Essay Question:
In light of psychological theories and research, critically discuss factors that promote optimum
physical, cognitive, social and emotional well-being throughout the lifespan. Particular emphasis
should be placed on adolescence, adulthood and aging, in light of earlier development.
Essay Title:
Development of a stable sense of identity: beneficial for an individual’s cognitive, social and
emotional well-being across the lifespan?
ABSTRACT
Recent figures from the Central Statistics’ Office (CSO), Ireland, project that by 2026, the number
of over 65s in Ireland and across Europe will have doubled (CSO, 2007). In light of this fact,
research has begun to focus on ways in which physical, social, emotional and cognitive well-being
can be promoted to ensure individuals experience increased quality of life throughout the lifespan.
Many theorists, including Erikson (1956), argue that the development of an individual’s stable
sense of identity is pivotal to enable an individual to transition from the difficulties of adolescence
to develop a greater sense of well-being throughout adulthood. However, it is questionable as to
whether development of a stable sense of identity enhances an individual’s well-being in the longterm (Kroger, 2007). Factors, including job loss, health deterioration and relationship breakdown,
which are increasingly prevalent, can result in despair for an individual and threaten one’s sense of
purpose. It is therefore arguable that the ability to reconstruct one’s sense of self is necessary to
ensure one can cope with unexpected challenges to identity across the lifespan.
In light of this perspective, the following paper explores the biological, social and psychological
factors that lead to the development of a flexible identity style. Research highlights how individuals
should be encouraged to constantly revise goals and values through engaging in social relationship
with others. In addition, it is recommended that health and educational programmes are established
to equip individuals with adequate coping and adaptive skills. Positive attitudes towards aging need
to be fostered, within the macrosytem of each individuals’ bioecological system (Bronfenbrenner &
Morris, 2006) in order to encourage community members to perceive aging as a positive construct
(Stuart-Hamilton, 2006). Through this means, changes in attitudes towards aging should support
increasing levels of cognitive, physical, social and emotional well-being for all.
KEYWORDS: stable, identity, development, physical, social, emotional, cognitive, well-being.
Development of a stable sense of identity: beneficial for an individual’s cognitive, social
and emotional well-being across the lifespan?
In light of recent growth in lifespan amongst Irish and global populations a shift in focus is now
being placed on whether an increased quantity of life equates with increased quality of life and
well-being (Barrett et al, 2011). As one ages and reaches the culminating period of life, it is
inevitable that one will begin to reflect on one’s life course, achievements and values. Development
of a strong sense of identity is something one strives to achieve as having a sense of self is thought
to impact positively on cognitive, physical, social and emotional well-being (Berk, 2010).
According to the Well-being Matters Survey conducted in Ireland (NESC, 2009), dimensions of
well-being include relationships and care, economic resources, connections with the community
and the environment, work participation and satisfaction, health, belief in democracy and having
strong values. Identifying oneself positively within these areas of life is therefore presumed to
promote optimum well-being. In line with this assumption, Waterman (2007) reported a positive
relationship between identity and three measures of wellbeing; subjective, psychological and
eudaimonic (health and happiness).
According to Erikson (1956), developing a sense of identity occurs during adolescence and
involves defining who you are as a person, what you value and the directions you choose to pursue
in life which are meaningful to your sense of self. It entails overcoming an identity crisis, a period
of stress in which role confusion is a major theme, in order to achieve an overall sense of identity
and consequently progress to the next stage of psychosocial development (Kroger, 2007). Marcia
(2002) defines different identity statuses which one can hold including foreclosure (commitment to
beliefs, attitudes and values in the absence of exploration), identity diffusion (lack of exploration
and commitment to values, beliefs and goals), moratorium (exploration of goals without having
reached commitment) and identity achievement (commitment to values, beliefs and goals following
a period of exploration). Achieving an identity status is considered to be most preferable in
promoting a sense of well-being (Marcia, 2002).
However many researchers, including Mead (1934), argue that such a staged approach to
development discounts adaptive ability to reconstruct values, beliefs and goals dependent on
significant life events. Similarly, Marcia (2002) is often criticised for overlooking the benefits of
adopting a flexible identity status (moratorium) in which one’s values and beliefs are often reevaluated. Consequently, adults may feel pressurised to maintain a stable sense of self and as a
result, struggle during life-events which threaten one’s identity (Berk, 2010). It is therefore
questionable as to whether the development of a stable sense of identity is beneficial for an
individual’s cognitive, social and emotional well-being across the lifespan?
In response to such criticisms, Erikson (1968) later acknowledged that one’s identity is shaped by
interacting elements including biological elements (such as gender, physical appearance and
physical capacities) and psychological elements (including one’s unique feelings, interests, needs
and defences) which often change as a result of aging, and are shaped by one’s culture or social
milieu. This explanation for the development of identity resembles the bio-psycho-social model
(Engel, 1977). Hereby, one must consider the range of psychological, biological and social
elements that impact upon identity formation and in turn, influence one’s cognitive, social,
emotional and physical well-being across the lifespan (Engel, 1977). Therefore, the following paper
will critically discuss such factors that influence an individual’s cognitive, social and emotional
well-being across the lifespan in light of flexible identity formation, to ensure one’s quality of life
remains intact in spite of aging.
COGNITIVE Well-being
Cognitive ability influences an individual’s identity, which simultaneously impacts on one’s mental
health and well-being. A range of cognitive factors, such as the ability to engage in abstract
thinking and post-formal thought, impact favourably on a person’s ability to construct an adaptive
sense of self (Sinnot, 2009). Furthermore, exposure to particular environmental stimuli during
critical periods can mediate the prior development of such cognitive capacities. Piaget (1967)
proposes that adolescents begin to develop a sense of abstract reasoning during the formal
operational stage, whereby they can imagine alternatives, despite them being fantastical. NeoPiagetian perspectives further describe the development of post-formal thought, allowing for the
development of relativistic, flexible thinking which is achieved by a minority of people in later
adulthood (Labouvie-Vief, 1992). Post-formal thought can be strengthened in situations in which
alternative perspectives are deliberated. For example, participation in cross-category friendships
(involving friends from different backgrounds, social classes and ethnicities) is correlated with
engagement in post-formal thought (Galupo, Cartwright, & Savage, 2010). Other cognitive factors,
including increased hormone levels, following the onset of puberty, and development of cognitive
structures that process emotional information, also influence the development of a sense of identity
during adolescence (Kroger, 2007).
Berzonsky & Kuk (2000) argue that the resulting identity status undertaken by individuals
predicts an individual’s cognitive style when dealing with difficulties. Individuals in moratorium
use active-information-gathering cognitive style when making personal decisions whereby they
seek out relevant information, evaluate it, and critically reflect on and revise their views through
use of post-formal thought (Berzonsky, 2003). This cognitive style is adaptive in terms of enabling
individuals to make informed decisions based on presented information. In contrast, however,
individuals in foreclosure or diffusion display an inflexible cognitive style. Furthermore, long-term
diffused individuals typically use diffuse avoidant cognitive styles and avoid dealing with personal
decisions and instead are highly influenced by others (Berzonsky & Kuk, 2000). Such individuals
are therefore more inclined to engage in risky behaviours, in order to fit in with particular social
groups. This in turn compromises their overall sense of well-being, while also affecting an
individual’s subsequent cognitive capacity and mental health (Dooley & Fitzgerald, 2012). In
contrast, identifying oneself strongly with academic social groups leads to a decreased likelihood to
engage in risky behaviours including alcohol and drug abuse and promiscuous sexual activity
(Dumas, Ellis, & Wolfe, 2012; Bliuc, Ellis, Goodyear, & Hendres, 2011).
Although individuals predominantly continue to maintain a sense of identity into adulthood
and consequently adopt particular cognitive styles, it is likely that as one ages, declines in cognitive
capacity will become apparent. Such declines in autobiographical memory and the loss of identity
have an extremely negative effect on an individual’s well-being (Jetten, Haslam, Pugliese, Tonks,
& Haslam, 2010). Therefore, it is important to engage in activities that strengthen neural
connections within the brain throughout the lifespan (Berk, 2010). For example, in a recent Irish
study conducted by Murphy and Cunningham (2012), adolescents who were required to complete a
crossword each day for a four week period, made significantly greater improvements in measures of
semantic verbal fluency in comparison with a control group. A similar study highlighted how older
adults (n=1401) who were provided with memory training to engage in greater strategy use showed
greater memory and everyday functioning directly after the intervention and following a five year
follow-up (Gross & Rebok, 2011). Research also indicates that engagement in physical activity
reduces the risk of cognitive decline amongst individuals reporting memory problems and decreases
their susceptibility to develop Alzheimer’s disease in later life (Lautenschlager et al., 2008).
PHYSICAL Well-Being
One’s physical make-up and self-perception is also pivotal in shaping an individual’s identity,
which in turn impacts on one’s physical health and well-being. The State of the Nations Children
Report (2010) alarmingly suggests that almost half of Irish teenagers report being unhappy with the
way they are. A range of physical factors can influence the construction of such negative selfperceptions. For instance, onset of puberty and related physical changes can affect one’s identity
development due to issues arising from being early, “on time” or a late developer (Kroger, 2007).
Construction of a negative body image can often lead to identity distress and the development of
eating disorders which impact negatively on future physical development (Kamps & Berman,
2011). It is therefore necessary to proactively address these issues by encouraging children to
accept themselves for who they are and adopt healthy lifestyles from a young age (Bodywhys,
2008; Alliance for Eating Disorders Awareness, 2013). In addition, on a global scale, it is necessary
to ensure that all children have access to nutrition, sanitation and safety to ensure optimal physical
development and well-being (State of the World’s Children, 2012).
The promotion of active lifestyles within Ireland has resulted in greater engagement in
physical activity; from 34% in 2009 to 46% in 2011 (Irish Sports Council, 2011). This is extremely
positive as it is well documented that inactivity results in an increased risk of obesity and associated
health problems, including cardiovascular disease and depression (National Guidelines for Physical
Activity in Ireland, 2009; World Health Organisation, 2009). However, although considerable
improvements have been achieved in this regard, research highlights how over half the population
still remains inactive (The Irish Sports Council, 2011). Son, Kerstetter and Mowen (2009) argue
that those who perceive physical activity to be meaningful to their sense of self are more motivated
to engage in exercise. Therefore, encouraging inactive individuals to place greater value on physical
activity may lead to greater levels of participation. In addition, national policies and campaigns
appear warranted to highlight the direct link between physical activity and future well-being as
results of a recent meta-analysis, comparing 36 studies, indicated that physical activity can improve
health status and sense of life satisfaction (Netz, Wu, Becker, & Tenenbaum, 2005).
Although engagement in physical activity lessens the immediate effects of aging, it is an
eventuality that one will experience some physical changes due to aging including wrinkles
(Makrantonaki & Xouboulis, 2007), decreased strength and muscle tone (Whitbourne, 1996) and
decline in optimum functioning of organs (Berk, 2011). Nevertheless, research highlights that it is
the perception of physical aging, rather than the aging process, per se, that is pivotal in impacting
on one’s identity and sense of well-being (Weinberger & Krauss Whitbourne, 2010). If an
individual is adaptive in terms of being able to accept his or her changing physical identity, he/she
is consequently more likely to maintain some form of exercise into later adulthood, therefore
allowing physical activity to become a mastery experience which thus impacts positively on
psychological well-being (Warriner & Lavallee, 2010; Colcombe, & Kramer, 2003). In contrast,
adoption of a sedentary lifestyle often results in "despair" and sense of loss.
In a similar way, individuals who prematurely lose control of their physical functioning
from a young age, as a result of illness and disorders, must learn to deal effectively with the loss.
This is becoming increasingly necessary as according to statistics from the National Cancer
Registry in Ireland (2011) and Cancer Research UK statistics (2001), five-year relative survival
from cancer has improved significantly over the last decade. As a result, it is important for patients
who are undergoing treatment for cancer to successfully reconstruct their identities in order to
regain a sense of well-being (Adamsen, Anderson, Midtgaard, Møller, Quist, & Rørth, 2009). This
can often be traumatic as survivors have to come to terms with changes in physical concept arising
from strenuous antineoplastic treatments. The extent of anguish can be increasingly traumatic for
younger survivors who feel cheated and consequently experience greater difficulty in accepting
their circumstances. Social support and adoption of a positive attitude can facilitate acceptance of
their new selves (Adamsen, Anderson, Midtgaard, Møller, Quist, & Rørth, 2009).
SOCIAL Well-Being
A range of social influences, including parents (Beyers. & Goosens, 2009; Schachter & Ventura,
2008) and teachers (Harrell-Levy & Kerpellman, 2010), can have a strong impact on identity
development in children and adolescents, which consequently impacts on one’s social well-being.
The creation of a safe, social environment is essential in order to enable children to openly explore
and reveal aspects of their identity and revise aspects of their sense of self. Furthermore, the
presence of an authoritative parental style since childhood fosters successful identity development
(Smits et al., 2008). Positive feedback from peers received via social media, such as Facebook, can
also strengthen an individual’s sense of self identity (Pempek, Yermolayeva, & Calvert, 2009). In
addition to such influences within the mesosystem and exosystems of the bioecological model
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006), a range of factors within the larger macrosystem are also
influential. Cultural attitudes, learned through social interaction (Social Learning Theory; Bandura,
1977) can support or reject the formation of certain types of identities within society (Vaughan &
Waehler, 2010). As a result, members of society are continually trying to find a balance between
their self and social identities (Kroger, 2007).
Development of social relationships can be a complex undertaking and has the capacity to
enhance or hinder an individual’s well-being. Erikson argued that “it is only when identity
formation is well on its way that true intimacy- which is really a fusing of identities- is possible”
(Erikson, 1968, p.135). However, he noted considerable gender differences in that while identity
issues need to be resolved before genuine intimacy can be experienced by men, women often keep
their identities more open until the task of finding a life partner is resolved (Kroger, 2007). In
support of this, Johnson, Kent and Yale (2012) found that greater intimacy is predicted by higher
levels of psychosocial identity and in turn is associated with an increased sense of well-being. It
remains questionable, however, as to whether the development of a static sense of self or adoption
of a flexible identity style (moratorium), whereby both parties adapt to the changing needs of the
relationship and one another, is preferable in determining the success of the relationship.
As one ages it is somewhat inevitable that one will experience loss of relationships in one
form or another. In particular, loss of a spouse or family member can be an extremely traumatic
experience, and can negatively affect an individual’s health and psychological well-being (van
Baarsen, 2002). In order to cope with such a loss, the dual-process model of coping with loss,
suggests that people should face up to and deal with the emotional consequences and adapt to life
changes (Hansson & Stroebe, 2007). Widows, for example, must reconstruct their identities in
order to regain a sense of autonomy while also integrating part of their spouse’s identity with theirs
in order to cope effectively (Bennett & Soulsby, 2012; Bennett, 2010). Alternative situations in
which adults may have to reconstruct their identities due to loss of social relations may include the
transitional periods of children leaving the nest or moving to college (Berk, 2010).
Similar coping strategies are also required in order to counteract the effects of job loss,
which if not dealt with effectively, can negatively impact upon social relations within a family and
wider environment (Howe, Lockshin Levy, & Caplan, 2004; Unger, Hamiliton, & Sussman, 2004).
This is directly linked to circumstances in Ireland at present as 14.1% of the Irish workforce
population are currently categorised as “standardised unemployed” (Central Statistics Office,
2013). In order to cope with the effects of job loss it is recommended that those who have lost their
job reconstruct their identities and focus on future possibilities to maintain a sense of well-being.
This is supported by recent findings of a survey conducted in Finland whereby the majority of
individuals successfully adapted to unemployment and economic hardship by adopting a decreased
sense of occupational identity. This contrasted significantly with previously reported high levels of
occupational identity during the economic boom (Fadjukoff, Kokko, & Pulkkinen, 2010).
EMOTIONAL Well-Being
Emotions also play a fundamental role in identity development. Having a high level of self
concept and self esteem enables an individual to achieve a strong sense of self while personality
traits are also linked with the adoption of particular identity styles (Lounsbury, Levy, Leong, &
Gibson, 2007; Vignoles et al., 2006). Furthermore, in order to effectively deal with changes in
identity, it is preferable for individuals to be resilient in nature, especially when an individual’s
identity goes against societal norms. Horowitz’s Model of Resilience (1987) suggests that
individuals who are both vulnerable and live within an unsupportive environment are more likely to
engage in maladaptive behaviours. For example, vulnerable minority ethnic groups in the UK who
experience discrimination are more likely than those who are resilient to suffer from eating
disorders (Bhugra, & Bhui2003). This is a cross-cultural phenomenon as recent figures point to
alarming rates of suicidal tendencies and risky behaviours among Ethiopian adolescents in Israel.
Notably, parental support acts as a protective factor against such maladaptive behaviours (Lee,
2005, Walsh, Edelstein, & Votal, 2012).
President Mary McAleese of Ireland acknowledged, at a conference in 2007, that a high
prevalence of suicide rates amongst gay adolescents may be due to a conflicted and unaccepted
sense of identity. President Obama reiterated such sentiments in 2010 when suggesting that high
incidences of suicide rates amongst lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) youths, often
arise due to feelings of loneliness, shame and painful silence that consequently impact negatively
on an individual’s psychological well-being (Mayock, Bryan, & Kitching, 2009; Vaughan and
Waeler, 2010). Obama sought to encourage LGBT youths to openly speak with those that they trust
regarding their sexual identity when becoming an ambassador for the ‘It Gets Better Project’
(Conference, 2010). In line with Erikson’s (1956) earlier psychosocial stages of “trust versus
mistrust” and “autonomy versus shame or doubt”, the attachment patterns formed between parents
and children (Mohr, & Fassinger, 2003) and autonomy afforded to children predict whether an
individual feels comfortable revealing their sexual identity to others (Weinstein et al., 2012).
In a recent Irish study, questioning of or confusion about one’s sexual identity was also
reported to be a significant risk factor to an individual’s likelihood to engage in self-harming
behaviours (McMahon, Reulbach, Keeley, Perry, & Arensman, 2010). This was particularly
apparent amongst adolescent boys, who oftentimes experienced increased levels of emotionality
and peer victimisation. In order to prevent the occurrence of such psychologically damaging events
and ensure that such vulnerable groups are protected within society, it is necessary to adopt
appropriate interventions (Hong, & Garbarino, 2012). For instance, anti-bullying programmes and
resilience training could be provided within academic settings, while additional protective factors
may include increased school-home liaison between parents and teachers, as recommended within a
publication for parents and teachers promoting bullying prevention initiatives (O’Moore, 2010).
Once an individual begins to accept certain aspects of their identity, Beaumont and Seaton
(2012) suggest that the coping strategies the individual subsequently adopts in problematic
situations are dependent on their identity style. The diffuse-avoidant style of identity is positively
associated with denial, disengagement, and substance abuse. In contrast, normative and
informational styles, also indicative of an individual’s efforts to continually reconstruct one’s sense
of self, are positively correlated with active coping, planning, seeking social support, and turning to
religion. The informational style is the only identity style that is positively related to acceptance of
oneself and positive reinterpretation and growth. The aforementioned identity styles are indicative
of the problem-centered and emotion-centered patterns of coping described by Lazarus (1999)
whereby diffuse avoidant identity types are more likely to engage in emotion based coping which
can oftentimes be ineffective, impulsive or escapist (Brennan, Schutte & Moos, 2006).
In line with this, Irish carers of older adults, recently reported feeling a sense of loss of
mastery over their previous roles and self-identity when caring for others on a full time basis
(Kenny, Sarma, & Egan, 2012). In order to cope with these feelings, participants underwent a
process of reinterpreting their sense of mastery by accepting the removal of emotional control while
also altering their sense of self-identity when acting as a carer. They reported feeling that these
adaptive coping strategies were necessary in order to accept and deal with the situation. Social
support from others, in particular familial support, was deemed crucial in rendering caring
sustainable over time as it allowed carers to maintain a sense of self aside from that of carer. In line
with these findings, the Irish Carer’s Association and Alzheimer’s Society of Ireland recommend
that social support for carers is vital in order to ensure they maintain a sense of positive well-being.
CONCLUSION (LIFE LEGACY)
In order to deal with a sense of identity loss as one ages and consequently reconstruct one’s
sense of self, it is important to be accepting of such a loss and think positively regarding one’s
present (Seligman, 2002). Within a longitudinal study conducted in Ireland on aging (2011), it was
revealed that older people who perceive ageing positively are more likely to engage in preventive
health behaviour, have fewer functional limitations and live longer. Similar findings were also
obtained within an Australian longitudinal study on aging (Andrews, 2006). Contrastingly, Hickey,
O’Hanlon and McGee (2013) suggest that negative perceptions about aging have opposite effects
and impact negatively on one’s health in old age. In support of this, a similar study conducted in
Britain replicated such results (Demakakos, Gjonca, & Nazroo, 2007).
However in spite of previous findings, data attained within a recent study examining
attitudes towards aging in Ireland suggests that negative attitudes are predominantly expressed by
wider society in relation to aging (Gray, & Dowds, 2010). Positive attitudes towards aging need to
be fostered, within the macrosytem of the bioecological model (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006), in
order to ensure greater well-being for all members of society and to encourage members of wider
society to perceive aging as a positive construct (Stuart-Hamilton, 2006). This can be initiated by
challenging negative attitudes to aging within homes, schools, communities and the media (Age
Action Ireland, 2011). The ALONE campaign (Moynihan, 2013) in Ireland is currently working
towards developing positive attitudes to aging while also ensuring that the elderly maintain a sense
of social support and continue to be active members of their communities.
In line with this, it is recommended that aging individuals continue to reconstruct their
identities dependent on changing circumstances (Sinnot, 2009). One such strategy in supporting
the transformation of self is the passing on one’s wisdom to the next generation, termed by Baltes
and Smith (2008, as cited in Berk, 2010, p.595) as “the expertise in the conduct and meaning of
life” and by Erikson (1998) as “generativity”. Research has also revealed that high levels of
volunteering are related to high levels of well-being in older individuals (Morrow-Howell,
Hinterlong, Rozario, & Tang, 2003). Unsurprising, having an informational style of identity has
been shown to be positively related to development of a sense of wisdom and increased levels of
involvement with one’s local community in later life (Beaumont, 2011; Beaumont and Pratt, 2011)
Many cultural variations exist however as in comparison with Caucasians, African Americans are
on average more involved in religious groups, offer more social support to members of their
community and are more likely to view themselves as role models and sources of wisdom for their
children (Hart, McAdams, Hirsh, & Bauer, 2001).
According to Erikson (1968), in the final years of one’s life such factors of generativity,
wisdom and social relationships are essential components that are involved in maintaining a sense
of ego integrity as opposed to despair. Furthermore, these concepts are related to the achievement
of gerotranscendence (Tornstam, 1997), whereby the individual experiences a change in identity
moving from a materialistic and rational view of the world to a more cosmic and transcendent one.
In line with this, religious beliefs have been shown, within a longitudinal study, to impact positively
on an individual’s identity development and well-being (Wink & Dillon, 2008).
It is argued that the achievement of stable sense of identity is not preferable throughout life.
Instead, the ability to adaptively transform certain aspects of one’s sense of self allows for the
continued development of a greater sense of well-being and happiness across the lifespan. In order
to ensure that present and future generations maintain high levels of quality of life as they reach old
age, they must be educated on ways of adapting one’s identity in order to cope and deal with life
changes. In order to achieve this, it will be necessary for governmental departments to provide
funding for the development of community based initiatives and international media campaigns.
This is becoming increasingly urgent as Central Statistic Figures projects that by 2026 the number
of over 65s in Ireland and across mainland Europe will have doubled (CSO, 2007). The recent
publication of the National Positive Aging Strategy (Department of Health, 2013) is a monumental
step towards the development of an ‘age-friendly’ society which provides adequate resources and
support to enable individuals to successfully reconstruct their identities in order to maintain high
levels of cognitive, physical, social and emotional well-being across an increased lifespan.
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