WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
COMMISSION FOR
CLIMATOLOGY
OVER EIGHTY YEARS
OF SERVICE
WMO-No. 1079
WMO-No. 1079
© World Meteorological Organization, 2011
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ISBN 978-92-63-11079-4
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CONTENTS
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
The Commission for Climatology through the years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
International climatology (1929–1950)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Highlights of Commission for Climatology sessions under the World Meteorological Organization (1951–2010) . . .
8
First session (CCl-I), Washington, DC, March 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Second session (CCl-II), Washington, DC, January 1957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Third session (CCI-III), London, December 1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fourth session (CCI-IV), Stockholm, August 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fifth session (CCl-V), Geneva, October 1969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Sixth session (CCl-VI), Bad Homburg, October 1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Seventh session (CCI-VII), Geneva, April 1978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Eighth session (CCl-VIII), Washington, DC, April 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Ninth session (CCI-IX), Geneva, December, 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Tenth Session (CCl-X), Lisbon, April 1989
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Eleventh session (CCl-XI), Havana, February 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Twelfth session (CCl-XII), Geneva, August 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Thirteenth session (CCl-XIII), Geneva, November 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Fourteenth session (CCl-XIV), Beijing, 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Fifteenth session (CCl-XV), Antalya, February 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
CCI presidents and vice-presidents elected at CCI sessions (1953–2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
The way forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
List of Commission for Climatology publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
List of boxes:
Observing requirements for climate
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Climate data exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Climate Data Management Systems
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Guide to Climatological Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Data rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Climate system monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
The First World Climate Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
The Second World Climate Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
World Climate Conference-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Global teleconnections, implications for seasonal to interannual prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Climate change detection and indices
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Contributions to IPCC, WCRP and UNFCCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Climate Information and Prediction Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Regional Climate Outlook Forums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Climate and human health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Urban climatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Climate and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Climate and tourism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Education and training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
FOREWORD
The First International Meteorological Congress (Vienna,
September 1873) established the predecessor of the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO), the International Meteorological Organization (IMO). In September 1929, at its meeting
in Copenhagen, the IMO Conference of Directors agreed to set
up a technical commission for climatology “for the study of
all questions relating to this branch of the science”. Although
IMO operations were considerably disrupted by the outbreak
of World War II, the organization continued to function with
some limitations at its temporary Secretariat in Lausanne,
Switzerland. In August 1947, IMO convened in Toronto a last
session of all its technical and regional commissions, before
our forerunner was disbanded in March 1951, when WMO took
over all of its traditional responsibilities.
The WMO Commission for Climatology (CCl) has since been a
key constituent body of our Organization, and while its terms
of reference – as well as its name – have changed from time to
time over the years, in response to shifting priorities, CCl has
continued to convene the normative and knowledge-sharing
capacities of all climate scientists and specialists. Today it is
also increasingly encompassing the provision of climate services in support of sustainable socio-economic development
and environmental protection, thereby also contributing to the
achievement of the United Nations Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs).
Spanning more than eighty years, the history of CCl has been a
success story in terms of the provision of societal services and
support to meet the needs of the international climate community, and I would like to underscore in particular its key catalytic
role in enhancing the capacities of the National Meteorological
and Hydrological Services (NMHSs) of the World Meteorological
Organization’s 189 Members in their respective climate activities, ranging from climate data management to data rescue,
the development of climate monitoring and prediction, and the
provision of services to all climate-sensitive sectors, especially
in the vulnerable developing world.
I am therefore indeed confident that this brochure will facilitate
an improved general understanding and perception of the role
of the WMO Commission for Climatology, in particular in the
context of the development of the new Global Framework for
Climate Services (GFCS), an initiative approved in 2009 by the
third World Climate Conference (WCC-3).
(M. Jarraud)
Secretary-General
5
THE COMMISSION FOR CLIMATOLOGY THROUGH THE YEARS
INTRODUCTION
Climate is one of our greatest natural resources. With its seasonal patterns and the potential for extreme variations, climate
affects the daily lives of everyone on the planet, influencing
the type of clothing we wear, the kind of housing we need, the
modes of transport we use, the range of sports and recreational
activities we engage in, what we eat, and how we work.
Early civilizations had a vital interest in the Sun, the stars, the
planets and the atmospheric environment. Indeed, thousands
of years ago, in some Asian and African societies, the keeping
of weather records was common – a practice that gave the leaders of these societies some ability to forecast natural hazards
and other weather-related events.
The Greeks were the first ancient civilization to take scientific
climate observations and attempt to develop meteorological
theory based on these observations. Later, in the seventeenth
century, the invention and development of basic instruments to
measure various climate parameters marked the beginning of
modern quantitative climatology. Awareness of the enormous
practical advantages created by having access to data and
information on local and national weather and climate meant
that governments were keen to obtain such information. By the
early nineteenth century, networks of weather observing stations
were beginning to extend throughout a number of countries.
The invention of the electric telegraph in the mid-nineteenth
century facilitated the rapid transmission of weather observation data among nations. Known as “weather telegraphy”, this
early form of operational meteorology developed rapidly, and
soon national services began expanding climate observing
station networks further afield.
6
In 1873, the International Meteorological Organization (IMO)
was founded. During the organization’s early years, the need
to create a special commission to deal with climatology was
never seriously considered. At the 1929 Conference of Directors
in Copenhagen, however, where the conference agenda was
dominated by climatological issues, it was unanimously recommended that a Commission for Climatology be created.
Accordingly, the Commission for Climatology (CCl) was established in 1929 under the auspices of IMO. After the Second
World War, the United Nations was formed and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) was incorporated on
23 March 1950 as a Specialized Agency of the United Nations,
and the successor to IMO. Shortly after WMO was incorporated,
the WMO Commission for Climatology (CCl) was established
and the Commission’s first session was held in Washington,
DC, in March 1953.
This brochure mainly covers historical information relating to
the period following the establishment of WMO. Since 1953,
CCl has continued to organize sessions for Members every four
years. It has contributed significantly to the scientific community and it has developed cooperation with other bodies and
institutions whose work is focused on climate-sensitive sectors.
Today, CCI is a major channel for organized collaboration
among climatologists throughout the world. Its aim is to
advance all aspects of climatology, ranging from the collection and management of high-quality weather observations
to turning data, climate forecasts and projections into useful
information. As one of the World Meteorological Organization’s
eight technical commissions, the role of CCl is to promote and
facilitate action related to climate and its relationship with
human activities and sustainable development; to coordinate
general requirements for observations and for the collection,
supply and exchange of climate data; to promote better practices of climate data management, including data rescue and
archival and statistical analysis; to coordinate and promote
the analysis and monitoring of climate and its variability and
change; to develop and review operational climate information
and prediction services; to prepare authoritative statements
on climate; to raise awareness of climate information, applications and services to sectors and also to provide the necessary
capacity-building tools.
Since its fifteenth session (CCl-XV), which was held in Antalya,
Turkey, in 2010, the Commission’s vision has been defined thus:
“to provide world leadership in expertise and international
cooperation in climatology”. In addition, CCl contributes to the
activities of the World Climate Programme (WCP), through four
Open Panels of CCl Experts on a) climate data management;
b) global and regional climate monitoring and assessment;
c) climate products and services; and d) climate information
for adaptation and risk management.
INTERNATIONAL CLIMATOLOGY (1929-1950)
As referred to earlier, the first Commission for Climatology was
established by IMO at the 1929 Conference of Directors held in
Copenhagen. H. von Ficker (Germany), who was appointed first
president of CCI, chaired the Commission during the 1930s when
Participants at the meeting held at Innsbruck
in 1931
7
Despite opposition from the North American delegates attending
the meeting, the period 1901 to 1930 was adopted as the baseline
against which to measure climate fluctuations. In addition, new
definitions were adopted in relation to the officially agreed elevations for the location of meteorological observing stations and
also in relation to locations for the placement of specific scientific
instruments. At the 1937 Salzburg meeting, additional subcommissions were established to study the classification of climate
observing stations and also to make barometric comparisons.
Tor Bergeron’s classification and description of hydrometeors
were also adopted at the Salzburg meeting. The final proposal
agreed by participants at the Salzburg meeting – to calculate
and publish aerological information for aviators – heralded the
introduction of a new area of climatology.
Participants at the meeting in Toronto, August 1947
it met in Innsbruck (1931), Wiesbaden (1934), Zoppot-Danzig
(1935) and Salzburg (1937). At these meetings, climatologists
determined how to “modernize” the practice of climatology
and dispense with classical rules and procedures.
At the 1931 Innsbruck meeting, the subjects of common interest were the relationship between climatology and dynamic
meteorology, and the possible contributions of climatology to
local weather forecasting. The meeting also discussed the use
of international synoptic weather reports in dynamic meteorology and the handling of short-term climate statistics, modern
calculating machines and punch cards.
At the 1934 Wiesbaden meeting, an important decision was taken
to begin the transmission of CLIMAT-coded messages and to
designate the thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the standard
reference time frame for climate normals. At the 1935 ZoppotDanzig meeting, agreement was reached on the use of pentads for
the publication of data covering periods of less than one month.
8
In 1946, at the extraordinary meeting of the IMO Conference of
Directors held in London, it was agreed to disband all existing
technical commissions and then determine which commissions
should be reconstituted. Following a review, the Commission
for Climatology (briefly referred to as the Climatological
Commission) was re-established. A.G. Galmarini (Argentina)
was appointed president of CCl.
The CCl session held in Toronto in 1947 defined the scope of
the Commission, later known as the terms of reference. All ten
of the IMO technical commissions met in Toronto in 1947 and
approved the scope of the Commission for Climatology as well.
HIGHLIGHTS OF COMMISSION FOR CLIMATOLOGY SESSIONS
UNDER THE WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
(1951-2010)
For most of its existence, IMO had comprised an unofficial
association of directors of national offices, services and observatories. In Washington, DC, in October 1947, the Convention of
the new World Meteorological Organization was signed by
representatives of 31 countries. On 23 March 1950, WMO was
OBSERVING REQUIREMENTS FOR CLIMATE
The Commission played a pivotal role in the formation
of observation programmes such as the World Weather
Watch (WWW) and the Global Climate Observing System
(GCOS), both of which are relevant for climatological studies.
When the Commission was established in 1951, it assumed
responsibility for “meteorological observations and networks
required for climatological investigations of surface and
upper air conditions”. At the third session (CCl-III), held in
1960, two issues were deliberated upon: accuracy of measurements and design of networks. An important resolution
was passed on the accuracy of measurements required for
climatological research purposes. At the fifth session (CCl-V),
held in 1969, the Commission endorsed the definitive Report
on the Planning of Meteorological Networks. Subsequently,
WMO published a list of reference climatological stations
throughout the world.
Measurements and other information, such as proxy climatological data from tree rings, cores and archeological
records, were included in the overall climate data management
process. By the mid-1980s, the growing need for observed
data for computer-based research, the introduction of the
WWW Programme, coupled with the flood of data from satellites and the volume of information emanating from the World
Climate Programme (WCP), gave the phrase “data exchange”
a completely new meaning. The thirteenth session (CCl-XIII),
held in 2001, acknowledged the increasing role of satellite
observations in climate monitoring and the importance of
satellite information for future climatological activities. The
more stringent requirements placed on observation networks
and systems for monitoring climate, including the detection of
climate change, led to the development of special networks at
the national level (Reference Climate Stations), at the regional
level (Regional Basic Climatological Network, (RBCN)), and at
the global level (GCOS and the GCOS Surface Network (GSN)).
The Global Climate Observing System was formally established in 1992. It works closely with relevant components of
the Commission, as well as the World Climate Programme,
and it builds upon existing and developing observing systems.
GCOS also provides a framework for integrating the observing
systems of participating countries and organizations.
9
formally established and it became a Specialized Agency of the
United Nations one year later. Each year, on 23 March, WMO,
its Members and the worldwide meteorological community
celebrate World Meteorological Day around a chosen theme.
At the first WMO Congress in 1951, CCl, which had existed as
part of the IMO structure since 1929, was re-established as one
of the eight technical commissions, with terms of reference
and intergovernmental status. Subsequently, however, these
terms of reference were reviewed and revised.
meteorological surface observation sites (CLIMAT) to report
on a variety of climate-relevant meteorological parameters
and to provide information on monthly means and totals, CCI
recommended that one surface observation station should
be dedicated for this purpose in every five degree square and
one upper-air observation station dedicated for this purpose in
every ten degree square. At the end of the session, R.G. Veryard
(United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) was
elected president and C.C. Boughner (Canada) was elected
vice-president.
FIRST SESSION (CCl-I), WASHINGTON, DC, MARCH 1953
In 1953, two years after CCI was established, the first session
of the Commission was held in Washington, DC, with C. Warren
Thornthwaite (United States of America) presiding. The topics
discussed at this session were: standardization and international cooperation with regard to observational and recording
procedures, including networks; the processing of data by statistical and machine methods; and the distribution, publication
and application of data. Nine resolutions were adopted. At the
end of the session, C. Warren Thornthwaite was unanimously
re-elected president and A.K. Angström (Sweden) was elected
vice-president.
SECOND SESSION (CCl-II), WASHINGTON, DC, JANUARY 1957
The second session (CCI-II), which took place in 1957, was also
held in Washington, DC. At this session, it was agreed that the
CCl organization should be streamlined by reducing the number
of working committees from four to two – the first to oversee
administrative matters, the second to oversee research and
applications. Also at the session, CCI prepared a submission to
the Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation
(CIMO) proposing the establishment of automatic climatological
stations. Given the increasing importance of using land-based
10
R.G. Veryard
(United Kingdom), second
president of CCl
THIRD SESSION (CCl-III), LONDON, DECEMBER 1960
The third session of the Commission (CCI-III) took place in
London in 1960. An important recommendation was made at
this session to designate the period 1931 to 1960 as the baseline reference for the preparation of climatological standard
normals. In addition to this recommendation, a working group
was established to look at the effect of periodic fluctuations
on normal periods. As the issue of climate fluctuations was by
now becoming a topic of interest to scientists and the public
alike, the Commission established a working group to study
climate fluctuations. It also set up an additional working group
CLIMATE DATA EXCHANGE
The first meeting of the Commission for Climatology, in 1931,
noted the importance of data from synoptic stations for studies in dynamical climatology, and a number of meteorological
services had agreed to include the monthly means of specific
elements in international synoptic transmission. Henceforth,
the transmission of data on mean sea level pressure, mean
temperature and total precipitation for the previous month
commenced on the fifth day of each month.
In 1937, a code for broadcasting mean values from oceanic
regions was introduced. The programme soon became known
as the report of monthly means and totals from land station
(CLIMAT) broadcasts, and was widely implemented in the
few years prior to the outbreak of World War II. It remained
in place following the formal establishment of WMO. In 1962,
a chapter on CLIMAT reports appeared in the first edition of
the Guide to Climatological Practices. By the early 1960s,
CLlMAT broadcasts comprised mean monthly sea level
pressure and temperature, vapour pressure ratio and total
amount of precipitation. By the 1970s, the CLlMAT reporting
programme had become the standard.
The exchange of CLIMAT data via the Global Telecommunication
System (GTS) was introduced to facilitate the use of data in
climate system monitoring and also to facilitate the efficient
archiving of data for subsequent use in the preparation of publications such as the Monthly Climatic Data for the World. WMO
Member states are obliged to share data and metadata with
other WMO Members. The conditions under which these data
may be passed to third parties are covered in WMO Resolution
40 (Cg-XIII), which deals with the exchange of meteorological and related data and products. These conditions are also
addressed in WMO Resolution 25 (Cg-XIV), which deals with
the exchange of hydrological data and products. These resolutions incorporate the concepts of “essential” and “additional”
data, and they specify a minimum set of data that should be
made available with “free and unrestricted access”. Members
may opt to declare as “essential” more than this minimum set.
11
CLIMATE DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
The development of instrumentation to quantify meteorological phenomena, coupled with the dedication of observers in
maintaining methodical, reliable and well-documented records,
paved the way for the organized management of climate data.
From the 1940s onwards, the use of standardized forms and
procedures gradually became more common in the recording
of weather and climate data. In the case of computer systems
used by the National Meteorological and Hydrological Services
(NMHSs), these forms greatly assisted the data entry process
and, subsequently, the development of computer data archives
and dedicated software for modern climate data management.
The 1960s and 1970s saw several NMHSs using electronic
computers and gradually the information stored on millions
of punch cards that had been produced using old mechanical
devices was transferred to magnetic tape.
The implementation of the CLICOM project represented a
major step forward for the World Climate Data Management
Programme (WCDMP). CLICOM (coined from the words
CLImate and COMputing) was a first-generation database
management system. Launched in 1985, the CLICOM project
led to the installation of climate database software for personal
computers (backed up with hardware and a comprehensive training programme) in more than 100 NMHSs around
the world. The project also provided the foundation for
demonstrable improvements in climate services, applications
and research in these countries. The World Meteorological
Organization conducted more than 60 roving seminars and
workshops on CLICOM and data management.
12
In the late 1990s, WCDMP initiated a Climate Data Management
System (CDMS) project to take advantage of the latest computer technologies and thus meet varied and growing data
management needs. The new CDMSs offer improved data
access and security, as well as enhanced functionality for
users. Today, with the Internet delivering greatly improved
data access capabilities, data management is evolving as an
integral part of WMO Information System (WIS) architecture
at the national level, thus facilitating easy discovery, access
and retrieval of historical climate data and benefiting the
many users of climate information and services. Exchange
of data among the NMHSs is essential for climate monitoring
and applications. This may entail both the storage and use of
data (and metadata) from other countries in the databases
of individual NMHSs, and the transmission of data to global
and regional data centres.
published as a Technical Note. Lengthy discussions took place
on the subject of including more meteorological parameters in
CLIMAT messages; discussions also focused on the need for
confirmatory copy for publication of a dataset compiled from
monthly summaries, which would be entitled Monthly Climatic
Data for the World. The working group on climatic fluctuations
led by J.M. Mitchell (United States) had completed a report prior
to the fourth session, and this was subsequently published in
1966 as Climate Change in a WMO Technical Note (No. 79).
The increasing importance of applied climatology was recognized at CCl-IV, where it was proposed that WMO should hold
a symposium on the subject. At the end of the fourth session,
C.C. Boughner and C.C. Wallen were re-elected as president
and vice-president, respectively.
Participants at the third session (CCI-III),
held in London in 1960
on climatological networks; this second group was charged
with responsibility for making proposals to increase the density of observing stations in oceanic, arid, tropical and polar
regions. At the end of the third session, C.C. Boughner (Canada)
was elected president and C.C. Wallen (Sweden) was elected
vice-president of the Commission; both were elected to serve
four-year terms.
FOURTH SESSION (CCl-IV), STOCKHOLM, AUGUST 1965
While considerable interest in the topic of climate change was
expressed at the fourth CCI session, held in 1965, and issues
relating to the practical applications of climatology were given
more attention here than at previous sessions, climatological
operations and administrative matters continued to dominate discussions at the Stockholm event (CCl-IV). Participants
recommended that the report on climate normals prepared
by the working group chaired by P. Jagannathan of India be
Participants at the fourth session (CCI-IV), held in
Stockholm in 1965
13
GUIDE TO CLIMATOLOGICAL PRACTICES
The Guide to Climatological Practices (WMO-No. 100) is a
mandatory publication that is designed to provide updated
information about climatological practices and operational
procedures. Work on the first edition of the Guide got underway in 1960, using material developed by the Commission.
The Guide was edited by a special working group, with additional assistance provided by the WMO Secretariat. It was
regularly reviewed by the Commission and updated from
time to time by means of supplements. The second edition
of the Guide to Climatological Practices was published in
1983 and was followed in 1988 with editions in Russian,
French and Spanish.
Work on the third edition began in 1990 when the content and
authorship were agreed by a Commission advisory working
group at a meeting held in Norrköping, Sweden. An editorial
board was established to supervise individual lead authors
and chapter editors. In 1999, the lead authors received a
draft summary, and the following year, the editorial board
met in Reading, United Kingdom, where they refined further
details and outlined the contents of each chapter. In 2001, at
the thirteenth session of the Commission (CCl-XIII), it was
agreed to appoint an expert team to oversee publication of
the Guide; the team was given a clear directive to expedite
the publication process. While the text for Part I of the publication had already been substantially completed and made
available on the Internet, significant effort was required in
order to complete Part II and ensure that information on
14
specialized requirements in relation to the provision of climate
services was incorporated into the final text. The fourteenth
session of the Commission (CCl-XIV) re-appointed the expert
team with responsibility for the Guide and agreed that certain overarching aspects of the project would become the
responsibility of the Management Group; these included the
further development of Part II of the Guide and further work
on the review and designation of Regional Climate Centres.
As a result of the collective effort and expertise provided by
a large number of authors and editors, as well as internal
and external reviewers, the text of the third edition of the
Guide was approved by the Commission president shortly
before the fifteenth session (CCl-XV) took place in Antalya
in February 2010. In view of rapid developments in climate
science and operations, an electronic format has been chosen
for this publication, in order to facilitate regular updates.
DATA RESCUE
Historical data on weather and climate can be used to deliver
a range of benefits to society. Such data can be used to help
save lives and to promote higher living standards, thus creating significant economic and scientific benefits. Weather and
climate records from pre-industrial times and further back
in history can provide global climate modelling studies with
baseline information to better predict weather and climate
extremes. When combined with modern data, historical data
can help researchers to distinguish the difference between
natural climate variability and anthropogenic climate change
in climate assessment studies.
While scientists in many countries have access to good
computer databases to manage their climate data, millions
of climate data records have yet to be digitized, especially in
developing countries. Many of the world’s climate datasets
contain digital data dating back to the 1940s, but very few
of these datasets contain a great deal of information dating
from before this period – something which represents a major
problem for local, regional and global-scale climatological
studies. In addition, many paper records in existence are
now at risk of degradation, loss or destruction. The rescue
of historical weather data is a high-priority activity for WMO,
which is aiming to save the vast amount of meteorological
data collected throughout the world and also to ensure that
the data are properly preserved in electronic form, thereby
making them accessible to user communities faster.
The Commission has initiated projects for rescuing and archiving climatological data that were collected at great expense
and as a result of enormous effort. Under the DAta REscue
(DARE) project, millions of climate data records and documents have been rescued and digitized. The DARE project in
Africa, funded primarily by Belgium, dates back to 1979 and
has resulted in the preservation on microfilm of more than
5 million documents from more than thirty countries. In 1995,
a DARE project got underway in the Caribbean, with funding
support provided by Canada. The project was an extremely
useful addition to Members’ own efforts to rescue their data.
The Expert Team on the Rescue, Preservation and Digitization
of Climate Records produced the Guidelines on Climate Data
Rescue, Preservation and Digitization (WCDMP-55, WMO/
TD-No. 1210). The Bureau of Meteorology in Australia has
computerized and analysed millions of historical weather
records as part of its efforts to understand long-term climate
change in Australia. Now, the Bureau is turning to its Pacific
neighbours and their valuable weather records, which may
help scientists understand the extensive climate changes
affecting the Asia-Pacific region. Data rescue projects have
also been implemented in many other countries, such as India,
Viet Nam, Rwanda, Jamaica and Honduras.
15
FIFTH SESSION (CCl-V), GENEVA, OCTOBER 1969
One of the key issues discussed at the fifth session, held in
Geneva in 1969, was the importance of identifying and maintaining “reference climatological stations” for climatological
purposes. At this session, L.S. Gandin (Soviet Union) submitted a report entitled The Planning of Meteorological Station
Networks. Considerable time during the session was devoted
to discussions on the processing, exchange and storage of
climatological data and the future role of the World Weather
Watch (WWW) in the real-time processing of climatological data.
Based on the outcome of these discussions, the Commission
set up the first working group on aeroclimatology. The topic of
air pollution was also discussed at this session, following which
the Commission endorsed
a proposal to establish a
global network of remote
stations for the monitoring
of air pollution. At the end of
the session, H.E. Landsberg
(United States) was elected
president and A.W. Kabakibo
(Syrian Arab Republic) was
elected vice-president.
Participants at the fifth session (CCI-V), held in Geneva in 1969
Top right: H.E. Landsberg (United States) (left), fifth president of CCl, and A.W. Kabakibo (Syrian Arab Republic) (right),
fifth vice-president of CCl
16
CLIMATE SYSTEM MONITORING
Climate system monitoring, which is focused on climate
system events around the world within defined time periods,
remains one of the Commission’s high-priority activities. The
monitoring of global temperatures and occurrences of natural
disasters has contributed to the formulation of important
WMO statements and press releases on phenomena such
as El Niño, thus providing a useful way to highlight the role
of WMO in different spheres.
The first climate system monitoring monthly bulletin containing special reports on significant events was issued in
July 1984. The first scientific review of the global climate system was issued in June 1985. Later, climatological maps were
overlaid with an economic framework in order to make them
more useful to the non-meteorological community. Financial
support for the Climate System Monitoring Project, and in
particular for the publication of the Climate System Review,
was provided by the United Nations Environment Programme.
Since 1993, WMO has promoted its role as a provider of
credible scientific information on climate and its variability
through the regular publication and wide dissemination
of the annual WMO Statement on the Status of the Global
Climate, which is prepared by the World Climate Data and
Monitoring Programme. The Statement describes climatic
conditions, including extreme weather events, and it also
provides a historical perspective on climate variability and
trends that have occurred since the nineteenth century. The
Statement complements the periodic assessments published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
The information contained in the Statement enhances our
scientific understanding of climate variability and the associated impacts that affect the well-being, property and lives
of people around the world.
17
THE FIRST WORLD CLIMATE CONFERENCE
The First World Climate Conference was convened in Geneva
in February 1979 and heralded the establishment of the World
Climate Programme, which became part of the event’s lasting legacy. The Conference, which was sponsored by WMO
and a number of other international bodies, was attended by
scientists and other specialists representing a wide range of
scientific and other disciplines and fifty different countries.
They met to assess the current state of knowledge on climate
and to examine the nature of the impact of climate on society.
The timing of the Conference was a response to several concerns, including the worldwide reaction to the climatic events
that had caused so much disruption to human society during
the previous ten years.
The Conference participants recognized that possible human
influence on climate was an issue of particular importance. The
Conference Declaration emphasized the urgent need “for the
nations of the world to take full advantage of man’s present
knowledge of climate; to take steps to improve significantly
that knowledge; to foresee and to prevent potential man-made
changes in climate that might be adverse to the well-being of
humanity.” At the Conference the international climate community expressed concern that “continued expansion of man’s
activities on Earth may cause significant extended regional and
even global changes of climate.” It called for global cooperation to “explore the possible future course of global climate,
and to take this new understanding into account in planning
for the future development of human society.”
18
SIXTH SESSION (CCl-VI), BAD HOMBURG, OCTOBER 1973
By the time the sixth session took place in 1973, the World
Meteorological Congress had given the Commission for
Climatology new terms of reference and a new name: the
Commission for Special Applications of Meteorology and
Climatology (CoSAMC). Armed with a new mandate for overseeing applications of meteorology and climatology, the Commission
increased its focus on the area of climatology as a science.
It reviewed a report from the Working Group on Radiation
Climatology and Energy Balance, and it endorsed the group’s
opinion that the global network for measuring radiation was
inadequate. M.I. Budyko (Soviet Union) was appointed rapporteur and he was invited to make concrete proposals aimed
at improving and extending the network of observing stations
worldwide. Following discussions on the issue of how to deal
with the more classical aspects of climatology, it was decided
to establish reference climatological stations and to expand
their reporting of monthly aerological means from land-based
meteorological surface observation station (CLlMAT TEMP)
messages to include data up to 30 hPa.
Climate change was not the main focus of attention at the discussions held during the sixth session. This was because the
H.E. Landsberg
(United States), sixth
president of CCl
Commission had become more concerned with environmental
problems arising from climate fluctuations, and was less focused
on the data and physical research aspects of the atmosphere,
which by now were being addressed by other commissions.
Accordingly, the new Working Group on Climatic Fluctuations
and Man was established and was given broad terms of reference. At the end of the sixth session, H.E. Landsberg (United
States) was re-elected president and Roy Berggren (Sweden)
was elected vice-president.
SEVENTH SESSION (CCl-VII), GENEVA, APRIL 1978
The main topic discussed at the seventh session was climate
change and the possibility of a new World Climate Programme
to deal with allied global issues.
The 1970s saw a surge of interest by governments and the
public alike in the possibility of global climate change, which
appeared to be associated with many of the world’s social and
economic problems, such as drought, famine and migration,
floods, severe storms and related natural disasters. The session
discussed the proposal for a World Climate Programme and
the particular programme components that would deal with
data, services (or applications), research and impact studies.
The Commission agreed to play a leading role in the data,
services and impact studies components of the programme
and also to assist in the research component; a working group
was established to carry out this undertaking. An additional
working group was established to complete the second edition of the Guide to Climatological Practices. The Commission
continued to move away from issues involving climatological
operations because this area was increasingly being handled
by other commissions. Finally, because data from weather
satellites were by now becoming widely available, the session discussed requirements for other satellite-sourced data
in the applications sector and a rapporteur was appointed
to investigate these requirements. At the end of the session,
19
THE SECOND WORLD CLIMATE CONFERENCE
The Second World Climate Conference, which took place
in Geneva from 29 October to 7 November 1990, was cosponsored by WMO, UNEP, UNESCO/IOC, FAO and ICSU.
Substantial financial support was also provided by Canada,
France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway,
Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States, the
Stockholm Environment Institute and the Environmental
Defense Fund (United States). The Conference attracted
747 delegates from 116 countries. In addition, the ministerial
sessions attracted 908 participants from 137 countries, representing more than 80 per cent of United Nations Member
States. The Second World Climate Conference came about
as a result of a growing awareness that not only is humanity
vulnerable to variations in climate, but climate is also vulnerable to human activities.
8
The primary aim of the Conference was to formulate recommendations for the World Climate Programme, taking into
account the findings of the IPCC First Assessment Report,
with a view to ensuring the continual collection of authoritative scientific data, as well as the delivery of these data to
governments. The ultimate goal of this process was to enable
governments to evaluate impacts, implement responses and
develop international policies to address the issue of global
climate change and other issues, such as environmentally
sound and sustainable development, survival of species,
and the quality of human life.
The Conference provided an opportunity for government
ministers: to consider specific follow-up actions arising from
the recommendations made in the IPCC First Assessment
Report and also to consider declarations of various international conferences relevant to climate change in an effort to
identify elements that would give impetus to negotiations on
the framework climate conventions; to consider the special
needs of developing countries, including improved access to
climate data and information and improved access to technology and additional financial resources; and to consider
specific goals for enhancing intergovernmental cooperation
on the monitoring, detection and prediction of global climate
change. Participants took full advantage of the opportunity
to review the findings of the IPCC and other bodies, to raise
awareness and to secure a higher priority for action on climate change-related issues across the broad spectrum of
relevant international programmes.
The first two World Climate Conferences laid the foundation
for research and observational activities that would deliver
greater understanding of the nature of the climate challenges
facing the planet. They also provided the scientific basis for
developing the comprehensive and sound climate services
that are now being sought by every country and by virtually
every sector of society.
20
Participants at the seventh session (CCI-VII),
held in Geneva in 1978
M.K. Thomas (Canada) was unanimously elected president
and A.W. Kabakibo (Syrian Arab Republic) was unanimously
elected vice-president.
EIGHTH SESSION (CCl-VIII), WASHINGTON, DC, APRIL 1982
In April 1982, the United States hosted the eighth session of
the Commission, which by this time had been renamed the
Commission for Climatology and Applications of Meteorology
(CCAM); the session was held in Washington, DC.
Three years earlier, in February 1979, the First World Climate
Conference took place in Geneva. Later the same year, the
World Meteorological Congress gave formal approval for the
establishment of the World Climate Programme. With the WCP
opening up opportunities for the use of climate information
throughout the world, delegates attending the eighth session
of the Commission insisted that there was a significant need for
increased training activities in climatology. Accordingly, a rapporteur was appointed to study problems in relation to education,
training and the transfer of information. The establishment of
the WCP meant that the Commission focused more attention
on climatological operations at its eighth session than it had
done at previous sessions. It was agreed to prepare up-to-date
climate normals, preferably using a standard thirty-year period
and beginning with a year whose last digit is “1”, such as 1991. In
relation to the World Climate Applications Programme (WCAP),
the session participants indicated that significant contributions
could be made to the proposed high-priority areas of food, water
and energy. At the end of the session, James L. Rasmussen
(United States) was elected president, and W. John Maunder
(New Zealand) was elected vice-president.
James L. Rasmussen, eighth
president of CCl
21
WORLD CLIMATE CONFERENCE-3 (WCC-3)
The World Climate Conference-3 (WCC-3), which took place
from 30 August to 4 September 2009 in Geneva, was convened
to provide nations with an opportunity to give joint consideration to an appropriate global framework for the delivery of
climate services over the coming decades. The programme for
the Conference featured an Expert Segment with 200 speakers,
which was attended by 1 500 participants, and a High-level
Segment, which was attended by fifteen Heads of State and
Government, the United Nations Secretary-General and heads
of other United Nations organizations and Specialized Agencies.
One of the Conference’s main conclusions was that current
capacity to provide effective climate services, particularly in
developing countries, fell far short of meeting both existing
and future needs. Delegates also recognized that there was
an urgent need for closer partnerships between the providers
of climate services and the users of such services.
8
The Conference participants acknowledged the great scientific progress made by the World Climate Programme and its
associated activities during the previous thirty years, which
has already provided a solid base for the delivery of a wide
range of climate services. The delegates also acknowledged
that significant additional effort would be required to improve
the time range and skill of climate prediction through new
research and modelling initiatives. In addition, it was agreed
that the observational basis for climate prediction and services would need to be improved, along with the availability
and quality control of climate data.
The development of a Global Framework for Climate Services
(GFCS) was a major expected outcome of WCC-3. The GFCS
22
is intended to facilitate efforts to reduce the risks and realize the benefits associated with current and future climate
conditions by incorporating climate prediction and information services into decision-making. The Conference called
for major strengthening of the essential elements of the
framework, such as the Global Climate Observing System,
the World Climate Research Programme, the Climate Services
Information Systems (CSIS) and the Climate User Interface
Programme (CUIP), as well as efficient and enduring capacitybuilding. The outcomes of WCC-3 have strongly shaped the
structure of the Commission as well as its activities during
the fifteenth intersessional period.
The Commission played an important role in the organization of WCC-3. The CCl president, P. Bessemoulin, was a
member of the WCC-3 International Organizing Committee.
He was responsible for parallel sessions on understanding
and predicting seasonal to interannual climate variability;
climate information for improved planning and management
of megacities; and the regional and national contributions
component of the climate services session. A number of
Commission experts delivered presentations and participated
in the Conference deliberations.
NINTH SESSION (CCl-IX), GENEVA, DECEMBER 1985
The ninth session was held in Geneva in 1985, at a time when
there was a marked resurgence of interest worldwide in the
issue of climate change. A number of significant achievements
took place during the period following the eighth session. Many
of these achievements were the result of specific Commission
initiatives. They included the implementation of the Climate
System Monitoring Programme, data rescue, improvements
in climate data management and the development of several
components of the Climate Applications Referral System (CARS).
The period 1982 to 1985 was also characterized by considerable
activity in the field of climate change. The Commission was
briefed on the main findings and recommendations presented
at the joint United Nations Environment Programme/World
Meteorological Organization/International Council for Science
(UNEP/WMO/ICSU) international assessment conference held
in Villach, Austria, in October 1985. The conference focused
on the role played by carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases in climate variations and its associated impacts, which
affect the well-being, property and lives of people around
the world. At the ninth session, the Commission discussed
the structure of the WCP and it reviewed the various activities and plans under the Programme’s four components: the
World Climate Data Programme (WCDP), the World Climate
Applications Programme (WCAP), the World Climate Impacts
Studies Programme (WCISP), and the World Climate Research
Programme (WCRP).
Following a review of research findings suggesting that an
increase in global temperatures is due to an increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere, it was
decided to establish more comprehensive climate databases
to support climate monitoring, climate applications, research
and impact studies. To ensure that reliable reference climate
data were available, the Commission reviewed a proposal
made by the Working Group on Climate Data Management,
and it adopted a recommendation that work should begin on
the creation of a global network of Reference Climatological
Stations (RCS). The Commission also recommended the inclusion of non-instrumental records, measurements and other
information, such as proxy climatological data from tree rings,
ice cores and archeological records, in the overall process of
climate data management.
During 1982 and 1983, a severe El Niño event occurred, with
catastrophic effects in the tropics. In order to carry out climatic
studies on a coupled ocean–atmosphere system such as El Niño,
oceanographic and air–sea interaction data are required. As a
result of the severe El Niño event, the WCDP and the relevant
national oceanographic centres agreed to work in close collaboration to support the Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere
(TOGA) programme.
At the end of the session, J.L. Rasmussen (United States) and
W.J. Maunder (New Zealand) were unanimously re-elected for a
further term as president and vice-president of the Commission,
respectively.
Participants at the ninth session (CCl-IX), held in Geneva in 1985
23
GLOBAL TELECONNECTIONS, IMPLICATIONS FOR SEASONAL TO INTERANNUAL PREDICTION
Breakthroughs in seasonal to interannual climate prediction
over the tropics are due to increased knowledge and understanding of the physics of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation
(ENSO), coupled with the development of atmospheric models
designed to achieve a realistic simulation of ENSO. The El Niño
event of 1982/1983 created great interest in systematic monitoring and it further stimulated efforts to understand the physics
of ENSO. By the time the ninth session of the Commission
(CCl-IX) took place in 1985, the global impacts of the major El
Niño event of 1982/1983 were known. Key issues highlighted
at the ninth session included the need for reliable climate data
(particularly in relation to climate monitoring) and the need for
increased understanding of the relationships between global
system fluctuations, such as ENSO, and regional weather and
climate, such as drought in Africa.
Due to the importance of oceanographic and air–sea interaction
data for climate studies on coupled systems like ENSO, close
cooperation was established among the WCDMP, relevant
national oceanographic centres and Tropical Ocean and Global
Atmosphere (TOGA) data centres. During the next few years,
several studies reported findings on the association between
observed droughts and other climate anomalies, such as ENSO,
and teleconnections of drought in certain geographical areas,
such as the Sahel. Heightened attention was given to further
research on teleconnections to assist in the development
of long-range prediction techniques. The 1997/1998 El Niño
was the most severe occurrence of this phenomenon in the
twentieth century and the impacts of this event were high on
24
the international agenda. In close cooperation and collaboration with a number of other agencies on the United Nations
Task Force on El Niño, WMO published an important scientific
analysis entitled The 1997–1998 El Niño Event: A Scientific and
Technical Retrospective (WMO-No. 905). It also published the
seventh Global Climate System Review encompassing the
period mid-1998 to mid-2001 and covering the major La Niña
sequence that followed the 1997/1998 El Niño event.
As there are differences in El Niño and La Niña definitions and
indices, the Commission established an Expert Team to finalize
the catalogue of definitions and indices used operationally by
WMO Members and also to develop a strategy and common
language for public communiqués. In addition to this team, the
Commission appointed a second Expert Team to produce a
Version 0 atlas of regional ENSO impacts in map format to be
used by decision-makers and policymakers. The atlas would
also consider the interaction of ENSO with other atmospheric
and oceanic phenomena, such as the North Atlantic Oscillation
(NAO) and Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO).
The Commission took on the concept of Climate Information
and Prediction Services (CLIPS) in polar regions as a legacy
of the International Polar Year 2007–2008, and it helped to
increase the scientific community’s understanding of the
teleconnections between polar regions and lower latitudes.
Better understanding of this phenomenon should serve to
improve the use of CLIPS for climate prediction in more
populated areas.
CLIMATE CHANGE
The topic of climate change first appeared on a Commission
agenda in 1960, when the third session (CCl-III) was held in
London. The Commission subsequently established a working
group on climate change. The report of the working group
was published in 1966 as a Technical Note entitled Climatic
Change (WMO Technical Note No. 79), and it became a
benchmark in the climate change literature.
At the fifth session (CCI-V), held in 1969, considerably more
attention was paid to the topic of climate change, and by the
time the sixth session (CCI-VI) took place in 1973, attention
had shifted to an understanding of how climatic fluctuations
may influence human activities. In 1976 WMO issued the
first authoritative statement on the accumulation of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and the potential impacts of such
accumulation on climate. This WMO statement was the key
trigger that focused the attention of policymakers on the
potential threat of climate change and its impacts for future
generations. At the seventh session (CCl-VII), the Commission
endorsed the WMO World Climate Programme and suggested
that the CCl should play a leading role in the data, services
and impact components of the WCP. The joint UNEP/WMO/
ICSU international assessment conference, held in Austria
in 1985, issued a statement noting that in the first half of the
twenty-first century, a rise of global mean temperature could
occur that would be greater than any previously witnessed
in human history. The establishment of the WMO/UNEP
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, coupled with the
publication of the IPCC assessment reports and in particular
the reports of Working Group I, represented major milestones
in the efforts by WMO to address the climate change issue.
Since 1993, WMO, through the Climate Change Detection
Project (CCDP), has been issuing the annual Statement on
the Status of the Global Climate.
25
TENTH SESSION (CCl-X), LISBON, APRIL 1989
A major highlight of the tenth session, which was held in
Lisbon, was the proposal that WMO initiate the Climate Change
Detection Project (CCDP) in collaboration with other agencies,
and with the Commission acting as the lead institution within
WMO. In its discussions on the CCDP, the Commission stated
that it viewed the project as an international effort, primarily
by Meteorological Services, to collect additional climate data
along with well-documented station information (metadata),
and to process these data using uniform procedures; ultimately,
the objective was to prepare more reliable analyses of climate
trends and climate variability.
The session expressed great interest in the establishment of
the WMO/UNEP Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC). This initiative had been agreed by the WMO Executive
Council at its fortieth session (in 1988) and had subsequently
been endorsed by the UNEP Governing Council. The announcement that the IPCC had arranged to produce its first assessment
report by October 1990 was widely welcomed at the session.
By April 1989, significant progress had been made in the area
of climate data management, including the production of manuals and the creation of the DAta REscue (DARE) and CLICOM
(CLImate COMputing) projects. To support the DARE project,
an International Data Rescue Coordination Centre (IDCC) was
established in Brussels, with financial assistance provided by
Belgium and UNEP.
For the first time, the Commission also recommended that CCI
focal persons be identified in each WMO Region to assist the
Commission president in communicating with Members in the
Regions. In its discussions on the National Climate Programmes
(NCPs), the Commission reaffirmed its belief that setting up
the NCPs represented a major step in the development of all
aspects of climatology. Indeed, such programmes and the WCP
were in fact complementary, the Commission noted.
26
The session also initiated the completion of climate normals
based on thirty years of climate data (1961 to 1990). In the election of officers, W.J. Maunder (New Zealand), who had been
vice-president for the previous eight years, was unanimously
elected president, and Y. Boodhoo (Mauritius) was unanimously
elected vice-president.
W.J. Maunder (New Zealand),
tenth president of CCl
ELEVENTH SESSION (CCl-XI), HAVANA, FEBRUARY 1993
The eleventh session was held at a time when a number of
crucial developments were taking place in the area of climate
and climate change. The IPCC published its first assessment
report in 1990, and the Second World Climate Conference
also took place that same year. Other major developments
occurring around this time included the establishment of
a negotiating process for the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the inclusion
of climate-related matters in Agenda 21, the action plan
adopted at the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
The World Meteorological Congress had renamed both the
data component and the applications component of the WCP.
These now became known as the World Climate Data and
Monitoring Programme (WCDMP) and the World Climate
CLIMATE CHANGE DETECTION AND INDICES
At the thirteenth session (CCI-XIII), held in 2001, the Open
Programme Area Group (OPAG) on Monitoring and Analysis
of Climate Variability and Change was established to provide a complete and responsive overview of all related
activities, including climate change detection processes and
climate change indices. The Expert Teams established by
the Commission identified a set of climate change indices
derived from daily data that would provide insights into
changes in climate extremes. Some of these indices were
incorporated into the IPCC Third Assessment Report: Climate
Change 2001 and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:
Climate Change 2007. The Commission initiated a series of
regional capacity-building workshops designed to facilitate
the development and exchange of climate indices. While the
main purpose of the indices was to assist the detection of
climate extremes, they were also to be used for the purpose
of providing a more detailed picture of climate variations.
International efforts to find simple indices to quantify climate
extremes have resulted in the definition of 27 indices of temperature and precipitation extremes using daily climatological
data. Under the supervision of the WCDMP, leading experts
have developed software allowing quality control, homogeneity
testing and adjustment for large datasets, as well as computation of the indices. The World Meteorological Organization
is also working with the NMHSs to develop climate change
detection tools and software to compute indices that reflect
the best estimate of climate trends within countries.
27
Applications and Services Programme (WCASP), respectively.
The objective of renaming the two components was to emphasize the climate monitoring and services aspects of the WCP.
Detailed discussions about the WCDMP and the WCASP took
place at the eleventh session. The Commission also held indepth discussions about the outcome of the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). In
particular, discussions focused on the UNCED Agenda 21 and
its comprehensive, long-term programme of specific objectives and actions aimed at creating a new global partnership
for sustainable development.
regard to the issue of the Climate System Monitoring Bulletin,
the Commission emphasized the significance of its timely
publication and it discussed a mechanism to accelerate its
distribution.
By the time the eleventh session took place in February 1993,
the second edition of the Guide to Climatological Practices
(WMO-No. 100) had been published in English, French, Russian
and Spanish. At the session, the Commission considered a
recommendation made by one of its expert groups in relation
to the preparation of the third edition of the Guide.
The main topics discussed at this session were: climate system monitoring, including climate change detection; climate
data management, including DARE; Climate Information and
Prediction Services (CLIPS), which was formed in 1995; and the
development of climate application methodologies for various
socio-economic sectors.
Significant progress was made on the installation of CLICOM
software in National Meteorological and Hydrological Services
(NMHSs). By February 1993, 104 Members had implemented
CLICOM; this compared with just 54 Members around the time
of the previous session in 1989. The successful implementation
of the system was mainly due to the efforts of donor countries,
which helped to fund the acquisition of CLICOM software and
the training of NMHS staff in its use.
In addition, the Commission discussed one of the key challenges
facing it during the four-year period 1997 to 2001 – the need to
focus on issues related to providing climate services for sustainable development. These issues included the provision of support
through the Climate Agenda for the IPCC process of assessing
climate change, as well as support for the implementation of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
The Commission emphasized the fundamental importance of
climate research being carried out under the WCRP; this was
particularly relevant in the context of increased worldwide
interest in, and activities relating to, the impacts of potential
global climate change and practical measures for preventing
or mitigating the anticipated harmful effects of such impacts.
The Commission felt that many of its activities – especially
those being carried out under the WCDMP and the climate
change detection project – constituted essential support
for the study of climate variations and climate change. With
28
At the end of the session, W.J. Maunder (New Zealand) and
Y. Boodhoo (Mauritius) were unanimously re-elected president
and vice-president of the Commission, respectively.
TWELFTH SESSION (CCl-XII), GENEVA, AUGUST 1997
Recognizing the need for continued guidance on how the
Commission should prioritize its activities in order to meet the
objectives of the WCP, the Commission decided to re-establish
its Advisory Working Group. The role of this group was to assist
the president in guiding and coordinating the activities of the
Commission and its various working groups and rapporteurs.
The Working Group on Climate Data was also re-established.
In view of the enormous interest in, and concern about, the variability of climate and the early detection of climate change, and
also due to the requirement for ongoing evaluation of climate
CONTRIBUTIONS TO IPCC, WCRP AND UNFCCC
Through capacity-building activities based on up-to-date
knowledge and software, WMO helps developing countries
and least developed countries to follow quantitative and
objective approaches in their contributions to the IPCC process
and in their reporting of information to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change. Results from
WCP and WCRP research provide a large part of the material
assessed periodically by IPCC Working Group I in providing
advice to the UNFCCC. World Climate Programme and World
Climate Research Programme scientists and projects contribute significantly to the collection and assembly of climate
observations, the development of models, the coordination of
climate model simulation, and understanding of the climate
system, which are necessary for the detection and attribution of past climate change and for the provision of climate
information, including projections of future change based on
various emissions scenarios. Another vital WMO contribution
to the UNFCCC is its strengthening of systematic observations of the Earth’s climate system, most notably through
the Global Climate Observing System. Since the inception
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, several
Commission members have made significant contributions
to the IPCC and have served either as Bureau members or
as lead authors of Assessment Reports.
29
CLIMATE INFORMATION AND PREDICTION SERVICES
With a view to promoting the effective application of climate
knowledge and information for the benefit of society, as well
as the provision of climate services, including the prediction of
significant climate variations of both natural and anthropogenic
origin, the Commission discussed the idea of launching a CLIPS
initiative within the framework of the CCI. The proposal was
approved at the Twelfth World Meteorological Congress, held
in 1995, and the WMO CLIPS project was established later the
same year; its purpose was to serve as the global implementation arm of the World Climate Applications and Services
Programme (WCASP). The aim of CLIPS is to make the best use
of existing databases so as to increase climate knowledge and
improve prediction capabilities, which also means development
of the capacity of NMHSs to improve their delivery of climate
services with a user focus. In addition, CLIPS assists NMHSs
in the design, production and dissemination of the full suite of
climate services. From the inception of the CLIPS programme,
it was envisaged that CLIPS would be based on the established
technical cooperation structure that is in place for WMO and
the regional and subregional bodies, with a central role to be
played by the WMO Regional Associations (RAs). Over the past
decade and a half, the main activities underpinning the CLIPS
project implementation have included:
• Promotion of operational climate prediction services,
particularly on seasonal to interannual scales;
• Provision of an active interface between the research
community and operational communities;
• Development of operational frameworks linking global,
regional and national long-range forecasts;
30
• Establishment of WMO Regional Climate Centres, including
the development of a formal designation process involving the Commission for Climatology, the Commission for
Basic Systems and Regional Associations;
• Promotion of consensus-based climate outlook product
generation, particularly through the provision of support
to the Regional Climate Outlook Forum (RCOF) process;
• Regular publication and dissemination of WMO El Niño/
La Niña updates, based on global consensus;
• Capacity-building of NMHSs in providing climate services
through a worldwide programme of CLIPS training workshops;
• Establishment of a network of CLIPS focal points and coordination of the network through Regional CLIPS Rapporteurs;
• Integration of CLIPS activities into the regional coordination of climate-related matters within the RAs;
• Promotion of climate applications through showcase
projects and user liaison activities;
• Development of CLIPS curriculum and Web-based information;
Significant progress was made in the development of a global
network of CLIPS focal points, and on the implementation
of biannual reporting on CLIPS initiatives within Member
countries. In collaboration with NMHSs and other relevant
organizations, climate prediction tools and downscaling
techniques that can be employed by CLIPS focal points and
Regional Climate Centres were also developed.
on both global and regional scales, the Commission decided
to set up a Joint Working Group on Climate Change Detection
in conjunction with the WCRP/CLIVAR (Climate Variability and
Predictability) project. It also set up a working group to assist
the CLIPS programme, and in particular to help CLIPS review
and keep abreast of developments in national climate services and also to provide scientific and technical guidance on
the optimal use of climate services. In addition, rapporteurs
were appointed for international exchange of climate data and
products; urban and building climatology; climate and health;
tourism and recreation; energy, including solar energy; and
capacity-building.
At the end of the session, Y. Boodhoo (Mauritius) was unanimously elected president, and J.M. Nicholls (United Kingdom)
was unanimously elected vice-president.
THIRTEENTH SESSION (CCl-XIII), GENEVA, NOVEMBER 2001
The main issues highlighted at the thirteenth session of the
Commission were: the CLIPS programme; the showcase project
on heat/health warning systems; harmonization of the collection
and homogenization of data from various WMO Programmes
and other organizations, such as IPCC; publication of the book
entitled Climate: Into the 21st Century; and the evaluation of
needs for the proposed Regional Climate Centres (RCCs).
Other important topics dealt with at the session included climate change detection, climate monitoring, data exchange and
climate data management. In addition, the session addressed
issues relating to the deteriorating climatological observational
networks and the lack of appropriate quality control of information in various databases.
During the four-year period leading up to the 2001 session, the work
of the Commission had become progressively more challenging,
as climate and climate change issues moved to the forefront of
the world stage. During this period, the Advisory Working Group
held two additional meetings, the first in Mauritius in March 1998
and the second in the United Kingdom in April 2000. The focus of
these meetings was on reviewing the prioritization of CCl activities,
building partnerships to achieve success, revising individual terms
of reference, implementing the showcase project on heat/health
warning systems, the publication of Climate: Into the 21st Century,
and evaluating the need for RCCs.
Participants at the twelfth session (CCl-XII),
held in Geneva in 1997
Climate-related issues remained high on the international
agenda. Such issues included: the effects of the major 1997/1998
El Niño event; the subsequent series of La Niña events; and
the presentation of the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR)
and its findings, which linked recent climate change to human
influences. Climate system monitoring and climate change
detection remained high-priority activities, and the Commission
acknowledged that its own work had a key role in the international
response to the challenges posed. The Commission discussed
31
the climate change detection issue and the outcome of two
regional workshops on the topic held in 2001. With regard to
socio-economic developments, it was noted that great progress
had been made in the areas of climate and human health,
urban and building climatology, and renewable energy. The
Commission stressed that the CLIPS programme had enabled
the establishment of a network of CLIPS national focal points
to interact with regional focal points, and it had also initiated
the development of an infrastructure for seasonal to interannual climate prediction. A review of development work on the
Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) was
presented during the session as well.
At the end of the session, Y. Boodhoo (Mauritius) was unanimously re-elected president and V. Vent-Schmidt (Germany)
was unanimously elected vice-president.
FOURTEENTH SESSION (CCl-XIV), BEIJING, NOVEMBER 2005
The fourteenth session was held in Beijing in 2005. During
the four-year period leading up to this event, the importance
of climate in relation to safety and sustainable development
had become an even more prominent issue. Major climate
system anomalies, such as one of the most severe heatwaves
on record in central Europe during the first half of August 2003,
and prolonged drought in western Europe and in Africa, had
ensured that the issue of climate and climate change was yet
again at the forefront of the world stage. Significant progress
in priority areas had been achieved through the creation of
teams of experts to deal with specific issues or projects. Other
timely initiatives contributing to this progress included the
establishment of Regional Climate Outlook Forums, which
had become an integral part of the infrastructure for providing
climate services in many parts of the world.
The Commission noted that the work carried out since the thirteenth session in 2001 had succeeded in creating even greater
awareness worldwide of the importance of climate-related issues.
It was therefore decided to amend the vision of the Commission
as follows: “The vision of the CCl is to stimulate, understand, lead
and coordinate international technical activity to obtain and apply
climate information and knowledge in support of sustainable
socio-economic development and environmental protection.”
Participants at the thirteenth session (CCl-XIII),
held in Geneva in 2001
32
The Commission had increased the level of its interaction with
various stakeholders, including global providers of data on
seasonal to interannual predictions and relevant United Nations
Specialized Agencies, such as the World Health Organization
(WHO), the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO),
UNEP and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO). In a move aimed at contributing to the newly
established cross-cutting Natural Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation (DPM) Programme, the Commission endorsed
the goals of the WMO multidisciplinary conference entitled
Living with Climate Variability and Change: Understanding the
REGIONAL CLIMATE OUTLOOK FORUMS
In the late 1990s, an innovative process known as the Regional
Climate Outlook Forum was initiated by WMO, NMHSs, regional
institutions and other international organizations. The RCOF
process promoted the recognition in many parts of the world
that short-range climate predictions could be of substantial
benefit in adapting to and mitigating climate variations.
Regional Climate Outlook Forums bring together experts in
various fields, as well as local meteorologists and end-users
of forecasts to provide consensus-based climate prediction
and information – usually for a particular season – that is of
critical socio-economic importance. This information has
been applied in initiatives aimed at reducing climate-related
risks and supporting sustainable development. More than
thirty of these forums have been held throughout Africa,
South and Central America, the Caribbean and Asia. The
Commission has recognized that advances in prediction
capabilities have yielded substantial benefits for parts of
Africa and the Americas and also for areas in and around the
Pacific basin affected by El Niño and La Niña events. Such
advances in seasonal prediction capabilities have yet to be
achieved in other parts of the world, however.
33
CLIMATE AND HUMAN HEALTH
Climate and weather have always had a powerful impact on
human health and well-being. Climate indirectly affects health
through its influence on air pollution, on ecosystems that
provide food and water, and on vectors and pathogens that
cause infectious diseases. Since WMO was founded in 1950,
it has maintained a close relationship with the World Health
Organization on issues related to human health and climate. At
the first session of the Commission for Climatology (CCI-I), held
in 1953, a working group was established to manage the coordination of activities between WMO and WHO. H.E. Landsberg,
who was appointed rapporteur on human bioclimate, prepared
a report entitled The Assessment of Human Bioclimate: A
Limited Review of Physical Parameters. This was published
by WMO in 1972 (WMO Technical Note No. 123).
The bioclimate programme received a further boost with the
launch of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme in
1970 and the convening of the United Nations Conference on
the Human Environment in 1972. At the eighth session of the
Commission (CCI-VIII), held in 1982, a rapporteur was appointed
to prepare guidance material for the training and education
of meteorologists. In 1986, WMO, WHO and UNCED jointly
organized the International Symposium on Climate and Human
Health in Leningrad. The symposium proceedings provided a
useful overview of the current understanding of climate and
human health. In 1996, WMO published a booklet entitled
Climate and Human Health (WMO-No. 843), which is a review
of the relationship between climate and human health prepared
by L.S. Kalkstein, W.J. Maunder and G. Jendritzky. For World
Meteorological Day 1999, WMO adopted the theme Weather,
Climate and Health and it also published a brochure with the same
34
title. Following the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment
Report: Climate Change 2001, cooperation between WMO and
WHO was further enhanced in the field of climate and human
health, with increased collaboration in research, applications
and operational/warning services, including efforts in areas
related to environmental changes, such as ozone depletion.
The IPCC findings suggested that the geographical range for
the potential transmission of two vector-borne diseases, malaria
and dengue, may increase as a result of climate change.
One of the main activities of the Commission in recent years
has been the provision of training in the use of climate data
to improve human health, especially in the context of global
warming and climate change. Commission initiatives have
helped Members to devise and implement heat/health warning
systems for cities during periods when temperatures pose a
threat to human health. In collaboration with WHO, the World
Meteorological Organization will soon issue a new publication
entitled Guidance on Heat-Health Warning Systems. Over the
years, the Commission has also developed a partnership with
the International Society of Biometeorology (ISB).
Uncertainties and Managing the Risks, which took place in
Espoo, Finland, from 17 to 21 July 2006.
The main topics discussed during the session were the implementation of Climate Database Management Systems including
metadata (CDMSs), which were developed to replace CLICOM;
data rescue (DARE); requirements for observations for climate
applications; contributions to Global Climate Observing System
(GCOS) activities; and best practice in the operation of climate
observing networks. Several CCl/CLIVAR workshops on climate
change indices and the use of software developed by the Expert
Team on Climate Data Management including Metadata were
organized. Subsequently, the outcome of these workshops made
a significant contribution to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.
It was agreed that in order to avoid duplication of resources, publication of the Global Climate System Review should cease and
should instead be replaced with the annual State of the Climate
report published in Bulletin of the American Meteorological
Society (BAMS).
As CLIPS programme activities
placed a major emphasis on seasonal to interannual timescales,
the Commission urged that collaborative efforts be undertaken
with other programmes and institutions to strengthen calibration and
verification methods, downscaling techniques, and ensemble and
multi-model ensembles, with the
aim of improving the accuracy and
skill of seasonal predictions. The
Commission also reviewed progress
on publication of the third edition
of the Guide to Climatological
Practices.
At the close of the session, Pierre Bessemoulin (France) was
unanimously elected president, and Wang Shourong (China)
was unanimously elected vice-president.
Left: Participants at the fourteenth session (CCl-XIV), held in Beijing in 2005
Right: Participants at the CCl Management Group meeting, held in Geneva in 2006
Top right: Pierre Bessemoulin, fourteenth president of CCl
35
URBAN CLIMATOLOGY
Urban and rural environments differ substantially from each
other in terms of their microclimates; this phenomenon is
primarily caused by alteration of the Earth’s surface as a
result of the construction of buildings and other facilities
for human use and the release of artificially created energy
into the environment.
World population growth is expected to be concentrated in
urban areas over the next thirty years, and this issue has
consistently been on the agenda of CCl sessions dating as
far back as 1965. The WMO/WHO International Symposium
on Urban Climates and Building Climatology, held in Brussels
in 1968, served to further stimulate interest in the application of climate information to the built environment; it also
served to highlight the need for closer collaboration and
cooperation on this issue among architects, house builders
and climatologists.
At the WMO Technical Conference on Urban Climatology
and its Applications with Special Regard to Tropical Areas,
which was held in Mexico City in 1984, it was proposed that
an international meteorological experimental programme
be established to improve our understanding of the tropical
urban atmosphere, as well as its impact on human and urban
development. Later, the tenth session of the Commission
(CCI-X), held in Lisbon in 1989, adopted the Recommendation
36
on the Tropical Urban Climate Experiment (TRUCE), which
outlined the proposed project.
The twelfth session of the Commission (CCl-XII), held in
Geneva in 1997, discussed the major role played by WMO in
the preparations for and the actual proceedings of the Second
United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (HABITAT
II), held in Istanbul in 1996. One of the Conference outcomes,
the United Nations HABITAT Agenda, was considered an
important guide in the formulation of WMO and Commission
policies and activities in the area of urban climatology. Since
the eleventh session of the Commission (CCl-XI), which was
held in Havana in 1993, several technical documents on urban
climatology had been finalized and disseminated, with the the
CCl Expert Team on Urban and Building Climatology playing
a leading role in the preparation of some of these documents.
Significant contributions were also made by experts from the
International Association for Urban Climate (IAUC). The booklet entitled Climate and Urban Development (WMO-No. 844),
which was produced with the help of Commission rapporteurs
and published in 1996, represented a major contribution by
WMO to the United Nations HABITAT II event.
In recognition of the importance of the urban climate issue,
WMO adopted Weather and Water in Cities as the theme for
World Meteorological Day in 1997.
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution has been with us since the first fire was lit,
although different aspects of this kind of pollution have
been of concern at various points in human history. In urban
areas in modern times, high concentrations of gases and
particles from coal combustion and motor vehicle emissions
have resulted in a severe loss of air quality and have caused
significant negative health effects.
The Commission’s first involvement in the area of air pollution activities dates back to the fifth session (CCI-V), which
was held in Geneva in 1969. The Commission endorsed the
establishment of a global network of remote stations for the
background monitoring of long-term changes in low-level
concentrations of air pollution. Later, this global network
became the Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network
(BAPMoN). When the Commission’s new terms of reference
came into effect in 1971, in accordance with a decision by the
Sixth World Meteorological Congress, CCI assumed specific
responsibilities for air pollution and air quality. Around the
same time, it also gained responsibility for the application
of meteorology and climatology to special problems of the
atmosphere, such as air pollution. The Commission for
Atmospheric Sciences (CAS) retained responsibility for the
macroscale, while CCl became responsible for the local-scale
aspects of the problem. D.J. Szepesi (Hungary), who was
appointed rapporteur, prepared a report on the methods
being used by Members in the application of meteorology
in areas such as the forecasting of long-range dispersal of
atmospheric pollution and the design, siting and safe operation of industries contributing to air pollution. Based on the
work done by D.J. Szepesi, WMO published a Technical
Note entitled Applications of Meteorology to Atmospheric
Pollution Problems (WMO Technical Note No. 188) in 1987.
This Technical Note contains a summary of the main activities
in air pollution meteorology. It also contains an additional
section on air quality management, describing the concept
of background air pollution and a system for the evaluation of air pollution processes on various spatial scales.
The Commission’s focus has progressively shifted from
air pollution to background air pollution – an issue that is
particularly relevant to climate change in the context of
monitoring greenhouse gases and aerosols.
37
FIFTEENTH SESSION (CCl-XV), ANTALYA, FEBRUARY 2010
The fifteenth session, held in Antalya in February 2010,
was preceded by the Technical Conference on Changing
Climate and Demands for Climate Services for Sustainable
Development. The Commission developed a new vision
statement, as well as a new mission statement. The vision of
the Commission was defined as follows: “To provide world
leadership in expertise and international cooperation in
climatology”. The Commission adopted as its mission: “To
stimulate, lead, implement, assess and coordinate international technical activities within WMO under the World Climate
Programme and the Global Framework for Climate Services
to obtain and apply climate information and knowledge in
support of sustainable socio-economic development and
environmental protection.’’
The Commission adopted a new work plan, which included the
establishment of four Open Panels of CCl Experts (OPACEs)
focused on the following thematic areas: (i) climate data management; (ii) global and regional climate monitoring and assessment;
(iii) climate products and services; and (iv) climate information
for adaptation and risk management.
At the end of the session, Thomas Peterson (United States)
was elected president and Serhat ûensoy (Turkey) was elected
vice-president.
The Commission emphasized the importance of climate observations and the processes for the collection, development,
maintenance and exchange of such observations among
Members for climate assessment and prediction purposes
and for sector-specific applications. The Commission recognized that climate datasets with global coverage are of critical
importance for the detection, monitoring and communication
of climate change and also for the characterization of climate
variability. The session endorsed both ongoing and proposed
new international collaborative efforts to analyse climate data in
a comprehensive and accurate manner under the aegis of WMO.
The Commission approved the third edition of the Guide to
Climatological Practices (WMO-No. 100). This publication project
involved the efforts of a large number of dedicated contributors
and reviewers over a period of several years. The Commission
assigned a rapporteur to continue monitoring the content of
the publication and to provide regular updates in the fifteenth
intersessional period.
Left: Participants at the fifteenth session (CCl-XV,) held in Antalya in 2010
Right: Thomas Peterson (United States), fifteenth president of CCl (left), and Pierre Bessemoulin (France), fourteenth president of CCl
(centre), are photographed with Y. Boodhoo (Mauritius), twelfth and thirteenth president of CCl.
38
CLIMATE AND ENERGY
Energy lies at the heart of economic and social development,
and the correct use of historical climate data can do much to
help in the siting and design of improved energy infrastructure.
Access to tailored climate information can also help enhance
the exploitation of sustainable natural energy sources, such
as wind, solar, biomass and hydraulic energy, which are also
environmentally friendly. Many National Meteorological and
Hydrological Services had long been involved in providing
climate data and information to energy organizations. It
was not until 1973, however, that the Commission decided
to take action in this area. By this time, the Commission had
assumed a new range of applications responsibilities and
many countries were becoming concerned about the possibility of future global energy shortages.
In 1981, WMO published two Technical Notes, Meteorological
Aspects of the Utilization of Wind as an Energy Source (WMO
Technical Note No. 575) and Meteorological Aspects of the
Utilization of Solar Radiation as an Energy Source (WMO
Technical Note No. 557). These Technical Notes contain
a detailed treatment of meteorological knowledge and
activities related to the harnessing of solar energy and wind
energy, and they also include chapters on users’ requirements, measurement techniques, data acquisition systems,
instrument calibration and quality control. The Commission
later expanded its activities in climate services to include
other energy sources in addition to solar and wind energy.
It also recommended the increased use of satellite data in
assessing renewable energy applications.
National Meteorological and Hydrological Services were
assisted in methods of computation of solar and wind power
potentials in their countries. Some of these efforts even
culminated in the installation of systems for the generation
of energy. In 1976, following a meeting of relevant rapporteurs and working group members the previous year, WMO
published an action plan that was designed to deal with a
range of energy-related problems. At its seventh session
(CCI-VII), which was held in 1978, the Commission accepted
outlines for Technical Notes on the utilization of solar radiation and wind as energy sources. Based on CCl guidelines,
WMO prepared an action plan on education and training in
energy applications; the plan outlined methodologies for
the training of meteorologists and energy decision-makers
in the use of climate information.
Prompted by the Commission, many NMHSs established
networks within their own countries for the measurement of
solar radiation and wind. Members recognized that data collected by NMHSs on solar radiation and wind would be critical
if sustainable, climate-friendly energy industries were to be
created and remain competitive over the long term. In short,
a major shift towards the use of renewable energy resources
would be essential if international efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and protect the climate system were to
meet the objectives of the UNFCCC/Kyoto Protocol and other
related instruments.
39
CLIMATE AND TOURISM
40
Tourism is not only one of the world’s largest and fastest
growing industries, it is also one of the top sources of export
earnings and foreign exchange revenue in many countries.
The tourism industry, particularly in coastal zones and mountain areas, is highly vulnerable to climate hazards, and to sea
level rise and changing snow and glacier conditions due to
climate change. Relevant climate information helps the tourism industry to reduce risks related to natural hazards and it
can also help the industry to take preventive action or make
plans to take account of such risks.
how the application of meteorology could contribute to the
resolution of social, economic and environmental problems
related to outdoor recreation and the use of leisure time. At
the ninth session (CCl-IX), held in 1985, the Rapporteur on
Tourism and Recreation submitted a report that emphasized
the human health aspects of tourism and recreation. Noting
the tourism sector’s important contribution to the global
economy, a new interdisciplinary Expert Team on Climate
and Tourism was established at the fourteenth session
(CCl-XIV), held in 1995.
Most tourism-related activity tends to be climate-sensitive
and/or weather-dependent and many National Meteorological
and Hydrological Services have already given considerable
attention to this sector. In 1971, after the Commission’s
terms of reference were revised, the Commission began
to focus attention on the issue of outdoor recreation and
leisure time. Later, at the sixth session (CCI-VI), held in
1973, a rapporteur was appointed to review knowledge on
The World Meteorological Organization continues to work
closely with the United Nations World Tourism Organization
to support the tourism sector by providing reliable information on climate hazards, climate statistics and long-range
forecasts. One specific example of such fruitful cooperation
is the publication entitled Climate Change and Tourism:
Responding to Global Challenges, published jointly by WMO,
UNEP and UNTWO in 2008.
PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECTED AT CCl SESSIONS (1953–2010)
Session
Place
Date
Presidents
Vice-Presidents
I*
Washington, DC, United
States
March 1953
C. Warren Thornthwaite
(United States)
A. Angström
(Sweden)
II*
Washington, DC, United
States
January 1957
R.G. Veryard
(United Kingdom)
C.C. Boughner
(Canada)
III*
London, United Kingdom
December 1960
C.C. Boughner
(Canada)
C.C. Wallen
(Sweden)
IV*
Stockholm, Sweden
August 1965
C.C. Boughner
(Canada)
C.C. Wallen
(Sweden)
V*
Geneva, Switzerland
October 1969
H.E. Landsberg
(United States)
A.W. Kabakibo
(Syrian Arab Republic)
VI**
Bad Homburg, Germany
October 1973
H.E. Landsberg
(United States)
R. Berggren
(Sweden)
VII**
Geneva, Switzerland
April 1978
M.K. Thomas
(Canada)
A.W. Kabakibo
(Syrian Arab Republic)
VIII***
Washington, DC, United
States
April 1982
J. Rasmussen
(United States)
W.J. Maunder
(New Zealand)
IX*
Geneva, Switzerland
December 1985
J. Rasmussen
(United States)
W.J. Maunder
(New Zealand)
X*
Lisbon, Portugal
April 1989
W.J. Maunder
(New Zealand)
Y. Boodhoo
(Mauritius)
XI*
Havana, Cuba
February 1993
W.J. Maunder
(New Zealand)
Y. Boodhoo
(Mauritius)
XII*
Geneva, Switzerland
August 1997
Y. Boodhoo
(Mauritius)
J.M. Nicholls
(United Kingdom)
XIII*
Geneva, Switzerland
November 2001
Y. Boodhoo
(Mauritius)
V. Vent-Schmidt
(Germany)
XIV
Beijing, China
November 2005
P. Bessemoulin
(France)
S. Wang
(China)
XV
Antalya, Turkey
February 2010
T. Peterson
(United States)
S. ûensoy
(Turkey)
*
**
***
Commission for Climatology
Renamed “Commission for Special Applications of Meteorology and Climatology”
Renamed “Commission for Climatology and Applications of Meteorology”
41
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Prior to 1963, the Commission did not have a mandate
to become involved in WMO education and training programmes. In 1963, however, the Commission’s terms of
reference changed and the new terms of reference called for
CCl to promote the “study of the climate of the world on a
global scale”. In 1965, the Commission established a working
group to review the available textbooks and other training
materials, and to prepare appropriate syllabi. The syllabi for
education and training in climatology prepared by the working
group were incorporated into the relevant WMO guidelines
for the education and training of meteorological personnel.
After the WCP was launched, WMO convened a number of
regional training seminars on the use of mathematical, statistical and other objective methods and on selected aspects
8
42
of climatology. Later, recognizing that only a few Regional
Training Centres (RTCs) had managed to organize courses
dealing exclusively with climatology, WMO made efforts to
assist the RTCs to develop appropriate courses using the
expertise of consultants.
The Commission has always stressed the importance of education and training in the implementation of the various components
of the WCP, particularly in areas related to capacity-building and
raising public awareness of climate issues in Member countries. Education and training constitute priority activities in
several projects within the WCDMP and the WCASP and
they have also been addressed under a number of other
Commission agenda items.
THE WAY FORWARD
The Commission recognizes that climate issues are more
important now than they have been at any previous time in the
history of CCl. While climate science has advanced significantly
during the past forty years, many scientific challenges remain.
Society has an increasing need for climate information to support critical decision-making and the development of practical
applications to address climate change. A new initiative, the
Global Framework for Climate Services, is creating opportunities to strengthen the availability, delivery and application of
science-based climate monitoring and prediction services. In
this respect, the Commission is uniquely positioned to make
major contributions to the GFCS.
The Commission’s historical role in facilitating international
coordination and capacity development, coupled with its role in
moving the global climate community forward, is needed now
more than ever before in order to ensure the efficient delivery
of climate services, which are highly dependent on concerted
multidisciplinary efforts. The Commission has made a substantial
contribution to an impressive legacy of developments in climatology and it has recorded great achievements in the past. It is
now building on these achievements as it moves into the future.
The Commission will continue to collaborate with national and
international agencies to create even stronger synergies and to
provide vital climate services to the global community.
ACRONYMS
43
ACRONYMS
BAMS
BAPMoN
CARS
CAS
CBS
CCAM
CCDP
CCl
CDMS
CIMO
CLICOM
CLIMAT
CLIMAT TEMP
CLIPS
CLIVAR
CoSAMC
CSIS
CUIP
DARE
DPM
ENSO
ETCCDI
EU COST Action
FAO
GCOS
GEOSS
GFCS
GSN
GTS
IAUC
ICSU
IDCC
IMO
IOC
IPCC
IRI
ISB
JCOMM
NAO
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network
Climate Applications Referral System
Commission for Atmospheric Sciences
Commission for Basic Systems
Commission for Climatology and Applications of Meteorology
Climate Change Detection Project
Commission for Climatology
Climate Data Management System
Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation
CLImate COMputing
Report of monthly means and totals from a land station
Report of monthly aerological means from a land station
Climate Information and Prediction Services
Climate Variability and Predictability
Commission for Special Applications of Meteorology and Climatology
Climate Services Information System
Climate User Interface Programme
DAta REscue
Natural Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Programme
El Niño-Southern Oscillation
Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices
European Cooperation in Science and Technology
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Global Climate Observing System
Global Earth Observation System of Systems
Global Framework for Climate Services
GCOS Surface Network
Global Telecommunication System
International Association for Urban Climate
International Council for Science
International Data Rescue Coordination Centre
International Meteorological Organization
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
International Research Institute for Climate and Society
International Society of Biometeorology
Joint WMO/IOC Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology
North Atlantic Oscillation
45
NCP
NMHS
OPACE
OPAG
PDO
RBCN
RCC
RCOF
RCS
RTC
TOGA
TRUCE
UNCED
UNESCO
UNEP
UNFCCC
UNWTO
UTCI
WCAP
WCASP
WCC-3
WCDMP
WCDP
WCISP
WCP
WCRP
WHO
WIS
WMO
WWW
46
National Climate Programme
National Meteorological and Hydrological Service
Open Panel of CCl Experts
Open Programme Area Group
Pacific Decadal Oscillation
Regional Basic Climatological Network
Regional Climate Centre
Regional Climate Outlook Forum
Reference Climatological Station
Regional Training Centre
Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere Programme
Tropical Urban Climate Experiment
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
United Nations World Tourism Organization
Universal Thermal Climate Index
World Climate Applications Programme
World Climate Applications and Services Programme
World Climate Conference-3
World Climate Data and Monitoring Programme
World Climate Data Programme
World Climate Impact Studies Programme
World Climate Programme
World Climate Research Programme
World Health Organization
WMO Information System
World Meteorological Organization
World Weather Watch
LIST OF COMMISSION FOR CLIMATOLOGY PUBLICATIONS
CCI SESSION REPORTS
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 014, 1953: Abridged Final
Report of the First Session, Secretariat of the World Meteorological
Organization, 90 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 062, 1957: Abridged Final
Report of the Second Session, Secretariat of the World Meteorological
Organization, 61 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 102, 1961: Abridged Final
Report of the Third Session, Secretariat of the World Meteorological
Organization, 51 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 177, 1965: Abridged Final
Report of the Fourth Session, Secretariat of the World Meteorological
Organization, 56 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 260, 1970: Abridged Final
Report of the Fifth Session, Secretariat of the World Meteorological
Organization, 87 pp.
Commission for Special Applications of Meteorology and
Climatology, WMO-No. 369, 1974: Abridged Final Report of
the Sixth Session, Secretariat of the World Meteorological
Organization, 77 pp.
Commission for Special Applications of Meteorology and
Climatology, WMO-No. 515, 1978: Abridged Final Report of
the Seventh Session, Secretariat of the World Meteorological
Organization, 95 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 720, 1989: Abridged
Final Report of the Tenth Session, Secretariat of the World
Meteorological Organization, 52 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 791, 1993: Abridged
Final Report of the Eleventh Session, Secretariat of the World
Meteorological Organization, 40 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 870, 1997: Twelfth Session,
Abridged Final Report with Resolutions and Recommendations,
Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization, 42 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 938, 2002: Thirteenth
Session, Abridged Final Report with Resolutions and
Recommendations, Secretariat of the World Meteorological
Organization, 52 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 996, 2006: Fourteenth
Session, Abridged Final Report with Resolutions and
Recommendations, Secretariat of the World Meteorological
Organization, 58 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 1054, 2010: Fifteenth Session,
Abridged Final Report with Resolutions and Recommendations,
Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization, 80 pp.
TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS
WCAP-No. 1, 1988: Analyzing Long Time Series of Hydrological
Data with Respect to Climate Variability, WMO-TD/No. 224, 12 pp.
Commission for Climatology and Applications of Meteorology,
WMO-No. 600, 1982: Abridged Final Report of the Eighth Session,
Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization, 72 pp.
WCAP-No. 4, 1987: Water Resources and Climatic Change:
Sensitivity of Water-Resource Systems to Climate Change and
Variability, WMO-TD/No. 247, 50 pp.
Commission for Climatology, WMO-No. 660, 1986: Abridged
Final Report of the Ninth Session, Secretariat of the World
Meteorological Organization, 104 pp.
WCAP-No. 6, 1989: Climate Applications: on User Requirements
and Need for Development (F. Singleton and D.W. Phillips).
WMO-TD/No. 281, 80 pp.
47
WCAP-No. 7, 1989: Drought and Desertification, Report of the
CCl Rapporteur on Drought and Desertification in Warm Climates
to the Tenth Session of the Commission for Climatology
(Lisbon, April 1989), and lectures presented at the training seminar
in Muñoz, Phillipines, (14–24 December 1988) (L.J. Ogallo and
N. Gbeckor-Kove). WMO/TD-No. 286, 73 pp.
WCAP-No. 8, 1988: Report of the First Session of the CCl Working
Group on Climate and Urban Areas including Building and Other
Aspects and Some Related Papers (E.J. Jauregui and S. Jianzhu).
WMO-TD/No. 287, 33 pp.
WCAP-No. 9, 1989: Report of the Expert Meeting on CLICOM
Climate Applications (including CARS), WMO-TD/No. 336, 8 pp.
WCAP-No. 10, 1989: Urban Design in Different Climates (B. Givoni).
WMO-TD/No. 346, 209 pp.
WCAP-No. 11, 1990: Fifth Planning Meeting on World Climate
Programme – Water, WMO-TD/No. 374, 30 pp.
WCAP-No. 13, 1990: Information on Meteorological Extremes for
the Design and Operation of Energy Systems (G.A. Mckay).
WMO-TD/No. 385, 47 pp.
WCAP-No. 14, 1990: Extremes and Design Values in Climatology
(T. Faragó and R.W. Katz). WMO-TD/No. 386, 43 pp.
WCAP-No. 15, 1990: Bibliography of Urban Climate (T.R. Oke).
WMO-TD/No. 397, 62 pp.
WCAP-No. 16, 1991: Report of the Workshop on a CLICOM-HOMS
Interface, WMO-TD/No. 409, 13 pp.
WCASP-No. 17, 1991: A Nonparametric Framework for Long-range
Streamflow Forecasting (J.A. Smith, G.N. Day and M.D. Kane).
WMO-TD/No. 428, 27 pp.
WCASP-No. 18, 1992: Report of the First Session of the Advisory
Committee on Climate Applications and Data (ACCAD), (Geneva,
19–20 November 1991), WMO-TD/No. 475, WCDMP-No. 17, 18 pp.
WCASP-No. 19, 1992: Urban Climatology in Africa, (edited by
R.A. Obudho et al.). WMO-TD/No. 509, 156 pp.
48
WCASP-No. 20, 1992: Operational Climatology – Climate
Applications: On Operational Climate Services and Marketing,
Information and Publicity (J.M. Nicholls and D.W. Phillips).
WMO-TD/No. 525, 70 pp.
WCASP-No. 21, 1992: Applications Climatologiques: les Besoins
des Usagers, le CLICOM/Applications, WMO-TD/No. 536, 32 pp.
WCASP-No. 22, 1993: Report of the Second Session of the Advisory
Committee on Climate Applications and Data (ACCAD) (Geneva,
16–17 November 1992), WMO-TD/No. 529, WCDMP-No. 22, 6 pp.
WCASP-No. 23, 1992: A Survey of Current Approaches to Modelling
of Hydrological Time Series with Respect to Climate Variability and
Change (G.S. Cavadias). WMO-TD/No. 534, 38 pp.
WCASP-No. 25, 1993: Bibliography of Urban Climate in Tropical/
Subtropical Areas 1981–1991 (E. Jauregui). WMO-TD/No. 552, 87 pp.
WCASP-No. 26, 1993: Hydrological Design Data Estimation
Techniques, Report of the WCP – Water Project C.5 – Re-analysis of
Hydrological Observations in Czechoslovakia, (O. Novický,
L. KaĞpárek and S. KoláĜová). WMO-TD/No. 554, 119 pp.
WCASP-No. 28, 1994: Drought and Desertification, Report to the
Eleventh Session of the Commission for Climatology (Havana,
February 1993) (K. Li and A. Makarau). WMO/TD-No. 605, 68 pp.
WCASP-No. 29, 1994: Sixth Planning Meeting on World Climate
Programme – Water (Wallingford, 1–5 March 1993),
WMO-TD/No. 609, 77 pp.
WCASP-No. 30, 1994: Report of the Technical Conference on
Tropical Urban Climates (Dhaka, Bangladesh, 28 March to
2 April 1993), WMO-TD/No. 647, 588 pp.
WCASP-No. 31, 1994: Report of the First Session of the CCl
Working Group on Operational Use of Climatological Knowledge,
(Vacoas, Mauritius, 22–26 November 1994), WMO-TD/No. 663,
11 pp.
WCASP-No. 32, 1995: Report from the Meeting of Experts on
Climate Information and Prediction Services (CLIPS), (Melbourne,
Australia, 28–31 March 1995), WMO-TD/No. 680, 4 pp.
WCASP-No. 33, 1995: Report from the Meeting of Experts on
Climate, Tourism, and Human Health, (Topes de Collantes, Cuba,
22–29 January 1995), WMO-TD/No. 682, 3 pp.
Hydrological Variables (L. Gottschalk and I. Krasovskaia).
WMO-TD/No. 870, 56 pp.
WCASP-No. 34, 1995: Report of the Tenth Session of the Advisory
Working Group of the Commission for Climatology, (Geneva,
20–22 September 1995), WMO-TD/No. 711, WCDMP-No. 34, 9 pp.
WCASP-No. 47, 1998: Report of the Eleventh Session of the
Advisory Working Group of the Commission for Climatology,
(Mauritius, 9–14 February 1998), WMO-TD/No. 895, WCDMP-No. 35,
23 pp.
WCASP-No. 35, 1995: Report of the Fifth Session of the Advisory
Committee on Climate Applications and Data (ACCAD), (Geneva,
26 September 1995), WMO-TD/No. 712, WCDMP-No. 25, 4 pp.
WCASP-No. 48, 1999: Climate Forecasting for Hydrology in Africa ,
(EN, FR) Centre Africain pour les Applications de la Météorologie
au Développement, WMO-TD/No. 982, 80 pp.
WCASP-No. 36, 1996: Bibliography of Urban Climatology for the
Period 1992–1995 (E. Jáuregui). WMO-TD/No. 759, 61 pp.
WCASP-No. 50, 2000: Biometeorology and Urban Climatology at the
Turn of the Millennium, Selected Papers from the Conference
ICB-ICUC’99 (Sydney, 8–12 November 1999) (edited by R.J. De
Dear, J.D. Kalma, T.R. Oke and A. Auliciems). WMO-TD/No. 1026,
646 pp.
WCASP-No. 37, 1996: Report of the Second Session of the CCl
Working Group on Operational Use of Climatological Knowledge,
(Geneva, 22–24 May 1996), WMO-TD/No. 774, 76 pp.
WCASP-No. 38, 1996: Economic and Social Benefits of
Climatological Information and Services: A Review of Existing
Assessments (J.M. Nicholls). WMO-TD/No. 780, 38 pp.
WCASP-No. 42, 1997: Reports to the Twelfth Session of the
Commission for Climatology and Report of Meeting of Experts on
Climate and Human Health (J. Hopkins, J. Bhalme and
L. Estela Lecha). WMO-TD/No. 822, 50 pp.
WCASP-No. 43, 1997: Meteorological Aspects and
Recommendations for Assessing and Using the Wind as an
Energy Source in the Tropics, Guidelines prepared for the World
Meteorological Organization (A. Daniels and T. Schroeder).
WMO-TD/No. 826, 58 pp.
WCASP-No. 51, 2000: Steering Committee on World Climate
Programme –Water, Final Report (Geneva, Switzerland,
23–25 October 2000), WMO-TD/No. 1048, 30 pp.
WCASP-No. 52, 2001: General Summary of the Session of
Intercommission Task Team on Regional Climate Centres, (Geneva,
Switzerland, 30 April to 3 May 2001), WMO-TD/No. 1070, 23 pp.
WCASP-No. 53, 2001: General Summary of the CLIPS Working
Group Meeting, (Toulouse, France, 26–29 March 2001),
WMO-TD/No. 1087, 14 pp.
WCASP-No. 54, 2002: Report of the Second Session of the Intercommission Task Team on Regional Climate Centres, (Geneva,
Switzerland, 25–28 March 2002), WMO-TD/No. 1107, 22 pp.
WCASP-No. 44, 1997: Bibliography of Building Climatology for the
Period 1988–1995, (EN, RUS) (E. Moralijski), Rapporteur on Building
Climatology, WMO-TD/No. 825, 83 pp.
WCASP-No. 55, 2002: Report of the First Session of the CCl
Management Group, (Berlin, Germany, 5–8 March 2002),
WMO-TD/No. 1110, WCDMP-No. 48, 11 pp.
WCASP-No. 45, 1997: Seventh Planning Meeting on World Climate
Programme – Water (Koblenz, Germany, 13–16 May 1997),
WMO-TD/No. 854, 98 pp.
WCASP-No. 57, 2003: Steering Committee on World Climate
Programme –Water, Third Meeting (Wallingford, United Kingdom,
21–23 October 2002), WMO-TD/No. 1145, 6 pp.
WCASP-No. 46, 1998: Grid Estimation of Runoff Data, Report of the
WCP-Water Project B.3: Development of Grid-related Estimates of
WCASP-No. 58, 2002: Report of the Climate Information and
Prediction Services (CLIPS) Training Workshop for Eastern and
49
Southern Africa, (Nairobi, Kenya, 29 July to 9 August 2002),
WMO-TD/No. 1152, 58 pp.
WCASP-No. 59, 2002: Report of the Capacity Building
Training Workshop on Reducing the Impacts of Climate Extremes on
Health, (Nairobi, Kenya, 11–15 February 2002), WMO-TD/No. 1162,
24 pp.
WCASP-No. 60, 2003: Proceedings of the RA VI Task Team on
the Provision of Seasonal to Inter-annual Forecasts and Regional
Climate Centre Services (RA VI-TT/SIRCC), (Reading, United
Kingdom, 14–16 April 2003), WMO-TD/No. 1163, 24 pp.
WCASP-No. 61, 2003: Report of Training Workshop on Climate
Information and Prediction Services for Regional Association VI,
(Erfurt, Germany, 12–18 June 2003), WMO-TD/No. 1164, 8 pp.
WCASP-No. 62, 2003: Proceedings of the Meeting on Organization
and Implementation of Regional Climate Centres, (Geneva,
Switzerland, 27–28 November 2003), WMO-TD/No. 1198, 41 pp.
WCASP-No. 63, 2004: Proceedings of the Meeting of Experts to
Develop Guidelines on Heat/Health Warning Systems, (Freiburg,
Germany, 14–16 April 2004), WMO-TD/No. 1212, 10 pp.
WCASP-No. 64, 2004: Detection of Change in World-wide
Hydrological Time Series of Maximum Annual Flow, GRDC Report
Series, Report 32, (Z.W. Kundzewicz et al.). WMO-TD/No. 1239,
36 pp.
WCASP-No. 65, 2004: Development, Use and Application of the
Hydrospect Data Analysis System for the Detection of Changes
in Hydrological Time Series for Use in WCP –Water and National
Hydrological Services (M. Radzeijewski and Z.W. Kundzyewicz).
WMO-TD/No. 1240, 37 pp.
WCASP-No. 67, 2004: Expert Meeting on Hydrological Sensitivity
to Climate Conditions, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH),
United Kingdom, Geneva, 2–4 December 2003), WMO-TD/No. 1242,
9 pp.
WCASP-No. 68, 2004: Report on the CLIPS Training Workshop for
Regional Association II, (Doha, Qatar, 26 September to
7 October 2004), WMO-TD/No. 1260, 23 pp.
50
WCASP-No. 69, 2004: Proceedings of the Meeting of the RA II
Working Group on Climate-related Matters Including CLIPS (Tokyo,
Japan, 25–27 October 2004), WMO-TD/No. 1261, 40 pp.
WCASP-No. 70, 2005: Climate Information and Prediction Services
(CLIPS) Focal Point Training Workshop for Regional Association III,
(Lima, Peru, 8–19 August 2005), WMO-TD/No. 1293, 24 pp.
WCASP-No. 71, 2005: Steering Committee on World Climate
Programme – Water, (Wallingford, United Kingdom, 13–15 June
2005): fourth meeting, report, WMO-TD/No. 1310, 8 pp.
WCASP-No. 72, 2006: Reunión del Grupo de Trabajo en Asuntos
Climáticos de la Asociación Regional III, (Montevideo, Uruguay,
15–17 Mayo 2006) (EN, SP)
WCASP-No. 73, 2007: Report of the Meeting of the Working
Group on Climate-Related Matters for Regional Association II
(RA II WGCRM), (Beijing, China, 7–8 April 2007), WMO-TD/No. 1382,
14 pp.
WCASP-No. 74, 2006: Report of the Expert Meeting on Water
Manager Needs for Climate Information in Water Resources
Planning,(Geneva, Switzerland, 18–20 December 2006),
WMO-TD/No. 1401, 21 pp.
WCASP-No. 75, 2008: Report of the Meeting of the Commission for
Climatology Expert Team on Climate and Health, (London, United
Kingdom, 20–22 November 2006), WMO-TD/No. 1413, 8 pp.
WCASP-No. 76, 2008: Report of the Meeting of the Working Group
on Climate-Related Matters for Regional Association II (RA II
WGCRM), (Tokyo, Japan, 7–8 August 2008), WMO-TD/No. 1470, 9
pp.
WCASP-No. 77, 2008: Report of the CCl/CBS Intercommission
Technical Meeting on Designation of Regional Climate Centres,
(Geneva, Switzerland, 21–22 January 2008), WMO-TD/No. 1479,
8 pp.
WCASP-No. 78, 2008: WMO WCRP IPY Workshop on CLIPS in Polar
Regions: Climate Product Generation, User Liaison and Training,
(St. Petersburg, Russian Federation, 8–11 September 2008),
WMO-TD/No. 1509, 15 pp.
WCASP-No. 79, 2009: Report of WMO Conference on Living with
Climate Variability and Change: Understanding the Uncertainties
and Managing the Risks, (Espoo, Finland, 17–21 July 2006),
WMO-TD/No. 1512, 99 pp.
WCDP-No. 3, 1987: Guidelines on the Quality Control of Data from
the World Radiometric Network, Prepared by the World Radiation
Data Centre, Voiekov Main Geophysical Observatory, USSR State
Committee for Hydrometeorology, WMO-TD/No. 258, 30 pp.
WCASP-No. 80: How to Establish and Run a WMO Regional Climate
Centre (RCC), WMO-TD/No. 1534, 4 pp.
WCDP-No. 4, 1987: Input Format Guidelines for World
Radiometric Network Data, Prepared by the World Radiation Data
Center, Voiekov Main Geophysical Observatory, USSR State
Committee for Hydrometeorology, WMO-TD/No. 253, 35 pp.
WCASP-No. 81, 2009: Report of the Scoping Meeting for the Launch
of South Asian Climate Outlook Forum (SASCOF), (Trieste, Italy,
6 August 2009), WMO-TD/No. 1535, 22 pp.
Climate and Human Health, WMO-No. 843: 1996, (L.S. Kalkstein,
W.J. Maunder and G. Jendrityky), 24 pp.
Climate and Human Health: 1987, World Climate Programme
Applications, WMO, 16 pp.
The Physical Basis of Climate and Climate Modelling: 1975, Report
of the International Study Conference in Stockholm, 29 July to 10
August 1974, organized by WMO and ICSU and supported by UNEP.
GARP Publication Series No. 16, 265 pp.
WCDP-No. 5, 1989: Infloclima, Catalogue of Climate System Data
Sets, WMO-TD/No. 293, 31 pp.
WCDP-No. 6, 1989: CLICOM Project, (Climate Data Management
System), WMO-TD/No. 299, 33 pp.
WCDP-No. 7, 1989: Statistics on Regional Networks of
Climatological Stations, Volume II/WMO Region I – Africa,
WMO-TD/No. 305, 9 pp.
WCDP-No. 8, 1989: Infoclima, Catalogue of Climate System Data
Sets (1989 edition), WMO-TD/No. 343, 91 pp.
Weather, Climate and Human Settlements: 1976 (H.E. Landsberg).
Special Environmental Report No. 7, WMO-No. 448, 45 pp.
PMDC-No. 9, 1989: Report of Meeting of CLICOM Experts,
OMM-TD/No. 342, 16 pp, (FR, EN).
Climate and Urban Development, WMO-No. 844: 1996, WMO, 24 pp.
Weather, Climate and Health, WMO-No. 892: 1999, WMO, 36 pp.
WCDP-No. 10, 1989: Calculation of Monthly and Annual 30-year
Standard Normals, Prepared by a meeting of experts,
WMO-TD/No. 341, 11 pp.
Climate, Urbanization and Man, World Climate Programme,
1983, WMO.
WCDP-No. 11, 1990: Report of the Expert Group on Global Baseline
Datasets, WMO-TD/No. 359, 13 pp.
The 1997/98 El Niño Event in Brief, WMO-No. 905: 1999, WMO.
WCDP-No. 12, 1990: Report of the Meeting on Archival Survey for
Climate History , WMO-TD/No. 372, 5 pp.
Bulletin Intérieur de la Sous-Commission de Climatologie
Appliquée, Organisation Météorologique International , Núm. 1,
35 pp. (FR, EN).
WCDP-No. 13, 1990: Report of Meeting of Experts on Climate
Change Detection Project, WMO-TD/No. 418, 18 pp.
WCDP-No. 1, 1986: WMO Region III/IV Training Seminar, Climate
Data Management and User Services, WMO-TD/No. 227, 84 pp.
WCDMP-No. 14, 1991: Report of the CCl Working Group on Climate
Change Direction (First Session), WMO-TD/No. 466, 13 pp.
WCDP-No. 2, 1987: Report of the International Planning Meeting on
Climate System Monitoring, WMO-TD/No. 246, 13 pp.
WCDMP-No. 15, 1991: Report of the CCl Experts Meeting on
CLIMAT Code Adaption, WMO-TD/No. 468, 9 pp.
51
WCDMP-No. 16, 1991: Report of the CCl Experts Meeting, Tracking
and Transmission of Climate System Monitoring Information,
WMO-TD/No. 465, 10 pp.
WCDMP-No. 29, 1997: Climate Change Detection Report, Reports for
CCl-XII from Rapporteurs that Relate to Climate Change Detection,
WMO-TD/No. 831, 13 pp.
WCDMP-No. 17, 1992: Report of the First Session of the
Advisory Committee on Climate Applications and Data (ACCAD),
(Geneva, 19–20 November 1991), WMO-TD/No. 475,
WCASP-No. 18, 18 pp.
WCDMP-No. 30, 1997: Summary Notes and Recommendations
Assembled for CCl-XII from Recent Activities Concerning Climate
Data Management, WMO-TD/No. 832, 43 pp.
WCDMP-No. 18, 1991: CCl Working Group, Climate Data,
WMO-TD/No. 488, 20 pp.
WCDMP-No. 31, 1997: Reports for CCl-XII from Rapporteurs that
Relate to Climate Data Management (K.D. Davidson).
WMO-TD/No. 833, 103 pp.
WCDMP-No. 19, 1992: Report of the Second CLICOM Experts
Meeting, WMO-TD/No. 511, 11 pp.
WCDMP-No. 32, 1997: Progress Reports to CCl on Statistical
Methods (C.D. Schönwiese). WMO-TD/No. 834, 115 pp.
WCDMP-No. 21, 1992: Final Report of the CCl Working Group on
Climate Data and its Rapporteurs, WMO-TD/No. 523, 76 pp.
WCDMP-No. 30, 1997: Summary Notes and Recommendations
Assembled for CCl-XII from Recent Activities Concerning Climate
Data Management, WMO-TD/No. 832, 43 pp.
WCDMP-No. 22, 1993: Report of the Second Session of the
Advisory Committee on Climate Applications and Data (ACCAD),
(Geneva, 16–17 November 1992), WMO-TD/No. 529,
WCASP-No. 22, 6 pp.
WCDMP-No. 23, 1993: Report of the Experts Meeting on Reference
Climatological Stations (RCS) and National Climate Data Catalogues
(NCC), WMO-TD/No. 535, 14 pp.
WCDMP-No. 24, 1995: Report of the Tenth Session of the Advisory
Working Group of the Commission for Climatology, (Geneva,
20–22 September 1995), WMO-TD/No. 711, WCASP-No. 34, 9 pp.
WCDMP-No. 25, 1995: Report of the Fifth Session of the Advisory
Committee on Climate Applications and Data (ACCAD), (Geneva,
26 September 1995), WMO-TD/No. 712, WCASP-No. 35, 4 pp.
WCDMP-No. 27, 1996: Summary Report of the Meeting of the Third
Session of the CCl Working Group on Climate Change Detection,
WMO-TD/No. 818, 7pp.
WCDMP-No. 28, 1997: Summary Notes and Recommendations
for CCl-XII from Meetings Convened to Prepare for Publishing
the Fifth and Sixth Global Climate System Reviews and for a
Publication on the Climate of the 20 th Century, WMO-TD/No. 830,
63 pp.
52
WCDMP-No. 33, 1997: Meeting of the CCl Working Group on Climate
Data, WMO-TD/No. 841, 6 pp.
WCDMP-No. 34, 1998: Expert Meeting to Review and Assess the
Oracle-based Prototype for Future Climate Database Management
Systems (CDMS), WMO-TD/No. 902, 8 pp.
WCDMP-No. 35, 1998: Report of the Eleventh Session of the Advisory
Working Group of the Commission for Climatology, (Mauritius, 9–14
February 1998), WMO-TD/No. 895, WCASP-No. 47, 23 pp.
WCDMP-No. 36, 1998: Report of the Meeting of the CCl Task Team
on Climate Aspects of Resolution 40 – Final Report,
WMO-TD/No. 925, 7 pp.
WCDMP-No. 37, 1999: Meeting of the Joint CCl-CLIVAR Task Group
on Climate Indices (edited by C.K. Folland, E.B. Horton and
P.R. Scholefield). WMO-TD/ No. 930, 20 pp.
WCDMP-No. 39, 1999: Meeting of the CCl Working Group on
Climate Data, WMO-TD/No. 970, 13 pp.
WCDMP-No. 40, 1999: Meeting on Climate Statistics, Product
Development and Data Exchange Focusing on CLICOM 3.1,
WMO-TD/No. 971, 8 pp.
WCDMP-No. 42, 1999: Meeting of Experts on the Climate of the 20 th
Century, WMO-TD/No. 972, 4 pp.
(Norwich, United Kingdom, 24–26 November 2003),
WMO-TD/No. 1205, 22 pp.
WCDMP-No. 43, 2000: Training Seminar on Climate Data
Management Focusing on CLICOM/CLIPS Development and
Evaluation, WMO-TD/No. 973, 6 pp.
WCDMP-No. 55, 2004: Guidelines on Climate Data Rescue (edited
by P. Llansó and H. Kontongomde, contributions by L.S.Tan et al.).
WMO-TD/No. 1210, 12 pp.
WCDMP-No. 45, 2000: Detecting Trends and Other Changes in
Hydrological Data, World Climate Programme – Water (edited by
Z.W. Kundzewicz and A. Robson). WMO-TD/No. 1013, 157 pp.
WCDMP-No. 56, 2003: Fourth Seminar for Homogenization and
Quality Control in Climatological Databases, World Climate Data
and Monitoring Programme, WMO-TD/No. 1236, 243 pp.
WCDMP-No. 46, 2000: Meeting of the WMO CCI Task Group on
Future WMO Climate Database Management Systems, (Geneva,
3–5 May 2000), WMO-TD/No. 1025, 8 pp.
WCDMP-No. 57, 2005: Report of the RA V Data Management
Workshop, (Melbourne, Australia, 28 November to 3 December
2004), WMO-TD/No. 1263, 5 pp.
WCDMP-No. 48, 2002: Report of the First Session of the
Management Group of the Commission for Climatology,
(Berlin, 5–8 March 2002), WMO-TD/No. 1110,
WCASP-No. 55, 11pp.
WCDMP-No. 58, 2005: Guidelines on Climate Watches
(P. Zhai et al.). 44 pp.
WCDMP-No. 49, 2002: 1. Report of the CLICOM-DARE Workshop,
(San José, Costa Rica, 17–28 July 2000), 2. Report of the
International Data Rescue Meeting, (Geneva, 11–13 September
2001), WMO-TD/No. 1128, 7 pp.
WCDMP-No. 50, 2002: Report of the Climate Database Management
Systems Evaluation Workshop (Geneva, 27 May–1 June 2002),
WMO-TD/No. 1130, 2 pp.
WCDMP-No. 51, 2002: Summary Report of the Expert Meeting
for the Preparation of the Seventh Global Climate System Review
(7GCSR), (Geneva, 16–19 September 2002),
WMO-TD/No. 1131, 6 pp.
WCDMP-No. 59, 2006: Report of the RA I Working Group on
Climate Matters, (Dakar, Senegal, 22–24 February 2006),
WMO-TD/No. 1351, 12 pp.
WCDMP-No. 60, 2007: Guidelines on Climate Data Management
(edited by O. Baddour and H. Kontongomde, contributions by
N. Plummer et al.). WMO-TD/No. 1376, 67 pp.
WCDMP-No. 61, 2007: The Role of Climatological Normals in a
Changing Climate (edited by O. Baddour and H. Kontongomde,
contributions by B.C. Trewin). WMO-TD/No. 1377, 46 pp.
WCDMP-No. 62, 2007: Guidelines for Managing Changes in
Climate Observation Programmes (edited by O. Baddour and H.
Kontongomde, contributions by R.B. Street et al.). WMO-TD/No.
1378, 24 pp.
WCDMP-No. 52, 2003: Guidelines on Climate Observation Networks
and Systems (edited by P. Llansó, contributions by T. Allsopp,
J.A. Lopez and N. Plummer). WMO-TD/No. 1185, 57 pp.
WCDMP-No. 63, 2007: RA VI Training Seminar on Capacity Building
in Climate-related Matters, WMO-TD/No. 1386, 22 pp.
WCDMP-No. 53, 2003: Guidelines on Climate Metadata and
Homogenization (edited by P. Llansó, contributions by
E. Aguilar et al.). WMO-TD/No. 1186, 50 pp.
WCDMP-No. 64, 2007: Joint CCl/CLIVAR/JCOMM Expert Team on
Climate Change Detection and Indices, WMO-TD/No. 1402, ICPO
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WCDMP-No. 54, 2004: Report of the CCl/CLIVAR Expert Team
on Climate Change Detection, Monitoring and Indices (ETCCDMI),
WCDMP-No. 65, 2007: Expert Team on Observing Requirements and
Standards for Climate, WMO-TD/ No. 1403, 20 pp.
53
WCDMP-No. 66: A Case-study/Guidance on the Development of
Long-term Daily Adjusted Temperature Datasets (M. Brunet et al.).
WMO-TD/No. 1425, 43 pp.
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Workshop on Rescue and Digitization of Climate Records in the
Mediterranean Basin (edited by M. Brunet and F.G. Kuglitsch).
WMO-TD/No. 1432, 219 pp.
WCDMP-No. 69, 2009: Report of the CCl Expert Team on the Rescue,
Preservation and Digitization of Climate Records, (Bamako, Mali,
13–15 May 2008), WMO-TD/No. 1480, 35 pp.
WCDMP-No. 71, 2006: Fifth Seminar for Homogenization and
Quality Control in Climatological Databases, (Budapest, Hungary,
29 May to 2 June 2006) (edited by M. Lakatos et al.). WMO-TD/No.
1493, 217 pp.
WCDMP-No. 72, 2009: Guidelines on Analysis of Extremes in a
Changing Climate in Support of Informed Decisions for Adaptation
(A.M.G. Klein Tank, F.W. Zwiers and X. Zhang). WMO-TD/No. 1500,
55 pp.
State of the Climate in 2006: WMO-No. 1020, 2008 (edited by
A. Arguez et al.). 136 pp.
State of the Climate in 2007: WMO-No. 1036, 2009 (edited by
D.H. Levinson and J.H. Lawrinmore). 179 pp.
Proceedings of the Regional Seminar on Modern Methods
and Equipment for Data Processing for Climatological
Purposes in Africa: 1972, (Cairo, January 1970), WMO-No. 317,
328 pp.
Climatological Normals (CLINO) for CLIMAT and
CLIMAT SHIP Stations for the Period 1931–1960: 1971,
WMO-No. 117.
Short-period Averages for 1951–1960 and the Provisional Average
Values for CLIMAT TEMP and CLIMAT TEMP SHIP Stations: 1965,
WMO-No. 170.
Climatological Normals (CLINO) for the Period 1961–1990: 1996,
WMO-No. 847.
Overcoming Climate Data/Information Barriers, 17 pp.
WCDMP-No. 73, 2009: Report of the CCl Expert Team on WCP
Requirements for Metadata, (Toulouse, France, 11–13 March 2009),
16 pp.
WCDMP-No. 74, 2010: Regional Workshop on Climate Monitoring
and Analysis of Climate Variability: Implementation of Climate
Watch System in RA II with Focus on Monsoon Affected Areas,
(Beijing, China, 10–13 November 2009), WMO-TD/No. 1554, 147 pp.
Multiple Analysis of Series for Homogenization (M A S H v2.0)
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Guide to Satellite Instruments for Climate, WMO/TD-No. 685:
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CCl Report No. 856, 1998: The Global Climate System Review,
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WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 1993:
WMO-No. 809, Geneva, 1994.
CCl Report No. 984, 2005: The Global Climate System Review, 2003,
63 pp.
WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 1994:
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WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 1995:
WMO-No. 838, Geneva, 1996.
54
WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 1996:
WMO-No. 858, Geneva, 1997.
WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 1997:
WMO-No. 877, Geneva, 1998.
WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 1998:
WMO-No. 896, Geneva, 1999.
WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 1999:
WMO-No. 913, Geneva, 2000.
WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 2000:
WMO-No. 920, Geneva, 2001.
WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 2001:
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55
Technical Note No. 108, 1970: Urban Climates, Proceedings of the
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1968–1973, (T.R. Oke). WMO-No. 383, 132 pp
Technical Note No. 139, 1975: Climatological Aspects of the Composition
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Technical Note No. 145, 1975: Economic Benefits of Climatological
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Technical Note No. 149, 1976: Urban Climatology and its Relevance
to Urban Design (T. Chandler). WMO-No. 438, 61 pp.
Technical Note No. 150, 1976: Applications of Building
Climatology to the Problems of Housing and Building for Human
Settlements (J.K. Page). WMO-No. 441, 64 pp.
Technical Note No. 156, 1977: Effects of Human Activities on Global
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Utilization of Solar Radiation as an Energy Source (W.W. Kellogg).
WMO-No. 557, 298 pp.
56
Technical Note No. 175, 1981: Meteorological Aspects of the
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of Climatic Parameters Used for Building Purposes (N.V. Kobysheva).
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a Proposal for an Integrating Framework by FAO, ICSU, UNEP,
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World Leaders’ Viewpoints, WMO-No. 772, 1992,
158 pp.
57
Climate Coordination Activities Concept Paper on the Role of WMO
and NMHSs in the Implementation of the Nairobi Work Programme,
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of National Meteorological and Hydrological Services in
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58
Compendium of Lecture Notes in Climatology, for Class III and
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PROCEEDINGS
Climate and Human Health, WCAP-2,1987: Proceedings of the Symposium in Leningrad – Volume 1, 22–26 September 1986, WMO, 203 pp.
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BOOK
59
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Communications and Public Affairs Office
Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 83 14 – Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 80 27 – E-mail: [email protected]
Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 83 80 – Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 80 42
7 bis, avenue de la Paix – P.O. Box 2300 – CH 1211 Geneva 2 – Switzerland
www.wmo.int
P-CLW_11459
Climate and Water Department