortages and long lines at gas stations
that resulted from the 1973 oil embargo
convincingly illustrated the growing
interdependency of world politics.
More than half the world’s recoverable reserves of
oil lie in the Middle East; Saudi Arabia alone
controls much of this resource.
America imports more than half of its annual
consumption of oil from other countries,
particularly from countries in the Middle East.
This dependence makes the United States
vulnerable, especially because the Middle East
remains unstable.
The decision to respond to Iraq’s invasion of
Kuwait in 1990 was based in large part on the fact
that Kuwait produces about 10 percent of the
world’s oil, and its neighbor, Saudi Arabia, also
vulnerable to attack by Iraq, possesses about a
quarter of the world’s proven oil reserves.
Foreign Aid
Foreign aid helps to stabilize nations that are
friendly to the United States or that possessed
supplies of vital raw materials.
Sometimes aid has been given in the form of
grants, but often it has taken the form of credits and
loan guarantees to purchase American goods, loans
at favorable interest rates, and forgiveness of
previous loans.
At other times, the United States has awarded
preferential trade agreements for the sale of foreign
goods in the United States.
A substantial percentage of foreign aid is in the
form of military assistance and is targeted to a few
countries the United States considers to be of vital
strategic significance: Israel, Egypt, Turkey, and
Greece have received the bulk of such assistance in
recent years.
Foreign aid programs have also assisted with goals,
including agricultural modernization and irrigation
as well as family planning in countries where high
population growth rates are a problem.
Food for Peace programs have subsidized the sale
of American agricultural products to poor countries
(and simultaneously given an economic boost to
American farmers).
(cont.)
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Slide 77
LO 20.5
To Learning Objectives
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Slide 78
Peace Corps volunteers have fanned out over the
globe to provide medical care and other services in
less developed nations.
Currently, Congress appropriates less than 1
percent of the federal budget for economic and
humanitarian foreign aid.
Although the United States donates more total aid
(both for economic development and military
assistance) than any other country, it devotes a
smaller share of its GDP to foreign economic
development than any other developed nation.
--LO 20.5 Image: Ranking Largesse
It is so very important to assess the role of
democratic politics in making national security
policy and the role of national security policy in
expanding government.
Understanding National Security
Policymaking
LO 20.6: Assess the role of democratic
politics in making national security policy
and the role of national security policy in
expanding government.
• National Security Policymaking and
Democracy
• National Security Policymaking and
the Scope of Government
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Slide 79
LO 20.6
Understanding National Security
Policymaking
• National Security Policymaking and
Democracy
• Policymakers usually respond when people
hold strong opinions about international
relations.
• Separation of powers – President takes
the lead on national security matters, but
Congress has a central role in matters of
international relations.
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National Security Policymaking and Democracy
There is little evidence, however, that policies at
odds with the wishes of the American people can
be sustained; civilian control of the military is
unquestionable.
When the American people hold strong opinions
regarding international relations—as when they
first supported and later opposed the war in
Vietnam—policymakers are usually responsive.
Citizens in democracies do not choose to fight
citizens in other democracies, and studies have
found that well-established democracies rarely go
to war against one another.
In addition, the system of separation of powers
plays a crucial role in foreign as well as domestic
policy.
The president takes the lead on national security
matters, but Congress has a central role in matters
of international relations.
Whether treaties are ratified, defense budgets are
appropriated, weapons systems are authorized, or
foreign aid is awarded is ultimately at the
discretion of Congress, the government’s most
representative policymaking body.
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38
Slide 80
LO 20.6
Understanding National Security
Policymaking
• National Security Policymaking and
Democracy (cont.)
• Pluralism is in international economic
policy – Agencies, members of Congress,
and their constituents all pursue their own
policy goals and a range of interests are
represented in foreign policymaking.
National Security Policymaking and Democracy
When it comes to the increasingly important arena
of American international economic policy,
pluralism is pervasive.
Agencies and members of Congress, as well as
their constituents, all pursue their own policy goals.
As a result, a wide range of interests are
represented in the making of foreign policy.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 81
LO 20.6
Understanding National Security
Policymaking
• National Security Policymaking and the
Scope of Government
• Demand government action – War on
terrorism; treaty obligations to defend allies;
economic interests in an interdependent global
economy; and pressing new questions on the
global agenda.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 82
LO 20.6
Understanding National Security
Policymaking
• National Security Policymaking and the
Scope of Government (cont.)
• National defense – One-fifth of budget and
more than 2 million employees of Defense
Department.
• Scope of government in national security policy
will be great as long as America has political,
diplomatic, economic, and military interests in
the world.
To Learning Objectives
National Security Policymaking and the Scope of
Government
America’s status and involvements as a
superpower have many implications for how active
the national government is in the realm of foreign
policy and national defense.
The war on terrorism, treaty obligations to defend
allies around the world, the nation’s economic
interests in an interdependent global economy, and
pressing new questions on the global agenda such
as global warming all demand government action.
By any standard, the scope of government in these
areas is large.
National Security Policymaking and the Scope of
Government
The national defense consumes about a fifth of the
federal government’s budget and requires more
than 2 million civilian and military employees for
the Department of Defense.
The United States has a wide range of political,
economic, and other interests to defend around the
world.
As long as these interests remain, the scope of
American government in foreign and defense
policy will be substantial.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 83
LO 20.1: Identify the major instruments and actors
in making national security policy.
LO 20.1
Summary
• American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers
• The use and potential use of military force,
economic policies, and diplomacy are the main
instruments of national security policy.
To Learning Objectives
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39
Slide 84
LO 20.1: Identify the major instruments and actors
in making national security policy.
LO 20.1
Summary
• American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers (cont.)
• Nations, international and regional
organizations, multinational corporations,
nongovernmental organizations, terrorists, and
individuals influence American national security
policy.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 85
LO 20.1: Identify the major instruments and actors
in making national security policy.
LO 20.1
Summary
• American Foreign Policy: Instruments,
Actors, and Policymakers (cont.)
• President is the main force in national security
policymaking, and is assisted by Departments
of State and Defense, CIA, and the intelligence
establishment.
• Congress plays an important role in national
security policy.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 86
LO 20.1
Which of the following organizations was
created to help the president coordinate
American foreign and military policies?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Which of the following organizations was created
to help the president coordinate American foreign
and military policies?
B. The National Security Council (LO 20.1)
The Department of Defense
The National Security Council
The State Department
The North Atlantic Treaty
Organization
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 87
LO 20.1
Which of the following organizations was
created to help the president coordinate
American foreign and military policies?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Which of the following organizations was created
to help the president coordinate American foreign
and military policies?
B. The National Security Council (LO 20.1)
The Department of Defense
The National Security Council
The State Department
The North Atlantic Treaty
Organization
To Learning Objectives
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40
Slide 88
LO 20.2: Outline the evolution of and major issues
in American foreign policy through the end of the
Cold War.
LO 20.2
Summary
• American Foreign Policy Through the
Cold War
• Until the mid-twentieth century, American
foreign policy emphasized keeping a
distance from the affairs of other countries,
with the notable exception of countries in
Latin America.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 89
LO 20.2: Outline the evolution of and major issues
in American foreign policy through the end of the
Cold War.
LO 20.2
Summary
• American Foreign Policy Through the
Cold War (cont.)
• Following World War II, the United States
became locked in an ideological conflict
with the Soviet Union and focused its
foreign policy on containing communism
and Soviet expansion.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 90
LO 20.2: Outline the evolution of and major issues
in American foreign policy through the end of the
Cold War.
LO 20.2
Summary
• American Foreign Policy Through the
Cold War (cont.)
• This competition came to include a nuclear
arms race and U.S. involvement in wars in
Korea and Vietnam against communist
forces, but never war between the United
States and the Soviet Union.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 91
LO 20.2: Outline the evolution of and major issues
in American foreign policy through the end of the
Cold War.
LO 20.2
Summary
• American Foreign Policy Through the
Cold War (cont.)
• There were efforts to relax tensions, but
the Cold War did not end until the breakup
of the Soviet Union and liberalization of
governments in Eastern Europe.
• The United States maintained an
enormous defense capability.
To Learning Objectives
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41
Slide 92
The policy of containment called for
the United States to stop the spread of
.
A.
B.
C.
D.
LO 20.2
The policy of containment called for the United
States to stop the spread of
.
D. communism (LO 20.2)
terrorism
détente
nuclear weapons
communism
To Learning Objectives
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Slide 93
The policy of containment called for
the United States to stop the spread of
.
A.
B.
C.
D.
LO 20.2
The policy of containment called for the United
States to stop the spread of
.
D. communism (LO 20.2)
terrorism
détente
nuclear weapons
communism
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 94
LO 20.3: Explain the major obstacles to success in
the war on terrorism.
LO 20.3
Summary
• American Foreign Policy and the War
on Terrorism
• The U.S. defense capability has been put
to new use with the war on terrorism, the
struggle that is at the top of America’s
national security priorities.
• It is difficult to defend against terrorism in
an open society.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 95
LO 20.3: Explain the major obstacles to success in
the war on terrorism.
LO 20.3
Summary
• American Foreign Policy and the War
on Terrorism (cont.)
• Terrorists have the advantage of stealth
and surprise and, often, a willingness to die
for their cause.
• They are also generally decentralized so
they cannot be defeated simply by
attacking another nation.
To Learning Objectives
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42
Slide 96
LO 20.3: Explain the major obstacles to success in
the war on terrorism.
LO 20.3
Summary
• American Foreign Policy and the War
on Terrorism (cont.)
• Moreover, winning the war on terrorism
requires political as well as military
successes.
• The United States’ wars with Iraq and
Afghanistan were motivated by the fight
against terrorists.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 97
LO 20.3: Explain the major obstacles to success in
the war on terrorism.
LO 20.3
Summary
• American Foreign Policy and the War
on Terrorism (cont.)
• However, ensuring legitimate, effective
governance remains difficult
• A terrorist haven has emerged in remote
regions of Pakistan.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 98
It is difficult to defend against
terrorism because terrorists have the
advantage of _______.
A.
B.
C.
D.
LO 20.3
It is difficult to defend against terrorism because
terrorists have the advantage of _____.
D. all of the above. (LO 20.3)
stealth.
surprise.
a willingness to die for their cause.
all of the above.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 99
It is difficult to defend against
terrorism because terrorists have the
advantage of _______.
A.
B.
C.
D.
LO 20.3
It is difficult to defend against terrorism because
terrorists have the advantage of _____.
D. all of the above. (LO 20.3)
stealth.
surprise.
a willingness to die for their cause.
all of the above.
To Learning Objectives
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43
Slide 100
LO 20.4: Identify the major elements of U.S.
defense policy.
LO 20.4
Summary
• Defense Policy
• The United States spends about one-fifth
of its budget on national defense, and has
1.4 million men and women in the active
duty armed services and another 845,000
on the National Guard and reserves.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 101
LO 20.4: Identify the major elements of U.S.
defense policy.
LO 20.4
Summary
• Defense Policy (cont.)
• Modern weapons systems are
sophisticated, expensive, and dangerous
• The United States has entered a number of
important agreements to reduce nuclear
weapons.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 102
LO 20.4: Identify the major elements of U.S.
defense policy.
LO 20.4
Summary
• Defense Policy (cont.)
• Recent reforms in defense policy, intended
to reshape it for changing threats, have
placed more emphasis on lighter, faster,
and more flexible forces, more effective
use of intelligence, the use of Special
Forces, and counterterrorism.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 103
Which of the following is a major
element of U.S. defense policy?
A.
B.
C.
D.
LO 20.4
Which of the following is a major element of U.S.
defense policy?
D. all of the above (LO 20.4)
defense spending
personnel
weapons
all of the above
To Learning Objectives
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44
Slide 104
Which of the following is a major
element of U.S. defense policy?
A.
B.
C.
D.
LO 20.4
Which of the following is a major element of U.S.
defense policy?
D. all of the above (LO 20.4)
defense spending
personnel
weapons
all of the above
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 105
LO 20.5: Analyze the evolving challenges for U.S.
national security policy.
LO 20.5
Summary
• The New National Security Agenda
• United States has great military power, but
many issues facing the world today are not
military issues.
• Nuclear proliferation and terrorism present
challenges to national security that are not
easily met by weaponry alone.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 106
LO 20.5: Analyze the evolving challenges for U.S.
national security policy.
LO 20.5
Summary
• The New National Security Agenda
(cont.)
• Global interdependency in economics,
energy, environment, and other areas
reveal new vulnerabilities and additional
challenges for national security policy.
• Effective use of foreign aid is also a
perennial policy concern.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 107
LO 20.5
To succeed, economic sanctions
typically have to _______.
To succeed, economic sanctions typically have to
______.
A. have broad international support. (LO 20.5)
A. have broad international support.
B. follow targeted military strikes.
C. have support within the targeted
nation.
D. involve the nations of North
America.
To Learning Objectives
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45
Slide 108
LO 20.5
To succeed, economic sanctions
typically have to _______.
To succeed, economic sanctions typically have to
______.
A. have broad international support. (LO 20.5)
A. have broad international support.
B. follow targeted military strikes.
C. have support within the targeted
nation.
D. involve the nations of North
America.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 109
LO 20.6: Assess the role of democratic politics in
making national security policy and the role of
national security policy in expanding government.
LO 20.6
Summary
• Understanding National Security
Policymaking
• There are different opinions over how
much discretion to accord policymakers in
national security policy.
• Policies at odds with public’s wishes
cannot be sustained.
• Congress can be a crucial check on the
executive.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 110
LO 20.6: Assess the role of democratic politics in
making national security policy and the role of
national security policy in expanding government.
LO 20.6
Summary
• Understanding National Security
Policymaking (cont.)
• Scope of government in national security
policymaking will be substantial as long as
America is fighting terrorism, has treaty
obligations to defend allies, participates in
an interdependent global economy, and
must deal with energy and environmental
issues.
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 111
LO 20.6
In recent years, national security policy
has contributed to an
scope of
government.
A.
B.
C.
D.
In recent years, national security policy has
scope of
contributed to an
government.
C. expanded (LO 20.6)
overall reduced
average sized
expanded
under sized
To Learning Objectives
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46
Slide 112
LO 20.6
In recent years, national security policy
has contributed to an
scope of
government.
A.
B.
C.
D.
In recent years, national security policy has
scope of
contributed to an
government.
C. expanded (LO 20.6)
overall reduced
average sized
expanded
under sized
To Learning Objectives
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 113
Text Credits
•
•
•
•
•
Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the United States
Government, Fiscal Year 2011: Historical Tables (Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 2010),Table 3.1.
Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the United States
Government, Fiscal Year 2011: Appendix (Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 2010), 239.
CQ W eekly, May 23, 1998. Updated by the authors. Copyright 1998 by
CONGRESSIONAL QUARTERLY INC. Reproduced with permission of
CONGRESSIONAL QUARTERLY INC in the format Textbook via
Copyright Clearance Center.
CQ W eekly, May 23, 1998. Updated by the authors. Copyright 1998 by
CONGRESSIONAL QUARTERLY INC. Reproduced with permission of
CONGRESSIONAL QUARTERLY INC in the format Other book via
Copyright Clearance Center.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2010.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman
Slide 114
Photo Credits
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
572: Robert Clark/Aurora Photos
573T: Stan Honda/Getty Images
573 TC: Bettmann/Corbis
573 TB: Matthew McDermott/Corbis
573B: Bettmann/Corbis
575: Stan Honda/Getty Images
577: Robert Arial
578: Corbis Images
580: Corbis Images
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
582T: AP Photos
582B: Bettmann/Corbis
585: AP Photos
586L: Matthew McDermott/Corbis
586C: AP Photos
586R: AFP Getty Images
591: Bettmann/Corbis
597: Getty Images
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47
B.
Additional Lecture Suggestions
¾20.1 Identify the major instruments and actors in making national security policy
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Give arguments for and against reinstatement of the draft vs. maintaining the all-volunteer
force.
Foreign and Domestic Policy: Foreign and domestic policies are linked in three main ways:
Foreign policy is based on ideas that guide domestic policy. There is a presence of
international factors in policy decisions, and foreign policy actions can affect goods and
services provided at home.
There are three important foreign policy powers defined by the Constitution: the power to
write treaties, the power of appointment, and the power to declare war. The president is seen
as the chief decision maker in foreign policy but the chief of staff, vice president, National
Security Council, and the State Department have also become key aids to the president.
Three areas of foreign policy concern are military security, economic issues, and human
welfare. These issues are connected to one another.
Explain the powers of the president to direct foreign policy and executive agencies that
support the president.
List three executive agencies that work directly with the president on foreign policy.
Explain how Congress shapes foreign policy.
Name two additional ways that Congress shapes foreign policy.
Describe the role of interest groups in foreign policy making.
Name three ways interest groups affect foreign policy.
THE LIMITATIONS ON EXECUTIVE AUTHORITY IN FOREIGN AFFAIRS
• The president is invested with great power in the area of foreign affairs. The
Constitution grants the president the initiative in matters directly involved in the
conduct of diplomatic and military affairs. Article II, section 2, provides that “(t)he
President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy...”; “that (h)e shall
have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties,
provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur,”; and that the president shall
nominate and by and with the consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other
public Ministers and Consuls...” Similarly, Article II, section 3, states that (t)he
president “shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers.”
• Read along with the command in Article III, section 3, that the president “shall take
care that the laws be faithfully executed.” These provisions have widely been
regarded as explicit evidence of the inherent presidential power to administer foreign
policy.
• The president therefore has exclusive responsibility for matters such as implementing
military policy, negotiating treaties, and establishing and breaking off relations with
foreign sovereign governments. But there are some limits to these broad powers.
• For one thing, the president cannot unilaterally assess fees on items being imported
into the United States. President Nixon attempted to do this, adding a ten-percent
surcharge on most articles imported into the United States, but this was struck down
by a federal court in 1974. The court found that the power to impose such fees rested
exclusively with Congress.
Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
48
•
•
Could a president sign a treaty with another nation that overrides a constitutional
provision? For instance, could a president sign a treaty vowing that in exchange for
certain other concessions, all countries signing the treaty would deny women the right
to vote? In the early 1950s many elected officials and scholars believed that any and
all constitutional provisions could be overridden via an international treaty, and
claimed that the treaty power was the Achilles’ heel of the Constitution. In answer to
these concerns, Justice Black wrote in the majority opinion in Reid v. Covert, 354
U.S. 1 (1957) that “No agreement with a foreign nation can confer power on the
Congress, or on any other branch of government, which is free from the restraints of
the Constitution.”
STATE ACTION IN FOREIGN AFFAIRS
• More often now than ever before, state officials are traveling overseas, seeking
business arrangements and export agreements with other nations. It is a rare governor
that has not made at least one foreign journey promoting overseas trade. But what are
the limitations on state action overseas?
• Not surprisingly, the Supreme Court held in United States v. Belmont, 301 U.S.
(1937) that “in the case of all international compacts and agreements, complete power
over international affairs is in the national government and is not and cannot be
subject to any curtailment or interference on the part of the several states.” Just as
federal treaties prevail over conflicting state treaties, so the power over external
affairs generally is not shared by the federal government with the states. It is vested
only in the federal government.
• The declaration in Article I, section 10 that no state “shall enter into any treaty,
alliance or confederation,” or “without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts
or duties on imports or exports,” is just one manifestation of an overall constitutional
principle that all foreign policy responsibility is reposed at the federal level. As the
Supreme Court said in 1889, “for local interests the several States of the Union exist,
but for national purposes, embracing our relations with foreign nations, we are but
one people, one nation, one power.”
• Any action that has a significant impact on the conduct of American diplomacy is
void as an unconstitutional infringement of an exclusively federal responsibility.
Take, for instance, the case of Zschernig v. Miller, 389 U.S. 429 (1968). In that case,
Oregon had a state law which required that before any property could be left to a
foreign citizen in the will of an Oregon resident, a probate court would have to
inquire into the type of government in that foreign nation. The Supreme Court struck
down the provision as “an intrusion by the State into the field of foreign affairs which
the Constitution entrusts to the President and the Congress.”
¾20.2 Outline the evolution of and major issues in American foreign policy through the
end of the Cold War
•
•
Explain why the United States became involved in Korea and Vietnam.
Disagreements on how to handle foreign affairs have abounded since the early history of the
United States. Hamiltonians, Jeffersonians, Wilsonians, and Jacksonians represent the main
schools of thought on foreign affairs. Americans were quite isolated from world events until
Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
49
•
•
•
•
•
the dawn of the twentieth century. The United States had a key role in the creation of the
United Nations and is part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
List and describe three terms associated with the Cold War.
List and describe the various military conflicts of the Cold War era, 1945-1991.
Explain why the United States became involved in Korea and Vietnam.
List five steps utilized in trying to address the conflict between the U.S. and North Korea.
Describe major foreign policy events of the 1945–1951 period, including the Truman
Doctrine, the Marshall Plan, and the emergence of the policy of containment. Compare and
contrast the Truman Doctrine and the Bush Doctrine. What did the Marshall Plan hope to
achieve?
¾20.3 Explain the major obstacles to success in the war on terrorism
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
For many years the Cold War shaped the foreign policy of the United States. The collapse of
the Soviet Union in 1991 removed the focal point of American foreign policy. The American
public largely ignored foreign policy issues until September 11, 2001. Since then, the United
States’ war against terrorism has led to the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq. The main
justification for the 2003 Iraqi invasion proved ultimately to have been based on inadequate
intelligence.
Point out how new technology, such as satellite dishes and fax machines, helped transmit
news into and out of the Middle East following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on
America and leading up to the Iraq War.
There are many conflicting opinions concerning the Iraq War. The original military
operations may have been a success, but continued violence and tensions, along with rising
monetary costs, have brought many to consider the war to be a mistake.
Terrorism and weapons of mass destruction are a priority for military security. Terrorist
groups have multiplied and have become more unified in their goals. Nuclear weapons are
also available to some. The idea of preemption was developed by the Bush administration
with the war in Iraq. The idea of a national ballistic missile defense system is being pursued
but must overcome challenges before success can be achieved.
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 sparked a change in American foreign policy.
Americans have been drawn onto the world stage and the public has been forced to consider
policy issues concerning defense and national security. The public can work together with
policy institutions to create policies that will work. We must remember that terrorism is only
one of many issues that face Americans today.
Name the three major points of the Bush Doctrine.
Define terrorism and describe the war on terror.
• Name several nations still thought to constitute security threats to the United States,
explaining why.
• Identify non-deterrable security threats.
Outline the major phases of the U.S. war in Iraq.
• Examine the Just War doctrine and explain under what circumstances preemptive
strikes are permissible.
• Examine the Constitution of Iraq and compare it to the United States Constitution.
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50
¾20.4 Identify the major elements of U.S. defense policy
•
•
Outline the various arms limitation and reductions policies of 1969-2002.
What is Mutually Assured Destruction? Cite the main provisions of the two SALT and two
START treaties.
¾20.5 Analyze the evolving challenges for U.S. national security policy
•
•
•
•
•
•
America has taken a stand on world human rights issues. There is a focus on individual legal
rights and civil liberties. The loss of human rights usually occurs in countries with hostile,
strong governments. Americans also frown on violence as a form of policy change.
Those who receive foreign aid benefit from foreign policy programs, as do those who supply
goods for foreign exchange. Budget increases for foreign policy programs often mean
cutbacks for domestic policy programs. Battlefield deaths also must be taken into account
when forming foreign policy. There are many concerns over international trade policy as well
as the protection of civil liberties. Civil liberties need to be protected during times of war.
Globalization has increased trade and the movement of thoughts and people across national
borders. There is heightened economic activity but American jobs are being lost to other
countries. It is hard to determine how much foreign aid the United States should be giving.
The American public is unhappy with foreign aid when they do not see any direct economic
improvements at home as a result.
The largest human welfare issues today are genocide, land mines, and human trafficking. The
United States has no clear-cut policy toward genocide. The United States has proposed a
treaty to make sure that the only land mines in use are automatically deactivated after a
period of time. Human trafficking is the third-largest illegal business on earth. Other issues
include child labor, the status of women, health care issues, poverty, and environmental
issues.
Describe the importance of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
FOREIGN POLICY/DEFENSE ISSUES IN THE NEW CENTURY
• Several foreign/defense issues seem to be especially prominent for America early in
the new century. First, the specter of nuclear proliferation concerned American
policymakers.
• Should the United States accelerate its development of an anti-ballistic missile system
to guard against the “rogue states”? Or was the whole idea a colossal waste of money
and effort? It appeared that the Bush administration was solidly behind national
missile defense and campaigned strongly for congressional support in order to test,
build, and eventually deploy National Missile Defense (NMD). All of these issues
could be raised in class discussion.
• Then, on September 11, 2001, American foreign policy and defense changed forever.
When terrorists hijacked U.S. passenger planes and flew them into the Twin Towers
at the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, a new age of defense strategy began.
The creation of the Department of Homeland Security, the USA PATRIOT Act, the
war in Afghanistan, and, to some extent, Operation Iraqi Freedom all resulted from
that morning in September 2001.
Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
51
•
•
Many new questions are now on the minds of American citizens and policymakers.
How much security is too much security? Which civil liberties are we willing to set
aside in the name of more security? How can we ever be completely safe from
terrorist acts? Is the continued invasion of potential threatening nations or leaderships
the answer?
Finally, looming threats to national and international security continue to affect
foreign policy decisions. North Korea, India/Pakistan, and Israel/Palestine are among
the current concerns of foreign policy and defense decision makers in the United
States. Discussions centered around any one of these potential conflicts and threats to
world or U.S. security would be worthwhile.
¾20.6 Assess the role of democratic politics in making national security policy and the role
of national security policy in expanding government
•
•
•
•
•
•
The United States is considered by many to be the only remaining superpower in the world.
People known as transformers believe that the United States should protect American goals
and strengths and bring this strength to other countries. Maintainers believe that Americans
should avoid imposing themselves on other nations. There are also neoconservative and
neoliberal transformers and conservative and isolationist maintainers.
The reluctance of political parties to take clear stands on foreign policy issues may be due to
the fast-changing nature of world events.
Point out that foreign policy has no political payoff for most members of Congress, and may
have some penalties.
Foreign lobbying has increased greatly in Washington, D.C. People often lobby the executive
branch and Congress. Lobbying is often done to ensure that business can be carried out in the
United States without any problems. There are fears that a focus on those lobbying for
foreign policy issues takes away the focus on domestic issues. Many believe that some
international issues are incompatible with American ideals. Globalization is also a concern.
Many feel that there is no way for average citizens to become involved in the creation of
foreign policy. Some think that foreign policy decisions should be left to the experts.
Former government officials, major contributors or supporters of a political party, and
opinion leaders who write columns for newspapers have great influence on foreign policy
issues. Public opinion can also work to make change or to inhibit changes in policy.
Elections can impact foreign policy. Foreign governments avoid working with the American
government during times of elections. Interest groups are also able to influence foreign
policy decisions.
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52
IV. Student Assignments—Post-Lecture
A.
Class Discussion Questions
¾20.1 Identify the major instruments and actors in making national security policy
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
How successful has the United Nations been in fulfilling its mission? What could be done to
make the United Nations more effective?
Many Americans became disillusioned with the United Nations because it did not end war.
Why did it fail? Now, with the end of the Cold War and the old bipolar world, there is an
increase in the activities of the United Nations. The Persian Gulf conflict, for example, was
authorized under an U.N. mandate, and the United Nations has been heavily involved in
peace-keeping missions in Somalia and Bosnia. However, the U.N. was not initially
supportive of the war in Iraq. What is the chief function of the United Nations today? What
changes would you advocate in its organization and powers? To what extent should the
making of United States foreign policy be influenced and governed by the activities and
decisions of the United Nations: a) legally; b) politically? Why? Should U.S. troops be
placed under U.N. command in peace-keeping missions?
Ask students for examples of the connection between the influence of important ethnic and
religious groups and foreign policy.
Discuss why constituents expect their members of Congress to resist closing military bases in
their districts even if there is a deficit.
Some people have been trying to get the United States out of the United Nations for years.
Discuss the reasons for this and the prospects for it occurring.
Is the United Nations doing a good job on foreign policy issues in today’s world? Why or
why not?
Is foreign policy a necessary function of the U.S. government? Has the United States become
too involved in world affairs? Why or why not?
What role does the CIA play in American foreign policy?
What role does Congress play in American foreign policy?
What role do interest groups play in American foreign policy?
Covert operations are supposed to be secret. Ask your students to consider how the public
can have control over governmental actions if it does not know about their operations. Do all
covert operations necessarily conflict with the idea of democracy? If so, would your students
favor some limitations on democracy, or do they believe that covert operations should be
more restricted?
Identify reasons the United Nations has been less than successful in promoting and
maintaining world peace. What actions should be taken to address these weaknesses? What is
the future of the UN?
For class discussion, have students debate the value of American involvement in UN
peacekeeping efforts. In particular, have them examine the costs and benefits of this policy to
American taxpayers. Ask them what exactly they would propose instead of American
participation in these efforts.
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¾20.2 Outline the evolution of and major issues in American foreign policy through the
end of the Cold War
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•
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•
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•
As a class, discuss what the grand strategy of the U.S. ought to be now that the Cold War is
over and given the new obligations of the war on terrorism.
Why was the United States so focused on the Soviet Union and communism from the 1950s
through the 1990s? Did this leave the country unprepared to face foreign policy issues in the
following years?
Why was the Vietnam War a watershed event for American foreign policy?
What factors contributed to the end of the Cold War?
Identify specific examples of foreign and defense policy changes made in response to
experiences in the Vietnam War.
Why didn’t the Cold War result in actual armed conflict between the former Soviet Union
and the United States? Would a similar scenario be possible with nations allegedly
possessing nuclear weapons capability now? Why or why not?
In 1985, Reagan began to bargain with new Soviet leader Gorbachev, by switching tactics to
a reduction of nuclear weaponry, rather than on limited expansion. What effect might this
have had on Gorbachev’s increased “friendliness” to Western nations?
¾20.3 Explain the major obstacles to success in the war on terrorism
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•
Ask students to discuss how much aid the United States should provide Iraqi citizens in
rebuilding their nation. Did the United States make a mistake in believing the transformation
to democracy in Iraq would be easy?
How have the war in Afghanistan and the Iraq War altered the Middle East’s and the world’s
view of American foreign policy? Do invasions such as these tend to stabilize or de-stabilize
world order?
What does Osama bin Laden represent? Why is he (and why are so many of his followers) so
intent on negatively impacting U.S. interests and on terrorizing U.S. citizens?
What has been the cost of the war in Iraq? Discussion should revolve around human costs,
cost of the war, effect on deficit, and the economy.
Ask students if they have felt the effects of the post-September 11, 2001 security measures in
the United States (building security, airport security, random traffic stops, etc.). Ask students
to discuss and debate security versus civil liberties.
Discuss with students whether or not the war in Afghanistan was a success if Osama bin
Laden is still at large. Will the Iraq War be a success in terms of establishing democracy in
that country?
What appear to be the first principles of the Obama administration’s foreign policy? How is
it handling the U.S. presence in Afghanistan and Iraq?
Have students discuss whether and how the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 changed
U.S. foreign policy.
Do you think the Iraq War was a mistake? Did you think it was a mistake when it first
began? Why or why not? What steps should be taken in Iraq today?
Do you think terrorism is the most important foreign policy issue in today’s world? Why or
why not?
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54
•
•
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•
What has America’s foreign policy strategy been since the end of the Cold War?
Should the U.S. act unilaterally when it comes to foreign policy (Bush Doctrine), or should
we seek advice from our allies?
Do you approve of the U.S. response to terrorism? The attack on Afghanistan? Was the U.S.
attack on Iraq a prudent move given the lack of United Nations support?
Do you feel safer as a result of the actions taken in the War on Terrorism and the personal
liberties denied? Why or why not?
¾20.4 Identify the major elements of U.S. defense policy
•
•
Do women belong in combat?
Should the United States be characterized as a superpower? Why or why not? Are there any
other countries that you think deserve this label? If so, which ones?
¾20.5 Analyze the evolving challenges for U.S. national security policy
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•
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•
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•
How strong is the argument that in order to secure our energy supply, we need to support
nondemocratic governments such as Saudi Arabia?
Is it possible to aggressively push trade with China and at the same time oppose China’s
sanctioning of human rights violations?
How well do economic sanctions work as a tool of international diplomacy?
Some people are concerned about the growing power of foreign investors in the United
States. Discuss the risks and benefits.
Foreign aid continues to be unpopular with most Americans. Have the class discuss the
prospects for foreign aid in an era of large deficits, tax cuts, and domestic economic
problems.
Discuss the irony that in many ways having nuclear weapons under the control of a powerful
centralized Soviet government was superior (i.e., safer) than having them in the hands of
numerous unstable independent republics.
Recent studies show that Americans are ignorant of world geography. Does that influence
our knowledge of foreign affairs?
Should America be involved in protecting human rights on the world stage? Why or why
not?
What types of foreign aid programs should be increased? Which programs do you think
should be decreased? Why?
¾20.6 Assess the role of democratic politics in making national security policy and the role
of national security policy in expanding government
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•
What role should public opinion have in the development of foreign policy, given the
public’s lack of understanding of foreign affairs?
Discuss how the news media influence public opinion about events in other countries.
Include in your discussion the unprecedented coverage of a war during the Iraq War.
American news, be it press or broadcast media, tends to skimp on international news. The
argument is that Americans are not interested. Have students address the following: Is that
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55
•
•
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true? Find public opinion polling data, ask friends and colleagues, etc. about their interest in
international relations. Next, test the hypothesis that the media ignore foreign affairs. Watch
several different types of media (network TV, newspapers, cable TV, news magazines) and
determine if this is true. Now that you know more about U.S. foreign policy, are you more
interested in such news? Discuss these issues or structure a debate about them.
Should foreign lobbying in the United States be allowed? Should foreign leaders be able to
exercise such influence over American policy making?
Should foreign policy be left entirely to experts who are familiar with the issues? Why or
why not?
Reconciling covert activities with the principles of open democratic government remains a
challenge for public officials. Does your class perceive any conflict between “democracy”
and the need for “national security”? What types of limitations would your students place on
covert activities? What type of distinction do they draw between activities of democracies
and activities of nations like the former Soviet Union when it comes to national security?
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56
B.
Class Activities
¾20.1 Identify the major instruments and actors in making national security policy
•
Ask students to compile a list of what they think the national interests of the United States
should be.
¾20.2 Outline the evolution of and major issues in American foreign policy through the
end of the Cold War
•
Chart the evolution of American foreign policy. Give students a timeline of major events or
conflicts in U.S. foreign affairs. Ask students to identify whether American policy during
each event reflected the Hamiltonian, Wilsonian, Jeffersonian, or Jacksonian perspective.
Identify and discuss the evolution of American foreign policy over time; search for patterns,
cycles, disparities, etc. Using your class-based discussions, ask students to speculate on what
perspective is “best” for the current and near-term-future state of world affairs.
¾20.3 Explain the major obstacles to success in the war on terrorism
•
Ask the students to write down the purpose(s) the Bush administration had in going to war
with Iraq. Then have them reveal their answers, and discuss why they differ from one
another. What are the consequences of the war, and have any of these objectives/goals been
achieved? You may also find that some believe Iraq to be responsible for 9/11, even years
after the Bush administration has declared this to be untrue.
¾20.4 Identify the major elements of U.S. defense policy
•
Students often have difficulty understanding how preparedness can serve as a deterrent to
war. Select four students from the class using size as the characteristic for selection. One
larger, two middle, and one smaller person. Demonstrate, with the three sizes, the United
States and the USSR with nuclear superiority (the larger student), the nuclear inferiority (the
smaller student), and the middle student moving to stand beside each of the other two,
depending on the description at the moment. What probability of a strike exists when they are
the same size? (Students become quite involved in the questions with this demonstration.)
¾20.5 Analyze the evolving challenges for U.S. national security policy
•
Educate your campus. Conduct a class discussion on the non-military issues that impact
American foreign policy (e.g., HIV/AIDS, hunger, human rights, genocide, environmental
policy). Have students choose the issue that is most salient to their generation. Direct
students to prepare posters explaining the problem and the impact it has on American politics
and policy. Students may also include information on interest groups, campus organizations,
or non-governmental organizations that address the policy issue. Hang the posters across
campus. Students may also use the information to write a letter to the editor or take out an
advertisement in the campus newspaper.
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57
¾20.6 Assess the role of democratic politics in making national security policy and the role
of national security policy in expanding government
•
Hold a debate on a current topic in foreign affairs. Have students argue both pro and con.
They can choose to do it on a partisan basis (Republican-Democrat) or on a thematic basis
(isolation vs. engagement, unilateral vs. multilateral action) and so on.
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58
C.
Research Assignments
¾20.1 Identify the major instruments and actors in making national security policy
•
Describe the origin and form of the United Nations. Examine the United Nations
organization at http://www.un.org/aboutun/mainbodies.htm and determine which countries
are in the Security Council at this time, what agencies the UN sponsors, and how many
member states exist. Report on your findings.
• Outline the regional alliances created during the Cold War era.
• How did the UN provide “collective security” in places such as Rwanda and Sudan?
• Go to the NATO Web site at http://www.nato.int/ and describe the major initiatives of
this body.
•
Your students may be surprised at the type of jobs that are available at the CIA. Ask them to
go to the CIA homepage (http://www.odci.gov) and make a list of the jobs that are available,
as well as and the requirements to work at the CIA. This can be turned in or reported orally.
Ask students about the future of NATO, assigning students to individually represent and
research NATO member countries. Students should report to the class once they have
reached consensus.
Visit the U.S. State Department Web site. Locate the link related to opportunities for college
students—internships, work opportunities, summer employment, etc. Investigate one of these
links and learn about the activities available to a college student in the area of foreign affairs.
•
•
¾20.2 Outline the evolution of and major issues in American foreign policy through the
end of the Cold War
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•
•
Create a timeline of the history of foreign policy in the United States. The following page
provides a good starting point for research: http://future.state.gov/when/foreign/
Outline the regional alliances created during the Cold War era. Go to the NATO Web site at
http://www.nato.int/ and describe the major initiatives of this body. Some former Warsaw
Pact countries have sought regional security by joining NATO. What tension has this created
with Russia?
Visit the homepage of the United Nations: http://www.un.org/english/ What are the UN goals
over the course of the next ten years?
¾20.3 Explain the major obstacles to success in the war on terrorism
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•
Investigate global opinion on American foreign policy. Ask students to choose a foreign
policy issue that interests them. Have the students find two newspaper or magazine articles
on the issue: One from an American publication and one from a foreign media source. Ask
students to compare and contrast the views on the issue; place emphasis on exploring
whether global public opinion has the potential to impact American foreign policy making.
The Iraq War remains controversial, largely due to the postwar failures in reconstruction.
Prepare a research paper that examines the efforts of the United States in reconstructing the
Philippines after the Spanish American War, and Japan and Germany after World War II.
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59
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•
Describe policies used in past reconstructions that might have benefited the United States in
rebuilding Iraq.
Assign students to read media reports from Europe, Central America, and elsewhere to gauge
foreign opinion toward the U.S. attack on Iraq. How do beliefs about and attitudes toward the
war and the U.S. compare? Do such differences matter, and in what ways?
Outline the major phases of the U.S. war in Iraq. Examine the Just War doctrine and explain
under what circumstances preemptive strikes are permissible. Examine the Constitution of
Iraq and compare it to the United States Constitution.
¾20.4 Identify the major elements of U.S. defense policy
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•
•
If possible arrange to visit with a military recruiter in your area. Have them explain the
process by which someone joins the military. Ask them questions related to where the U.S.
presently has military bases. Determine what is of interest to you and learn about the
activities of the base.
Assign a report on the pros and cons of an all-volunteer force. Given current commitments,
will the draft be necessary?
Have your students, using the best current information, analyze the comparative military
strength of the United States and possible rivals (say, Russia, China, North Korea, Iran ) in
terms of:
• Personnel
• Active military personnel in all services
• Reserves
• Potential recruiting pool of eligible draftees
• Allied support forces
• Weaponry
• Naval ships; submarines
• Fighter airplanes; bombers
• Tanks
• Intercontinental ballistic missiles
• Multiple Independently
• Targetable Reentry Vehicles
• Cruise missiles
• Star Wars
• Natural Resources
• Civilian Defense
• Other Imponderables
¾20.5 Analyze the evolving challenges for U.S. national security policy
•
•
Consider the relationship between foreign policy and oil. How do you think American
foreign policy has impacted the price of oil over the course of the past fifteen years?
http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3233
Have students write a report on the effectiveness of economic sanctions in one of the
following situations: Cuba, Iran, Iraq, North Korea, China, or Bosnia.
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60
•
Have students do some research on businesses in your area that are involved in international
trade. They should use the Internet or library to find out what kinds of businesses are doing
business where and why. Have them address the following questions: Are there more
international ties in your area than you thought? What kinds of impact does this trade have on
you, your town/city, and the country? Find out if you can invite some of the international
businessmen who visit your area to come to your class.
¾20.6 Assess the role of democratic politics in making national security policy and the role
of national security policy in expanding government
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•
Look up the Website for USA Today (http://www.usatoday.com). Click on the USA Today
index of topics and select several that deal with foreign affairs. Is the emphasis in these
articles on presidential or on congressional influence in foreign policy decision-making?
Does partisanship (political party) seem to play a strong role in decision-making, or are other
factors more important?
Using the Internet, search for examples of how military security, economic issues, and
human welfare are connected in today’s world.
Locate online and bring to class a recent article on national security concerns in America and
be prepared to discuss your reaction to it.
Public opinion polls find that Americans today are more likely to perceive threats to their
security in economic competition from allies than from military rivalry with potential
adversaries. As a library project, challenge your students to contrast the positions of the
United States and Japan with regard to both defense expenditures and protective economic
policies. Divide the class into several research groups for this project, and have them allocate
some division of responsibility among themselves.
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61
V. Quantitative Assessment
Administer Chapter Exam (see Test Bank, Chapter 20)
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62
VI. Resources for Further Study
A.
Books
1. Allison, G. T., & Treverton, G. F. (Eds.). (1992). Rethinking America’s security: Beyond war
to new world order. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
2. Ambrose, S. E., & Brinkley, D. (1998). Rise to globalism: American foreign policy since
1938. New York: Penguin.
3. Bacevich, A. (2008). Limits of power: The end of American exceptionalism. New York:
Metropolitan Books.
4. Berrios, R. (2000). Contracting for development: The role of for profit contractors in U.S.
foreign development assistance. Westport: Praeger.
5. Bolton, M. (2004). New U.S. foreign policy and international politics: George W. Bush, 9/11,
and the global terrorist hydra. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
6. Breuning, M. (2008). Foreign policy analysis: A comparative introduction. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan.
7. Campbell, K. M. (2006). Hard power: The new politics of national security. New York:
Basic Books.
8. Carter, R. G. (2004). Contemporary cases in U.S. foreign policy: From terrorism to trade.
Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.
9. Collins, J. J., & Bowdoin, G. D. (1999). Beyond unilateral economic sanctions: Better
alternatives for U.S. foreign policy Washington, DC: (CSIS Report).
10. Dolan, C. J., & Glad, B. (Eds.). (2004). Striking first: The preventive doctrine and the
reshaping of U.S. foreign policy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
11. Dunnigan, J. F. (1998). Digital soldiers: The evolution of high-tech weaponry and
tomorrow’s brave new battlefield. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
12. Eland, I. (2004). The empire has no clothes: U.S. foreign policy exposed. Oakland: The
independent institute.
13. Fisher, L. (2004). Presidential war power (2nd ed.). Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
14. Fisher, L. (2007). Constitutional conflicts between congress and the president. Lawrence:
University Press of Kansas.
Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
63
15. Friedman, T. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the 21st century. New York: Farrar,
Straus & Giroux.
16. Fukuyama, F. (2007). America at the crossroads: Democracy, power, and the
neoconservative legacy. New Haven: Yale University Press.
17. Gilpin, R. (1987). The political economy of international relations. Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
18. Gordon, P. H. (2007). Winning the right war. New York: Times Books.
19. Hamilton, L., & Tama, J. (2002). A creative tension: The foreign policy roles of the president
and congress. Princeton: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
20. Hanhimaki, J. M. (2004). The flawed architect: Henry Kissinger and American foreign
policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
21. Hass, R. N., & O’Sullivan, M. L. (Eds.). (2000). Honey and vinegar: Incentives, sanctions,
and foreign policy. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
22. Hilsman, R., Gaughran, L., & Wertsman, P. (1992). The politics of policy making in defense
and foreign affairs. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall
.
23. Hixson, W. (2007). The end of idealism: U.S. foreign policy since world war II. New Haven:
Yale University Press.
24. Hodge, J. F., Jr., & Rose, G. (Eds.). (2003). America and the world: Debating the new shape
of international politics. Washington, DC: Foreign Affairs Press.
25. Holt, P. M. (1995). Secret intelligence and public policy: A dilemma of democracy.
Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.
26. Hook, S., & Spanier, J. (2007). American foreign policy since world war II. (7th ed.).
Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Press.
27. Hook, S. W. (2004). U.S. foreign policy: The paradox of world power. Washington, DC:
Congressional Quarterly Press.
28. Howell, W., & Pevehouse, J. (2007). While dangers gather: Congressional checks on
presidential war powers. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
29. Johnson, C. (2000). Blowback: The costs and consequences of American empire. New York:
Metropolitan Books.
30. Kagan, D., & Kagan, F. (2000). While America sleeps: Self-delusion, military weakness, and
the threat to peace today. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
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31. Keegan, J. (2004). The Iraq war. New York: Knopf.
32. Kennedy, P. M. (1989). The rise and fall of the great Powers. New York: Vintage.
33. Kirkpatrick, J. (1982). Dictatorships and double standards. New York: Simon & Schuster.
34. Litwak, R. S. (2000). Rogue states and U.S. foreign policy: Containment after the cold war.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
35. Mann, T. E., (Ed.). (1990). A question of balance: The president, the congress and foreign
policy. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
36. Mearsheimer, J. L., & Walt, S. W. (2007). The Israel lobby and United States foreign policy.
New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
37. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks on the United States. (2004). The 9/11
Commission Report. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
38. Nixon, R. (1992). Seize the moment: America’s challenge in a one-superpower world. New
York: Simon & Schuster.
39. Nye, J. (2002). The paradox of American power: Why the world's only superpower can't go it
alone. New York: Oxford University Press.
40. Oye, K. A., Lieber, R. J., & Rothchild, D. (Eds.). (1992). Eagle in a new world. New York:
HarperCollins Publishers.
41. Pevehouse, J. C., & Howell, W. (2007). While dangers gather: Congressional checks on
presidential war powers. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
42. Sammon, B. (2002). Fighting back: The War on terrorism from inside the bush white house.
Washington, DC: Regnery Press.
43. Tucker, R. W., Keeley, C. B., & Wrigley, L. (Eds.). (1990). Immigration and U.S. foreign
policy. Boulder: Westview Press.
44. Welch, D. A. (2005). Painful choices—A theory of foreign policy change. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
45. Woodward, R. (2004). Plan of attack. New York: Simon & Schuster.
46. Yankelovich, D., & Destler, I. M. (Eds.). (1994). Beyond the beltway: Engaging the public in
U.S. foreign policy. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
47. Zakaria, F. (2008). The post-American world. Boston: W. W. Norton & Company.
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48. Zbigniew, B., Scowcroft, B., & Ignatius, D. (2008). America and the world: Conversations
on the future of American foreign policy. London: Perseus Publishers.
× Return to Chapter 20: Table of Contents
B.
Articles
1. Carter, R. G., Scott, J. M., & Rowling, C. M.. (2004, August).Setting a course: Congressional
foreign policy entrepreneurs in Post WWII U.S. Foreign Policy. International Studies
Perspectives, 5(3), 278–299.
2. Deudney, D., & Ikenberry, J. K. (1992, Summer). Who won the cold war. Foreign Policy,
87, 123–138.
3. Dolan, C. J., & Rosati, J. A. (2006, May) U.S. foreign economic policy and the significance
of the national economic council. International Studies Perspectives, 7(2), 102–123.
4. Drury, A. C. (2000, December). U.S. presidents and the use of economic sanctions.
Presidential Studies Quarterly, 30(4), 623–642..
5. Huntington, S. P. (1993, Summer). Clash of civilizations. Foreign Affairs, 72(3), 22–49.
6. Jacobs, L. R, & Page, B. I. (2005, February). Who influences U.S. foreign policy? American
Political Science Review, 99(1), 107–123.
7. Kennan, G. F. (1985–86, Winter). Morality and foreign policy. Foreign Affairs.
8. Meernik, J. (1993, August). Presidential support in congress: Conflict and consensus on
foreign and defense policy. Journal of Politics, 55(3), 569–587.
9. Mintz, A. (1989, December). Guns versus butter: A disaggregated analysis. American
Political Science Review, 83(4), 1285–1293.
10. Pape, R. A. (2003, August). The strategic logic of suicide terrorism. American Political
Science Review, 97(3), 343–361.
11. Rosenfeld, S. S. (1986, Spring). The guns of July. Foreign Affairs, 64(4), 698–714.
12. Russett, B. (1982, December). Defense expenditures and national well-being. American
Political Science Review, 76(4), 767–777.
13. Russett, B., Hartley, T., & Murray, S. (1994, March). The end of the cold war, attitude
change, and the politics of defense spending. PS, 27(1), 17–21.
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14. Thomas, G. B. (1999, May). External shocks, conflict and learning as interactive sources of
change in U.S. security policy. Journal of Public Policy, 19(2), 209–231.
15. Vilas, C. M. (2005, December).Is there any room for Latin America in U.S. foreign policy?
Journal of Developing Societies, 21(3–4), 389–402.
× Return to Chapter 20: Table of Contents
C.
Media
1. America at War. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.This film examines American wars
from World War II to the Persian Gulf.
2. Frontline: Ghosts of Rwanda. (2004). Prod./Dir. Greg Barker, PBS Home Video. This film
examines the Rwandan crisis and America’s, as well as the UN’s, response and interviews
key actors involved in the crisis.
3. Inside the Cold War. Films for the Humanities and Sciences. A CD-ROM that includes eight
mini-documentaries of the history of the Cold War. Reconstructs the chain of events that
brought the superpowers to the brink of war.
4. The Road to War: American Decision Making During the Gulf Crisis. Films for the
Humanities and Sciences. This film provides an in-depth analysis of how decisions were
made in response to the Gulf crisis.
5. The UN: It’s More Than You Think. (1991). Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This
program provides an accurate profile of the organization, structure, and purpose of the United
Nations.
6. The United Nations: Working for Us All. (2003). Films for the Humanities and Sciences. This
program examines the creation, history, and functions of the United Nations.
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D.
Web Resources
1. Amnesty International. Reports and documents from the international human rights
organization. http://www.amnesty.org
2. Carnegie Endowment for Peace. http://www.carnegieendowment.org/
3. Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/
4. Center for Defense Information is a nonprofit public policy center with a somewhat
“liberal” perspective. “Founded in 1972 as an independent monitor of the military, the Center
for Defense Information is a private, nongovernmental, research organization. Its directors
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and staff believe that strong social, economic, political, and military components and a
healthy environment contribute equally to the nation’s security. CDI seeks realistic and costeffective military spending without excess expenditures for weapons and policies that
increase the danger of war. CDI supports adequate defense by evaluating our defense needs
and how best to meet them without wasteful spending or compromising our national
security.” http://www.cdi.org/
5. Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) has several programs related to
military and foreign policy. Their Web site includes policy papers, links, and more.
http://www.csis.org/
6. Council on Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/
7. Defense Link. The home page of the U.S. Department of Defense.
http://www.defenselink.mil/
8. Department of Defense. http://www.defenselink.mil/
9. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/
10. Federal Web Locator links to many DoD and other defense related sites.
http://www.lib.auburn.edu/madd/docs/fedloc.html
11. FedWorld. Links to the home pages of all federal departments and agencies involved in
foreign affairs and national defense, including the State Department, the Central Intelligence
Agency, the Commerce Department, and the Defense Department. http://www.fedworld.gov/
12. Foreign Military Studies Office at Fort Leavenworth has analysis, papers, links and more
related to security and foreign policy. http://fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/
13. FP (Foreign Policy) magazine. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/
14. Foreign Policy. Brookings Institution. http://www.brookings.edu/foreign-policy.aspx
15. International Herald Tribune Online. Complete international news with a much broader
perspective than that found in most U.S. newspapers and other media outlets.
http://www.iht.com/
16. Official Web site of the Joint Chiefs of Staff: http://www.dtic.mil/jcs/
17. National Center for Policy Analysis is a nonprofit public policy research institute from a
“conservative” perspective. http://www.ncpa.org/
18. Rand Corporation. http://www.rand.org/
19. U.S. Agency for International Development. http://www.usaid.gov/
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20. U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/acda/
21. Official Web site of the U.S. Air Force. http://www.af.mil/
22. Official Web site of the U.S. Army. http://www.army.mil/
23. Official Web site of the U.S. Marine Corps. http://www.hqmc.usmc.mil/
24. Official Web site of the U.S. Navy. http://www.navy.mil/
25. United Nations. Home page of the United Nations; links to a wealth of statistics, documents
and reports, UN departments and conferences and information on reaching UN Officials.
http://www.un.org/
26. World Affairs Councils of America.
http://www.worldaffairscouncils.org/councilmembers/membercouncils/
27. The World Factbook. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
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