The Self-Actualizing Socially
Conscious Consumer
GEORGE BROOKER*
A personality-related study was made of individuals exhibiting socially
conscious consumer behavior. It was found that these individuals may be
characterized as "self-actualizing" as Maslow uses the term. The findings
expand previous findings by Webster, and they are evidence that a holistic
approach to personality measurement is possible in consumer research.
a few traits of the individual. Such studies have been
criticized for using inappropriate measures (see, for
example: Kassarjian, 1971a; Wells and Beard, 1973).
Additionally, they may be confounded by interactive
effects. These may occur when an unmeasured trait
dominates a trait being studied, with the studied trait
being found "not related" to the behavior. Statistical
techniques may help researchers uncover relationships
between measured constructs and behavior, but they
cannot account for unmeasured dimensions. One way
of overcoming the problems involved in such interactive effects is to use a more general (holistic)
concept of personality in research. This approach was
used in the present study.
Abraham Maslow (1968, 1970) is one theorist who
has proposed a holistic approach to personality. In
spite of its appealing framework which provides a helpful foundation for classifying consumer needs (Kotler,
1976, p. 81), Maslow's theory of personality has been
used very little in consumer studies. In this case, his
theory is a promising one to study for possible insights
into the socially conscious consumer.
The theory is based on a hierarchy of needs ranging
from lower-order physiological needs to higher-order
self-actualization needs. According to the theory, the
closer one comes to being self-actualized, the freer
one becomes of neurotic self-concerns. The selfactualizing individual, thus, may take actions which
will satisy the needs of others at the same time that
individual's own needs are satisfied. In fact, the terms
"altruistic" and "social" have been used in describing
this personality type (Maslow, 1968, p. vi). It is just
such a person who would be thought to be likely to
purchase products which will benefit society as a whole
as well as the user. Indeed, the character traits Maslow
uses to describe self-actualizers bear an interesting
resemblance to Webster's (1975) socially conscious
consumer, with several interesting parallels between
the two types.
* Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Business, University
of Wisconsin-Madison.
107
JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH. Vol. 3 • September 1976
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The past ten or fifteen years have seen a growing
concern with a concept usually referred to as the
"quality of life." Various social and ecological
problems have been associated with a felt decline in
life's quality. In particular, the potentially deleterious
effects of many consumer products available in the
marketplace have been singled out as sources of worry.
Numerous studies have explored aspects of the ecological movement/consumer action relationship
(Henion, 1972; Kassarjian, 1971; Kinnear and Taylor,
1973; Kinnear, Taylor and Ahmed, 1972; Marquardt,
McGann and Makens, 1974; Mazis, Settle, and Leslie,
1973; Peters, 1974; Schwendig and Peterson, 1972;
Webster, 1975), perhaps reflecting some of this concern.
An intriguing notion has been advanced of a potentially important market segment for products which
may alleviate some of these problems. These "socially
conscious consumers" may be the group whose actions
lead the way to an improving quality of life in society.
Two studies using this concept have found contributions made by personality characteristics in their
results. In the first, Anderson and Cunningham (1972)
found relationships between several personality measures and a measure of traditional social responsibility.
In the second, Webster (1975) suggested from his
results that the socially conscious consumer is tolerant
and an independent actor, a person who may be described as ". . . a member of the upper middle class
'counterculture' . "
These two studies have characteristics in common
with most of the recent personality studies in
marketing in which: (1) those conducting the studies
have used instruments developed for use in other
settings, and (2) they have measured one or, at most,
THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
108
Webster's model of the socially conscious consumer
displays purchase behavior which may be different
from that expected by community standards; Maslow's
self-actualizers are autonomous, resisting enculturation and maintaining an inner detachment from the
culture in which they are immersed, coming to their
own decisions. Webster's consumer tends not" . . .
to judge the values and actions of others;" Maslow's
ideal type is very accepting of human nature and the
foibles of men. Finally, Webster's consumer seemed
to be classifiable as a "counterculture" member in the
upper middle class; self-actualizers are unconventional
at times, are ruled by laws of their own character
rather than by rules of society, and generally remind
one of counterculture members also, although they are
discreet about their "differences."
store-volume days in the shopping week to minimize
interference with regular store operations. Interviews
were carried on for a two week period. 1 In an attempt
to ensure inclusion of reasonable numbers of employed
persons as well as housewives in the study, interviews were conducted in the evening and on Sunday,
as well as during the regular work day. All persons
who had selected a laundry detergent or laundry soap
for purchase were asked to participate in the study.
They were questioned about some of their purchase
behavior and their background characteristics, and
they completed a short personality test during the
interview.
THE PERSONALITY MEASURE AND
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
There were 102 interviews initiated. Questionnaires
from ninety-nine of the interviews were found to be
usable for analysis.
The sample was composed of nine men and ninety
women. The ages of the respondents ranged from
sixteen to seventy-seven, with a mean of 42.7 years.
The sample was biased toward the upper end of the
income brackets, with seventy-four persons reporting
family incomes of$15,OOO or higher. Most (eighty-two)
were married, and most (eighty-five) had children.
Seventy-three respondents were homeowners. A large
majority (eighty-two) had at least some education
beyond high school. More than ninety percent of the
sample was Caucasian.
The survery results permitted separation of buyers
into ecology product user and nonuser groups. The
user groups included:
(1) those observed selecting phosphate-free detergents for purchase;
(2) those reporting purchase (by brand name) of
phosphate-free detergents in the previous three
months;
(3) those reporting use of lead-free gasolines.
By including people in the user group who reported
use of phosphate-free detergents in the previous
three months, temporary brand switching deviations
are permitted. The effects of enabling circumstances
(such as owning a car which will run on lead-free
gasoline), which could affect purchase of one ecologyrelated product, are decreased in this study. This is
done by studying personality's relationship with the
use of two products which are unrelated except for
t~eir single commonality-an ecology-related dimensIon.
For the sake of clarity and brevity, only user/nonuser comparisons are presented here.
The null hypothesis tested was:
Ho: Individuals who purchase products of a socially
conscious nature are no more self-actualized than are
individuals who do not purchase such products.
The dependent variables in the study were purchase
of phosphate-free detergent and lead-free gasoline.
As a clarifying note regarding the use of lead-free
gasoline as a dependent variable, the study was
performed prior to the introduction of cars with
catalytic converters which require use of lead-free
gasoline. Thus, users oflead-free gasoline had a choice
in their purchase patterns. Both of the products used
as dependent variables here were included as reported
measures in Webster's (1975) Socially Conscious
Consumer Index.
METHODOLOGY
Interviews were conducted at three locations of a
large grocery chain in the northern suburbs of Chicago.
The interviewing period was restricted to the low
1 Preliminary interviews seemed to indicate that many women buy
detergents on a three week cycle. Thus, limiting interviews to a
two week period minimized the likelihood of duplicating interviews.
In fact, there were no duplications.
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One previous study of consumer self-actualization
used the Q-sort technique, with high concordance
between self- and ideal-sorts of products being defined
as high self-actualization (Hamm and Cundiff, 1969).
Use of this technique in consumer studies has been
criticized for possible confounding of consumer
privilegedness with self-actualization (Greeno, Sommers, and Kernan, 1973). A measurement technique more closely tied to Maslow's concept of selfactualization was used in this study to measure
the independent variable. An instrument developed
for use in consumer studies and based on Maslow's
self-actualizing personality (Brooker, 1975) was the
basis for classifying consumer types. The measuring
instrument contains twenty items of the polar choice
type. Scores on the measure may range from zero to
twenty.
RESULTS
THE SELF-ACTUALIZING SOCIALLY CONSCIOUS CONSUMER
109
Crosstabbed Results
TABLE 2
Multivariate Analysis of Results
Although the bivariate analysis discussed above is
encouraging in terms of the strength of the personality/behavior relationships shown, questions remain
regarding the contribution of personality compared
with other more available variables, such as demographics. Multivariate tests were run on the data to
answer these questions. The same dependent variables
were used.
TABLE 1
SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND SOCIALLY CONSCIOUS
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR RELATIONSHIPS
Behaviors
Significance Tests
Phosphate-free detergent
buyers compared with
nonusers (n = 74)
Corrected X2 = 8.186
Lead-free gasoline buyers
(reported) compared
with nonusers (n = 45)
Corrected X2
1 df
p < .003
=
Any ecology product
purchase compared
with nonusers (n = 99)
Corrected X2
I df
=
Yule's Q
Correlations
.645
1df
p< .005
p < .0004
9.140
.860
13.246
.647
STEPWISE REGRESSION -SELF-ACTUALIZATION LEVEL
AND SOCIALLY CONSCIOUS CONSUMER ACTS
Self-Actualization Level
F to
Enter
% Variance
Explained
Phosphate free detergent
purchase
1O.03a
9.64
(Reported) lead-free gasoline
purchase
13.58a
24.87
5.25b
6.98
Behaviors
Any ecology product purchase
Step
Entered
a p < .01.
b P < .05.
Information on respondents was available for age,
sex, marital status, residence, number of children,
occupation (and spouse's occupation), education, and
income. The last three variables were combined to
create an index of socioeconomic status (Green, 1970)
which was used as a surrogate for social class in the
analysis. 2 The three variables were not entered singly
into the analysis.
Because some variables did not meet the assumptions of data cardinality necessary for the multivariate
statistics used, they were recoded as dummy
variables prior to the analysis. These variables were
sex, marital status, residence (renting as opposed to
owning the place of residence), and whether respondents did or did not have children. The full range of
scores on the personality measure was used in the
multivariate analysis rather than the dichotomous
classification used in the bivariate analysis. 3
The multivariate tests used were stepwise regression
and mUltiple discriminant analysis. 4 Results of these
tests are detailed below. In the regressions, dependent
variables were coded as dummy variables.
The importance of self-actualization level as an
explanatory variable and its contribution to explained
variance are indicated in Table Two. In the stepwise
regression procedure, the personality measure and all
demographics were used as possible behavioral pre2 The particular formula was selected because it incorporates three
of the four variables used in computing the original Warner Index
of Status Characteristics (Warner et al., 1960). The three may be
obtained in an interview with the person whose socioeconomic status
is being evaluated. The fourth variable, the evaluation of residence,
is not available unless one travels to each residence to evaluate it
as it stands. Further, given the changing nature of modem living
with "prestige" condominiums and the like available, this fourth
variable might be subject to some reevaluation in Warner's Index.
3 A reanalysis of the data with the personality measure coded as a
dummy variable and using the multivariate techniques resulted in
only very minor changes.
4 These procedures are included in the Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences, 2nd ed (Nie et al., 1975).
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Scores on the personality test were divided at the
median to form two groups: high self-actualizers and
low self-actualizers. The results of Chi square and
Yule's Q correlation tests examining the association
between the personality test results and ecology
product purchase are shown in Table One. In the
table, buyers of social products are compared with
persons who were identified as non-buyers of ecologyoriented products.
The socially conscious consumer behaviors presented
in the table are self-explanatory except for the
behavior entitled "Any Ecology Product Purchase."
This particular measure includes all persons observed
buying phosphate-free detergents, those reporting use
of lead-free gasoline, and those reporting use of
phosphate-free detergent (by brand name) in the
previous three months. "Any Ecology Product
Purchase," then, refers to the individuals who may
be classified as belonging to any of the three user groups
identified earlier in the presentation of the study
results.
The significance levels seen in Table One are solid
evidence of an association between personality and
behavior. In addition, the Yule's Q correlations indicate
that the association between relative self-actualization
level and socially conscious consumer behavior is
positive, and that predictions of behavior based on this
personality construct would be a good deal more successful than chance (Davis, 1971, ch. 2).
THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH
110
TABLE 3
MULTIPLE DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS-SELF-ACTUALIZATION LEVEL AND
DEMOGRAPHICS IN SOCIALLY CONSCIOUS CONSUMER ACTS
Phosphate-Free
Detergent Purchase
Variable
F-Ievel
Significance
Equation 1
F-Ievel
Significance
Equation 2
(Reported) Lead Free
Gasoline Purchase
F-Ievel
Significance
Equation I
.01
Socioeconomic status
N.S.
N.S.
Age
N.S.
N.S.
Sex
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
Marital status
N.S.
N.S.
Have children
.05
Number of children
F-Ievel
Significance
Equation 1
F-Ievel
Significance
Equation 2
.025
.01
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
.05
N.S.
N.S .
.10
.\0
.01
.01
.05
.05
.05
.05
Residence
.025
.025
N.S .
N.S.
.10
.\0
Wilks' A
.74
.78
.58
.65
.76
.77
% Correct classification
78.8
70.7
dictors. In each instance, relative self-actualization
level was the first variable to enter the equation,
F-values for the personality measure were significant,
and the amount of variance explained was in the range
normally expected of personality in consumer studies.
The multiple discriminant analysis results in Table
Three are presented for comparison with Webster's
(1975) results. In these analyses, two separate equations were developed for each behavior. In equation
one, the personality measure and all socioeconomic
and demographic characteristics were used. In equation two, only the socioeconomic and demographic
characteristics were used. Significance levels of the
F-values for all variables are presented for each
equation developed, as are Wilks' Lambda (A) and
percent of correct classifications made as a result of
the equations. Overall, the results seem very similar
to those presented by Webster in terms of the power
and predictive ability of the equations.
In the discriminant analyses, the only variable in
addition to the personality measure to achieve significant F-Ievels in each equation was the number of
children respondents had. Education and income,
significant in the Webster findings, were included as
part of the overall index of socioeconomic status which
was not significant in any of the equations here. Presence or absence of children, and residence were significant for the same two socially conscious behaviors
(although residence was weakly significant on one).
N.S.
.025
84.1
N.S.
.025
81.8
72.0
68.0
Age, which was not significant in Webster's study,
showed a significant F-value only for purchase of leadfree gasoline.
DISCUSSION
The results of this study seem to indicate clearly
that individuals who are higher on the dimension of
self-actualization will appear more often among
socially conscious consumers than will those whose
self-actualization level is lower. From a theoretical
perspective, this means that the more psychologically
healthy the person is, the more likely it will be that
the person will take action which recognizes the needs
of others in the society.
Use of ecology-related products implies concern for
the long-term survival of a healthy environment. The
results of such use are neither highly visible nor
immediately observable. There may even be costs
involved in such use, as in clothes which appear
somewhat less than "white and bright" or in a higher
price paid for lead-free gasoline. People who willingly
bear these voluntary costs must be able to assume the
long-range perspective necessary to forego the immediate reinforcement or lowered costs of using the
alternative products which are available. Such people
also may be a prime market segment for other products
designed to alleviate societal problems of various
types. Further study of this personality type with
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Self-actualization level
F-Ievel
Significance
Equation 2
Any Ecology Product
Purchase
III
THE SELF-ACTUALIZING SOCIALLY CONSCIOUS CONSUMER
CONCLUSION
This study has indicated that relative self-actualization level is related to socially conscious actions by
consumers. These results confirm and clarify previous
findings by Webster (1975). The self-actualizing personality would appear to be a promising type to examine in other settings for which socially conscious
consumer behavior might be desired or expected.
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other socially conscious consumer behaviors could be
revealing. Self-actualization level may, in fact, be a
reasonably parsimonious variable for segmenting such
markets.
Demographics, which often are related to behavior,
were less important than personality in behavioral
explanation in this study. In particular, socioeconomic
status was not found to be related to the behaviors
of interest. This is particularly intriguing because
Webster found education and income were significant
in each of the several discriminant analyses he reported
on recycling behavior. The difference in results of the
two studies may be due to having a relatively large
percentage of respondents in higher socioeconomic
categories in the present study, reducing variability
and lessening the likelihood of finding significant
differences.
The demographic variable with the most consistent
significant F-values across behaviors was the number
of children these respondents had. (Merely having
children was significant in two of the behaviors). In
retrospect, at least two factors might account for
performance of this variable. One might suggest that
individuals with larger families are likely to have
children in school where problems of ecology are
discussed. If these discussions are brought back into
the home, the parent might feel some pressure to meet
the expectations of his children regarding socially
conscious behavior. Alternatively, individuals who are
raising children simply may be generally more aware
of environmental problems as they might affect future
generations and take action accordingly. In any case,
it would appear that one of the problems of' 'parenting"
new to the present generation is determining those
products which might have effects on society and
taking appropriate actions in purchase behavior.
The emergence of residence as an explanatory
variable is somewhat puzzling. No simple theoretical
basis for this relationship is immediately evident.
However, it may be related in some indirect manner
to the socioeconomic factors which were significant
in the Webster study.
At a more general level, these results indicate that
a holistic measure of personality may be used successfully in identifying product user differences. This
approach reduces the probability of unmeasured traits
dominating another trait believed related to a response.
On the other hand, use of a broad measure of personality inevitably means capturing the influence of any
particular trait on a behavior may be done with a
lowered level of significance because the measure
reflects the influence of other, unrelated traits, as well.
It might be useful to compare the effects of specific
trait measure and general personality measures in
various product categories to determine if one
approach will be more effective than another in different types of situations.
112
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