Indian Journal of Geo Marine Sciences
Vol. 45 (11), November 2016, pp. 1403-1408
General Article
Invasion of Snowflake Coral, Carijoa riisei (Duchassaing and Michelotti,
1860), in Indian Seas: Threats to Coral Reef Ecosystem
K. Venkataraman1, C. Raghunathan2*, Ch. Satyanarayana1 & R. Rajkumar3
1
Zoological Survey of India, M-Block, New Alipore, Kolkata – 700 053, India
2
Zoological Survey of India, Andaman and Nicobar Regional Centre, Port Blair-744 102, A & N Islands, India
3
Zoological Survey of India, Marine Biology Regional Centre, 130, Santhome High Road, Chennai-600 028, India
*
[E-mail: [email protected] ]
Received 16 January 2013; revised 5 June 2013
Present paper summarizes the occurrence of C. riisei in coral reefs of Indian seas, its likely impacts on the
indigenous biota and policies for bioinvasion in the Indian context. With the limited information available on
marine bioinvasion in tropical countries, especially in India, there is an urgent need of study on the occurrence and
impacts of invasive species on the coral reef environment as this ecosystem harbors 25% of total marine
biodiversity and contribute 10% fishery production.
[Key words: Carijoa riisei, bioinvasion, coral reef, Indian Seas]
Introduction
In an increasingly globalized world, plants,
animals, and microbes are introduced more and
more frequently into regions that had never hosted
them. These "invasive" or "exotic" species can
have a destabilizing influence in ecosystems that
lack the natural enemies needed to check the
spread of exotics. Without such checks, exotics
can overrun ecosystems, leaving an impoverished
and less resilient environment that is more
vulnerable to stresses. Invasive Alien Species
(IAS) is a serious threats to the global
biodiversity, second in importance only to habitat
loss1, 2. Ecological impacts of invasion are
complex and dependent on the interaction
between the invader and the native community.
Non-indigenous species can rapidly monopolize
energy resources, act as voracious predators,
overcome endemic species, or transmit parasites
and diseases that can be passed to humans through
the food chain or direct exposure. Because of the
serious consequences that can result from nonintroductions,
marine
species
indigenous
invasions have been ranked among the most
serious potential sources of stress to marine
ecosystems3, 4.
The cost of invasion is generally related to how
early one responds to the problem, and it
increases with the lapse of time. In the recent
century and more especially during the last three
decades human-related redistributions of marine
shallow-water organisms have become more
frequent and increasingly important in their
impacts on native communities. Since the 1970s,
a substantial increase in instances of exotic
species invasion has occurred in harbors, ports,
and other coastal ecosystems in temperate4-7 and
tropical regions around world. Although increased
movement of larval organisms in cargo ship’s
ballast water is usually attributed to be the
principal cause of increases in bio-invasions5, 8-10,
other factors such as release of imported exotic
aquarium or aquaculture organisms, vessel hull
fouling may also have made important
contributions
to
non-indigenous
species
11
proliferation .
Carijoa riisei (Duchassaing and Michelotti,
1860)
The octocoral Carijoa riisei was originally
described as Telesto rusei (Duchassaing &
Michelotti, 1860)12 from St. Thomas, Virgin
Islands after which the name was revised to
Telesto riisei (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864)13.
This Caribbean species was previously reported to
occur from Florida to Brazil growing dense
clusters in fouling communities below the low
tide line on pilings14, 15. Carijoa riisei commonly
known as ‘snowflake coral’ or ‘branched pipe
coral’ is a soft coral species under family
Clavulariidae and order Alcyonacea. Four
described species under Carijoa are C. multiflora
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INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 45, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2016
(Laackman, 1909), C. operculata (Bayer, 1961),
C. riisei (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860) and C.
rupicola Mueller, 1867. C. riisei forms erect,
branching colonies with flexible stems. Colonies
form dense clusters of tangled, with prominent
white polyps. Each tall axial polyp has many short
lateral polyps. Stem tipped with single polyps;
below secondary polyps grow in level. Polyps,
when extended, have eight white pinnate
tentacles, like the rays of a snowflake, unlike
stony corals which have six tentacles. White to
pink stalks has eight longitudinal groves. Stems
often encrusted and or overgrown with algae
sponge and other organisms. Colonies grow upto
10-24 cm high. In favorable conditions C. riisei
forms dense, monospecific aggregations capable
of carpeting hard substrata. It requires firm
surface on which it attaches using stolons (rootlike structure) and also grows well in hard
surfaces such as metal, plastic, concrete etc. It is
reported to grow well in turbid waters rich in
organic matter and zooplankton on which it feeds.
C. riisei is gonochoric with a male to female ratio
of one. Gametogeneis is asynchromous,
continuous and does not exhibit seasonal or lunar
periodicity. It spawns negatively buoyant eggs
which suggest external fertilization and possibly
benthic larvae. Under favorable conditions, C.
riisei exhibits high polyp fecundity. Fast growth,
vegetative propagation, and superior competitive
ability, enable C. riisei to form dense, multi
colony aggregation, thereby, facilitating sexual
reproduction. Provided C. riisei can achieve a
critical density, this unusual sexual reproduction
strategy probably enables it to exploit the
ephemeral availability of space across time with a
high and continuous production of larvae (Kahng
et al., 2008)16.
Bioinvasion of C. riisei
Carijoa riisei was first reported from Pacific
Ocean, Pearl Harbour of Hawaii Islands in 197217,
18
. Although one of the few introduced marine
invertebrates that have spread from harbors and
embayment to oceanic coral reefs in Hawaii, C.
riisei was previously considered a relatively
benign introduction with no recognized negative
impacts4. However, recent observations and
information have elevated its invasive status. It is
now known to monopolize benthic surfaces under
conditions optimal for its growth from intertidal
zone to as deep as >100 m, where it can overgrow
and kill black corals19. Presently the species also
known from Chuuk, Palau, the Philippines,
Indonesia, Australia and Thailand (Fig. 1);
whether some of these also represent the species
riisei is not known, although it could certainly
have achieved such as wide distribution in more
than 20 years of ship-mediated dispersal20 .
Fig. 1- Global distribution of Carijoa riisei. 1: Kaua‘i; 2:
O‘ahu; 3: Maui; 4: Big Island; 5: Principe/Sao Tome (East
Atlantic); 6: Mauritius; 7: Indonesia; 8:Darwin, Australia; 9:
Palau; 10: Mariana/Caroline Islands; 11: Papua New
Guinea/Solomon Islands; 12: Rapid Bay/Whyalla, Australia;
13: Fly Point, Australia; 14: Fiji/Tonga; 15: Florida; 16:
Puerto Rico/US Virgin Islands; 17: Panama; 18: Brazil34
Invasion of C. riisei in Indian Seas
The invasion of C. riisei was found in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar
and Gulf of Kachchh from 2002 to 2012 at
different period (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2- Invasion of C. riisei in Indian waters
VENKATARAMAN et al.: INVASION OF SNOWFLAKE CORAL, CARIJOA RIISEI
Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago
Invasion of Carijoa riisei was first reported
from Indian waters by Zoological Survey of India
(ZSI) on 10th May 2009 at Kondul Island (Lat. 7º
10.023’N, Long. 93º 42.940’E) in Nicobar (Fig.
3). This island is uninhabited since the
earthquake-cum tsunami struck Andaman and
Nicobar Islands in December 2004. The luxuriant
growth of colonies of C. riisei was found on the
pilings of the 100m long abandoned jetty at a
depth range of 3 to 20m. The colonies were bright
red in colour with orange edges. These organisms
attached on the piling and have erected growth up
to a maximum length of 40cm with several
intermediate branches. The density of the colonies
recorded from the area was 6 to 13/m2 area and
the maximum colonies found in 10-20m depth.
Undisturbed corals especially Acropora, Porites,
Montiopora, Pocillopora, Favites etc. exist on
either side of the jetty. C. riisei was present at
submerged portion of all the pilings. Apart from
corals, the other cohabitant include colonial cup
coral, Tubastrea coccinea with polymorphic form,
black coral Anthipathes, Wire coral Cirripathes,
Gorgonians
Echinogorgia,
Echinomuricea,
Juncella, Ellisella, echinoderms including
crinoids, ophiuroids etc. The samples of C. riisei
were collected and registered in the repository of
ZSI, Port Blair for future reference.
Subsequently on 30th June 2009, Dhivya et al.21
reported the invasion of Carijoa riisei at Wandoor
Jetty (Lat. 11º 35’ 24’’ N, Long 92º 36’89’’E) in
Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park,
Andaman. However, detailed data on extent of its
growth and density is lacking.
The pristine ecosystem of Andaman & Nicobar
Islands are prone to the introduction of invasive
alien species as the International sea route is
passing through the Great Channel, located at the
southern end of Great Nicobar Island. Besides,
often international sea cruise liners as well as
military vessels are also receiving port of call at
Port Blair. Apart from this, the cargo and
passenger vessels regularly ply between mainland
ports and Port Blair as well as inter islands.
Hence, vessel traffic could be one the major
source of spreading of invasive species through
their hull as a fouler or through the disposal of
ballast water in the territorial waters. Furthermore,
due to close proximity to Indonesia, Thailand,
Malaysia and Singapore, there is a possibility of
larval transport of several non-indigenous
organisms by means of and influenced by oceanic
1405
currents, storm surges, tsunami etc. from these
neighboring countries.
Fig. 3 - C. riisei from Kondul, Nicobar
Gulf of Mannar
In June 2009, Padmakumar et al.22, observed
the invasion of Carijoa riisei in 10 islands of
Keelakari and Vembar groups of Islands in Gulf
of Mannar. Their distribution was ubiquitous in
seaward sides. Colonies were predominant on
shaded parts of the rocks and dead corals. They
were found in crevices and even on live massive
corals and cup corals as fouling growth and
seaweed beds on both sides of reef crests at a
depth of 4-12 m. In terms of the number of
colonies, C. riisei was the dominant species in the
area surveyed22. The colonies were yellow, red or
brown in colour with maximum length of 11cm
and the breadth of branch measured up to 3.5mm.
The Gulf of Mannar is more susceptible to
invasion, as it lies between major ports in the east
coast viz. Tuticorin and Chennai 22.
Gulf of Kachchh
Initially C. riisei was found in Gulf of Kachchh
during August 2002 by ZSI while conducting
coral reef survey in this marine national park.
This was also recorded at Laku Point in Gulf of
Kachchh on 1st July 2012. This species was found
dominant on the coral beds spread out in a vast
area. The colour of the colony is pale yellow.
They were attached on the dead coral rocks at a
depth of 2 m during high tide. Length of the
colony was measured as 8 to 25 cm. Soft corals
especially Nephthea, echinoderms crinoids were
found associated larger in number with C. riisei.
In Gujarat more than 22 ports including the one of
the eleven larger ports in India, Kandla Port is
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INDIAN J. MAR. SCI., VOL. 45, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 2016
located in the mouth of Gulf of Kachchh. It is
considered as western corridor as it has close
proximity for many countries. This port handles
about 4500 international cargo vessels annually
which is the major source of ballast water
mediated invasions in Gulf of Kachchh. And also
Asia’s largest ship breaking yard at Alang and one
the largest refineries in the world and several
major industries located in Gujarat coast attracts
several ships which makes this coastal water
vulnerable for bioinvasion.
Threats to Coral Reefs
India represents a wide range of coral reef
ecosystem with 2374.9 sq. km. area along its
coastal areas of mainland and group of islands
like Andaman & Nicobar Islands and
Lakshadweep. The western and eastern coastal
sides of Indian mainland harbor mostly fringing
type reefs in Gulf of Kachchh, Gulf of Mannar,
Palk Bay and Gopalpur-on-sea. The Andaman &
Nicobar Islaands also have fringing type reefs in
both the sides, whereas eastern side is more
diverse with fringing reef than the western. The
western side represents some barrier type reef, the
beautiful atoll are extensively restricted to
Lakshadweep in Indian context. Patchy reefs are
present near Ratnagiri and Malvan coast. With the
extensive efforts, it was proved that India
represents more than 60% species of corals in
global scenario among those most of the species
were recorded from Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Indian coral reefs harbour about 25% of total
marine biodiversity and contribute 10% of marine
fishery production in India. This ecosystem serves
as an abode for 519 species of sponges, 464
species of scleractinian corals, 220 species of soft
corals, 35 species of polyclads, 724 species crabs,
lobster and shrimps, 104 species of cirripedes,
120 species stomatopods, 540 species of
copepods, 3275 species of molluscs, 434 species
of opisthobranchs, 765 species of echinoderms, 38
species of siphonculates, 2546 species of fishes,
25 species of sea snakes, 5 species of turtles, 1
species of saltwater crocodile, 6 species of
dolphins, 1 species of sea cow etc. Coral reef
ecosystem caters animal protein for 75% of Indian
human population 23, 24.
Based on the three different observations on C.
riisei in Indian waters, it is indicated that out of
four major coral reef zones in India, three areas
viz. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of
Mannar and Gulf of Kachchh affected by this
invasions. It gives a clarion call for conservation
of marine biodiversity as this species found in all
the marine national parks in country as well as all
the Indian Seas such as Arabian Sea, Bay of
Bengal and Andaman Sea. Since initial discovery
invasion of C. riisei in Pearl Harbour, it has
spread throughout the main Hawaii Islands9, 18, 25.
In 2001, a deep water survey of the Maui Black
Coral Beds in Au’au Channel between Islands of
Maui and Lani in Hawaii showed that a
significant growth of C. riisei at depths deeper
than 75m, resulted upto 90% mortality of black
corals and it now threatens $30 million precious
coral industry26. In Indian reefs, seaweed
Kappaphycus alvarezii successfully invaded
through mariculture at Gulf of Mannar in 2002
and established on both dead and live corals in
Kurusadai Island especially Acropora sp. by
shadowing and smothering effects27. The blackstripped mussel (Mytilopsis salle), a native to
tropical and subtropical Atlantic waters, was also
reported as marine bioinvasion from Mumbai and
Visakhapatnam during 1960s28, 29. A total of 24
invasive species were reported from Indian waters
including 11 alien species.
Indian initiatives on invasive species
Invasive species management is a complement
of various methods and/or techniques which are
aimed at the prevention/exclusion; containment;
control/suppression;
mitigation;
and
removal/eradication of a target species from a
designated area. There are four basic management
strategies to deal with problematic invasive
species: prevention; early detection; eradication
and control. The National Biodiversity Action
Plan (NBAP)-Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India30 deals with
regulation of introduction of invasive alien
species and their management. At present there is
no exclusive legislation or policy in India to deal
with invasive alien species. However, some key
functions were constructed by NBAP to regulate
and monitor the bioinvasions.
Conclusion
The present investigation by Zoological Survey
of India revealed that all major coral reef zones in
India, except Lakshadweep are invaded by C.
riisei. Although reports in Indian Seas are
sporadic in as found through LIT method31,
further spreading of species may be effectively
prevented through maritime states and
VENKATARAMAN et al.: INVASION OF SNOWFLAKE CORAL, CARIJOA RIISEI
Government of India by formulating consolidated
effort. Earlier studies on the dispersal of this nonindigenous species inferred that ballast water used
for ships and ship hull fouling are major means
for its invasion5, 8, 9. Although shipping is the
backbone of global economy and facilitates
transportation of 90% of the commodities, a
single bulk cargo ship of 200,000 tones can carry
up to 60 000 tons of ballast water. It is estimated
that 2-3 billion tons of ballast water is carried
around the world each year. Translocation of
organisms through ships is considered to be one
of the important issues that are threatening the
naturally evolved biodiversity, and consequences
of such invasions are being realized increasingly
in the recent years. The IMO (International
Maritime Organization) of United Nations
adopted the International Convention for the
Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water
and Sediments in 2004. As per the IMO
guidelines, all ships using ballast water exchange
should, whenever possible, conduct water
exchange at least 200 nautical miles from the
nearest land i.e. outer area of Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ) of the country and in water at least
200 meters in depth. Ships unable to conduct
ballast water exchange as above can do so as far
from the nearest land as possible, and in all cases
at least 50 nautical miles from the nearest land
and in water at least 200 meters in depth. Hicks32
points out that aquatic bio-invasion research has
been mostly reactive or curative and grossly
inadequate in preventative research. Invasion
detections always take place with reference to
natural history of the habitat. In most situations,
invasions become apparent only when the
effects/presence is visible34. Historical data and
description of fauna and flora of a geographic
region are the vital basis for the determination of
bioinvasions. Rising awareness of marine
invasion impacts has led to protocols that
intensively explore habitats of possible
introduction viz. ports, and drilling platforms. The
aim of such protocols is to detect the rare, so as to
provide incursion management a practical control
option33. In order to conserve the coral reef
ecosystem, Zoological Survey of India in
collaboration with Department of Environment
and
Forests,
Andaman
and
Nicobar
Administration has set up 10 permanent
monitoring plots in the major reef areas of
Andaman and Nicobar Islands to continuously
monitor the changes in the coral reefs. However,
1407
the recent reports on the introduction of C. riisei
in Indian coral reef environment are alarming.
Immediate measure has to be taken to control this
invasion by scientific means in order to prevent
further spreading. And also intensive study is
required to assess the invasion of C. riisei in noncoral reef zone also. Furthermore, if stringent
measures taken to follow the guidelines of ballast
water exchange adopted by IMO, marine
bioinvasions could be prevented at greater extent.
Acknowledgement
Authors are grateful to Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change,
Government of India for providing financial
support.
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