Taban Peter Ali
Impact of Deforestation on Human Health: A Comparative Study of Health
Impacts of Deforestation, Southern and Northern, Ghana
Thesis Submitted for Master of Science Degree in International Social
Welfare and health Policy (MIS)
January, 2012
Faculty of Social Studies
Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences
MIS 2009/2010
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my beloved daughter, Fatirika Ali and all my friends
both in Ghana and abroad.
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ACKNOWLEDEMENT
This research was able to reach its final stage due to numerous contributions and support in
diverse forms from many persons. First of all my sincere thanks go to my supervisor, prof
Einar Øverbye for the constructive criticism, professional guidance and inspiration offered
me through out my writing of this thesis. I am also very much grateful to the entire staff of
international social welfare and Health Policy programme and the staff of the library all of
Oslo University College, Norway for their immense help to me.
I, also sincerely thank my nephew, Napoleon Foam and the family for their immeasurable
support to me in terms of accommodation, Feeding, finance, orientation, advice and
inspiration. I would not forget to appreciate his daughter, Yennuloom Foam who happened to
be my Norsk tutor for all this while.Yennuloom, “Tusen takk, og jeg savner deg veldig
mye”.Lastly, my greatest gratitude goes to the entire family of Jatong in Nakpanduri and its
environs in Northern Ghana for their love and words of encouragement during my studies in
Oslo, Norway.
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ABSTRACT
Ghana, which used to be dominated by forests, is now faced with massive destruction of its
vegetative cover, with concomitant environmental and human health hazards. Rain and
savannah forests are now metamorphosing to secondary forests, and which has serious
implications on human health. This thesis therefore explored desk studies of relationship
between deforestation and human health and also made comparative analysis isolating
Southern and northern Ghana on impact of deforestation on human health. There were
revelations of negative impacts of deforestation on human health which seem to skew to
north than south of the country. Institutional failures on the part of the central government
regarding implementation of policies to curb destruction of forest cover which led to many
forest resources attaining defacto open-access regime was discovered and workable policies
discussed.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................. 2
ACKNOWLEDEMENT .................................................................................................................... 3
1.
CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................................ 7
1.1.
2.
1.1.1.
The Research Question ............................................................................................... 7
1.1.2.
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 7
1.1.3.
Background ................................................................................................................ 7
1.1.4.
The Study Area .......................................................................................................... 8
1.1.5.
The Northern Ghana ................................................................................................... 9
1.1.6.
The Southern Ghana ................................................................................................... 9
1.1.7.
Rationale of the Study .............................................................................................. 10
1.1.8.
Significance of the study........................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 11
2.1.
3.
Introduction and background .............................................................................................. 7
Literature review .............................................................................................................. 11
2.1.1.
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 11
2.1.2.
The Relationship between Deforestation and Human health ...................................... 11
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 17
Research Methodology ................................................................................................. 17
3.1.
4.
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................... 19
4.1.
Discussion........................................................................................................................ 19
4.1.1.
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 19
4.1.2.
Is the health impact of deforestation likely to be the same or different in northern and
southern Ghana? ...................................................................................................................... 19
5.
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 25
5.1. Causes of Deforestation in Ghana ............................................................................................ 25
5.2.
Proximate/indirect Causes ............................................................................................ 25
5.3.
Distal/indirect Causes ................................................................................................... 27
5
6.
7.
5.4.
Similarities and Differences of Causes of deforestation in North and south of Ghana .... 28
5.5.
Theoretical framework ................................................................................................. 29
5.6.
The Conventional theory of Common- pool Resource ................................................... 29
5.7.
Dependency theory/ world systems theory .................................................................... 30
5.8.
Economic Forces and government policies ................................................................... 30
5.9.
Delayed Model of Demographic Transition .................................................................. 31
5.10.
Forests ownership in Ghana ...................................................................................... 31
5.11.
Stakeholders ............................................................................................................. 32
5.12.
Land tenure Systems in Ghana .................................................................................. 32
5.13.
Forest reserves .......................................................................................................... 32
5.14.
Communal forests..................................................................................................... 33
5.15.
Sacred grove............................................................................................................. 34
5.16.
The Taungya system ................................................................................................. 34
CHAPTER SIX ....................................................................................................................... 34
6.1.
Possible Solutions to Deforestation in both south and North of Ghana .............................. 35
6.2.
Reduction of deforestation in the southern Ghana ............................................................. 35
6.3.
Reducing Deforestation in Northern Ghana ...................................................................... 36
CHAPTER SEVEN ................................................................................................................. 39
7.1.
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 39
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................ 40
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1. CHAPTER ONE
1.1. Introduction and background
1.1.1. The Research Question
What are the effects of deforestation on health? And or are there reasons for assuming that
deforestation has different effects on health in northern and southern Ghana?
This paper therefore seeks to:
(1) Examine the relationship between deforestation and health
(2) In particular, examine if the impact of deforestation on health is likely to be the same or
different in northern and southern Ghana.
(3) Give possible future solutions to the adverse impact of deforestation
1.1.2. Introduction
Deforestation is the clearance or destruction of any amount of forest cover or woodlands.
(Angelsen and Kaimowitz 1999, 73). It is the complete long term removal or loss of forest
cover. The practice is increasingly and continuously common globally and more severe on
the African continent especially in the West African countries. (World Resources 1986, cited
by Mann 1990) the world average forest loss is seven times less than some West African
countries such as Ghana, Liberia, Ivory Coast or Nigeria. Deforestation is worsening across
the length and breadth of Ghana. The rate of deforestation in Ghana is 2% annually or in
absolute terms 22 hectares yearly (Gills, 1998). However the significance of forests to
mankind is numerous, such as health, recreation, cultural, and religion. This study is to
survey literature on relationship between deforestation and human health and make
comparative analysis of the relationship, if exist on Northern and southern Ghana.
1.1.3. Background
The world’s most challenging environmental problem currently is the destruction of its forest
cover. The general forests are under tremendous pressure and many concern people are of the
belief that something needs to be done if the forests need salvation. This practice is ongoing
for many reasons which will be elucidated in the course of this master thesis. The importance
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of the natural resources to humanity cannot be over emphasised. The livelihood of mankind is
dependent on these resources with no exception of the forest cover. Human beings have been
always to some extend use the forests for habitation, protection against enemies, food
security, source of medication and above all as their environment. Biblically, Deuteronomy
20:19, King James Version, says “…for the tree of the field is man’s life”. In this light, to
possess a forest is a blessing. It could also imply that man has connection with forest and the
demise of forest means the end of mankind.
The magnitude of forest destruction in Ghana could be described as terrifying and will
become more devastating in the near future if nothing is done to curtail the practice. The
forest cover in Ghana has been decreasing rapidly and significantly over the past two decades
(FAO, 2001). Ghana like any other sub- Saharan African country continues to lose its
vegetation at a fast rate. The forest reduced from 8.2million ha to an estimated 0.836million
ha representing 89.8% loss (EPA Ghana, 2004). The current rate of deforestation in Ghana is
approximately 2.8% or 22,00ha/annum. The effect of deforestation could be widespread,
besides its effect on biodiversity, ecological processes and environmental functions; it may
also have effect on the human health. Deforestation is the prime factor for loss of biodiversity
including human populations. It causes depletion, not only to the forest but the species that
reside in the forest and some also use it for food and other several purposes. The non-timber
products are used by a large section of the Ghanaian population. It is estimated that 75% of
Ghana’s population depends on bush meat as source of protein which is obtained mostly
through forest fires as method of hunting. Forest loss also results in land degradation which
leads to soil nutrient loss are increasing becoming a serious problem in the northern Ghana
(falconer, 1990). In Ghana, the clearing of the forests cover cuts across the length and breadth
of the country but in different forms for area specific (Northern and Southern Ghana),
considering the reasons for cutting the vegetation material.
1.1.4. The Study Area
Ghana is located on the west coast of Africa continent. It shares boundaries with Burkina
Faso in the north, Ivory Coast to the west, Togo to the east and Gulf of Guinea to the south. It
occupies about 23.9 million ha and situated at the north of the equator and completely within
the tropics. The country is made of four ecological divisions- wet evergreen, moist evergreen
dry semi deciduous and moist semi deciduous classifications. The high forest ecological zone
is located in the south- western part of the country. This particular zone is made of the rain
forest (moist and wet evergreen) and also the semi deciduous (moist and dry semi deciduous
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forest) and occupies an area of about 8.1 million ha. The savannah zone is mainly located in
the north and covers an area of approximately 14.7million ha and a transition zone with an
area of about 1.1 million ha (ITTO, 2005). The main ecological areas of timber of production
are the evergreen and deciduous in the south-western part of the country. In the colonial era,
the country was divided into southern and northern administrative sectors but after
independence it was then subdivided into ten (10) administrative regions with two or more
ethnic groupings found in each region. The southern Ghana in this paper is taken to be
situated in the forest zone whiles the northern is located in the savannah vegetation zone.
Farming and fishing are the main occupations for majority of Ghanaians.
1.1.5. The Northern Ghana
As far as this study is concern Northern part of Ghana comprises the Northern, upper west
and upper East. The area is within the savannah zone of the country. The savannah zone is
typically woodland and thick vegetation whose density decreases towards the upper East
region of the country. Subsistence farming activities, charcoal burning, and bush fires are
causing much damage to the forest cover annually. The area experiences almost equal months
of dry and rainy seasons. The dry season is always from November to April and rainy season
from May to October. Average yearly rainfall is approximately 11 00 mm and yearly average
temperature is about 30 degrees Celsius. The area was once the stock of different kind of wild
animal species but hunting expedition and trypanosomiasis in addition to the end of the
Tsetse Fly Control programme have had impact on reduction of the wild life population in the
area.
1.1.6. The Southern Ghana
The southern Ghana is made up of Ashanti, Brong Ahafo, southern Volta, western, central,
and the Greater Accra and Eastern regions. It is situated in the high forest vegetation zone
with annual mean rainfalls of 21,150millimeters and mean annual temperatures are
approximately 28 degrees Celsius. The area is characterised by four separate seasons. Heavy
rains fall from about April through late June. After a relatively short dry period in August,
another rainy season starts in September and last through November, before the harmattan
season sets in to complete the cycle. The southern Ghana has several forest reserves and as
result, a home of many timber firms. It also produces several cash crops such as cocoa, palm
nuts, and plantain. Illegal logging, surface mining activities, agricultural activities, and bush
fires have contributed immensely in the destruction of the forest cover. It is estimated that
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some forest reserves in the south have been destroyed close to 50-70% of their total land area
(England, 1993).
In the North, bushfires caused by hunters and farmers, charcoal production, and fuel wood for
domestic consumption contribute greatly to destruction of forest material. It is evident that
the two sectors of the country experience deforestation either similarly or in different forms.
1.1.7. Rationale of the Study
Many legitimate concerns have been raised recently about limitations to health as a result of
massive destruction of natural resources including forest among populations in Ghana for
agricultural activities hunting, expedition, timber production and or fuel. Many trees that
serve as medicines to rural and urban populace are destroyed through deforestation. Fertile
croplands have lost nutrients since there is no vegetative cover to check erosion leading to
famine with its attendant medical consequences. These and more challenged the researcher
to find out whether there is any link between deforestation and health of the local people in
Ghana where deforestation is at its highest ascendency. And or examine if human health in
Ghana is hampered by causes of climate change such as forest destruction.
1.1.8. Significance of the study
The significance of this detailed study is first and foremost going to improve the academic
ascendency of the researcher. It is to also fulfil the requirements of the Master of Science
(Msc) degree in international Social Welfare and Health Policy (MIS). The study may yield
several results and information that might be very beneficial to Ghana forestry Commission,
Ghana Health Service, Ghana School of Forestry, Non -Governmental Organisations that are
into forestry and also policy makers.
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2. CHAPTER TWO
2.1. Literature review
2.1.1. Introduction
This particular chapter reviews existing related literature on the research topic. This section
will give an insight to the researcher on what other researchers did on the research theme. As
noted by Chambliss and Schut (2006) a good literature review reveals that research question
or problem has ever been investigated, and it may highlight on particular areas of the research
problems mostly.
2.1.2. The Relationship between Deforestation and Human health
There are several practical environmental linkages to health. However, limited to this
research, the relationship between specific environmental problem, deforestation and health is
presented. In general, vector-borne conditions such as malaria are strongly affected by
Changes in climate and the environment and have many direct and indirect effects on human
health. Temperature and humidity affects the commonness and distribution of vectors and
intermediate hosts. Warmer temperatures allow insects and pests to survive winters that
normally would have limited their populations. An increase in malaria in Rwanda coincided
with record of high temperatures and rainfall. In 70 communities in Mexico, median
temperature during the rainy season was the strongest predictor of dengue fever with vector
being mosquitoes: higher temperatures increased vector efficiency (Wilson, 1995). Causes of
climate change such as deforestation can influence higher temperatures. That is why
mosquitoes are very common in Africa, Asia and Latin America due to higher temperatures.
Sarah et al(2010) conducted research in county (município) of Mansion Lima, Acre State,
Brazil and Cumulative percent deforestation was calculated for the spatial catchment area of
each health district by using 60 Cumulative percent deforestation was calculated for the
spatial catchment area of each health district by using 60 × 60–meter, resolution-classified
imagery. Statistical associations were identified with univariate and multivariate general
additive negative binomial models adjusted for spatial effects. The cross-sectional study
shows malaria incidence across health districts in 2006 is positively associated with greater
changes in percentage of cumulative deforestation within respective health districts.
Forest cover protects human lives and property in cases of torrential rains culminating in
floods but rapid deforestation taking place in some parts of the globe would minus these
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qualities of the vegetative cover resulting in losses of human lives and property by floods.
Southern Ghana has now 1.7m ha of forests; these are being destroyed at the annual rate of
about 2% of the total area (ROG, 1991). In the North of Ghana, woodland and park savannah
are experiencing serious depletion at the rate of about 20,000 ha year (Friar, 1987). In
DAKAR, 13 September 2007 (IRIN) - Government figures indicate that in northern Ghana
flooding has affected more people than in all other West African countries combined, yet the
disaster has received little international attention compared to floods elsewhere in the region.
Corey J et al (2007) conducted a study using data collected from 1990 to 2000 from 56
developing countries, they show using generalized linear and mixed-effects models
contrasted with information theoretic measures of parsimony that flood frequency is
negatively correlated with the amount of remaining natural forest and positively correlated
with natural forest area loss (after controlling for rainfall, slope and degraded landscape area).
During the decade investigated, nearly1 0 0 0 0 0 people were killed and 3 2 0 million
people were displaced by floods, with total reported economic damages exceeding
US$ 1 1 5 1 billion. These associations are very significant as far as the dynamics of flood
is concern.
An increased in diarrhoea mortality/ cases was observed after flood events in
Khartoum, Sudan(Woodruff et al, 1 9 9 0 ) and in Bangladesh a cross-sectional survey of
households flooded in 1 9 9 8 found that seven people died during flood out of whom
two died of apparent diarrhoea and two were suspected to have died of heart
attack(Kumi et al,2 0 0 2 ). They admit that the weak evidence might have been due to
lack of equipped hospitals to identify and diagnose cases.
Soil erosion is second only to human population growth as environmental and public health
issue facing the world today. About 99.7% of human food and food nutrients for human
health comes from cropland which is being degraded by more than 10million ha a year as a
result of deforestation (FAO, 1998). The loss of cropland due to loss of vegetative cover is a
serious problem because many soil nutrients important for humans and food production are
washed away. The loss of soil fertility and thus declining crop yields resulting in direct and
indirect hunger and nutritional deprivation among the poorer segments of the society and
therefore increase health problems (Ruddle, 1996). World Health Organisation (WHO) notes
that more than 3.7 billion are malnourished in the world. A nutritional survey in northern
Ghana showed that 65% of pregnant and 45% of non pregnant women showed systems of
protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) compared with 43% pregnant women and 30% non
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pregnant women in the southern Ghana (IBRD, 1989). Iodine deficiency disorder(goitre) is a
particular problem in the northern Ghana where 10.7%
Besides, erosion increases the
amount of particulate matter carried by wind which not only acts as abrasive and air pollutant
but also carries with it approximately 20% of bacterial organisms of many human infectious
diseases including Anthrax and tuberculosis (Pimentel, 2006). The loss of soil fertility and
thus declining crop yields resulting in direct and indirect hunger and nutritional deprivation
among the poorer segments of the society and therefore increase health problems (Ruddle,
1996). WHO notes that more than 3.7 billion are malnourished in the world? A nutritional
survey in northern Ghana showed that 65% of pregnant and 45% of non pregnant women
showed systems of protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) compared with 43% pregnant women
and 30% non pregnant women in the southern Ghana (IBRD, 1989).
There is a popular consensus that the earth is warming, due to emissions of green house gases
caused by human activities such as deforestation. With the growing recognition that tropical
deforestation contributes about 20 percent of green house gas emissions worldwide and is
thus an important cause of global warming, there is great interest in approaches to reducing
emissions from deforestation in developing countries (Metz et al. 2007, Ramamurthy et al.
2007). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) deforestation,
mainly in tropical areas, account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide
emissions. Deforestation and combustion of biomass produce excessively greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide (CO2) that helps contribute to global warming. The health impact of
global warming could be related to heat strokes and penetration of ultra-violet B (UV-B) rays
into human tissues leading to non-melanoma cancers as a result of depletion of the ozone
layer. Cardiovascular diseases, cerebrospinal meningitis (CSM) and respiratory disease like
asthma are at times manifestations of global warming. People living with cardiovascular
conditions suffer more because it puts additional workload on heart to work harder and keep
the body system cool in hotter temperatures. Ozone protects us from the harmful UV rays,
however when combine with dust, chemical fumes and smoke on the earth surface will lead
to fog formation which is a pollutant and has the ability of damaging the lung tissues
especially asthmatic patients. Penetration of the zone by the UV-B radiation causes
astronomical increases in the temperature which catalyses growth of bacteria and the spread
of many tropical diseases such as CSM. The Who’s partial estimate of climate change health
impacts in the year 2000 (McMichael et al., 2004), an estimated 200 000 deaths currently
occur each year in the world’s low-income countries from a subset of climate-sensitive health
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outcomes –crop failure and malnutrition, diarrhoeal disease, malaria and flooding. Around
85% of those deaths are in children. Studies in the UK, Australia and Canada have shown a
clear relationship between short-term (e.g. weekly) temperatures and the rate of occurrence of
salmonella food-poisoning.
Bush fires either natural or human- induced produces a lot of particles into the atmosphere
that have a limiting effect on human heath. A relationship between forest fires and health care
needs was also demonstrated in the US. In 1998, there were extensive wildfires in Florida. As
compared to the preceding year, emergency department visits increased 91% for asthma,
132% for bronchitis with acute visits increased 91% for asthma, 132% for bronchitis with
acute exacerbation and 37% for chest pain (CDC_US 1999). However, these examples might
not be conclusive they give insight on the impact of deforestation through bush fires on
human diseases. In a retrospective evaluation of the health impacts of a large wildfire in a
northern California Indian reservation, visits to the local medical clinic for respiratory illness
increased by 52% over the same period the prior year [146]. During the ten weeks that the
fire lasted, PM10 levels exceeded 150 μg/m3 (24-hr average) 15 times, and on two days the
levels exceeded 500 μg/m3. Weekly concentrations of PM10 were strongly correlated with
weekly visits for respiratory illness during the fire year (r = 0.74), but not in the prior year (r
= -0.63). In a community survey of 289 respondents, more than 60% reported respiratory
symptoms during the smoke episode; 20% reported symptoms persisting at least two weeks
after the smoke cleared. Individuals with pre-existing cardiopulmonary diseases reported
significantly more symptoms before, during, and after the fire than those without such
illnesses. The investigators also retrospectively evaluated the efficacy of several public health
interventions in symptom reduction: (1) filtered and unfiltered masks distributed free of
charge; (2) vouchers for free hotel accommodations in towns away from the smoke to assist
evacuation efforts; (3) high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) cleaners distributed for
residential use; and, (4) public service announcements (PSAs) about exposure reduction
strategies. Mott and colleagues found that increased duration of use of a residential HEPA air
cleaner was associated with decreased odds of reporting increased symptoms (OR = 0.54,
95% CI (0.32 - 0.89)), with an inverse trend of symptom reporting with increasing duration of
use. Similarly, ability to accurately recall a PSA was also associated with reduced odds for
respiratory symptoms. In contrast, there was no detectable beneficial effect of evacuation
from smoky areas or of the use of masks. However, the timing and duration of evacuation
were not optimal: on the days with the highest recorded smoke concentrations, over 80% of
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the subjects had not evacuated. That mask use was not protective is unsurprising; the masks
were distributed without fit-testing and had variable filtration efficiencies. Moreover, none of
the interventions was randomized, and in fact individuals with smoke-related health effects or
a prior diagnosis of respiratory or cardiovascular disease were given priority to receive hotel
vouchers and HEPA air cleaners.
More recently, Sutherland and colleagues reported an increase in an index of respiratory
symptoms (dyspnoea, cough, chest tightness, wheezing, and sputum production) amongst a
panel of 21 subjects with COPD associated with two days of elevated ambient particle levels
resulting from a forest fire near Denver. On the two days in which symptom scores were
increased, average PM2.5 concentrations increased to 63 μg/m3 relative to an average of 14
μg/m3 on control days [147].
Many forests around the world, especially the rainforest contain medicinal plants that
provides important component of health care delivery across the world. For instance Some
120 prescription drugs sold worldwide today are derived directly from rainforest plants. And
according to the U.S. National Cancer Institute, over more than two-thirds of all medicines
found to have cancer-fighting properties have their sources from rainforest plants. Again the
U.S. National Cancer Institute confirms that extracts obtained and synthesized from a nowextinct periwinkle plant found only in Madagascar (until deforestation wiped it out) have
increased the chances of survival for children with leukaemia. The forests plants are also
invaluable for their medicinal and pharmacological uses (Burley and Styles 1976).The rapid
destruction of the forests subjects the formal and informal pharmaceutical industries of lack
of potential new drugs due to loss of genetic resources.
Many trees are cleared in Ghana to pave way for irrigation project developments. Certain
diseases are linked to irrigation developments. One of such disease is filariasis, commonly
known as elephantiasis. Filariasis is caused by a mosquito-borne helminth. Outbreaks often
occur from rising water tables following water project developments. For instance, in Ghana
the rate of infection, worm annual bites per persons and annual transmission potential have
been found to be higher in irrigated communities than areas without irrigation projects
(Appawu et al, 2001). This was confirmed by another observation where opening irrigation
channels during the dry season resulted in a significant increase of filariasis vectors.
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Causes and health impacts of deforestation
Distal/indirect causes
•Population growth
•Poverty
•International/trade
•Weak government policies
Proximate/direct causes
•Logging
•Mining
•Agricultural activities
•Fuel wood/charcoal production
•Bushfires
•Grazing
Deforestation
Indirect impacts
•Food insecurity
•Loss of medicinal plants
•Irrigational facilities
Direct impacts
•Higher temperature/Malaria
•Global warming/Cardiovascular
•Biomass combustion/ respiratory diseases
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of health impacts of deforestation
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3. CHAPTER THREE
3.1. Research Methodology
3.1.1. Introduction
Given the research questions and the inability of the researcher to obtained data from the
field, secondary data is used to conduct the research. This area also describes the research
design and also gives reasons for selection of the study area. It also discusses the procedures,
techniques and methods that were utilised
throughout the research process. It explains the
type of data used to inform the study. It further describes the study locations and their
characteristics and differences and similarities between the study locations.
3.1.2. The Research Hypothesis
The research is a comparative study on the health effects of deforestation in Northern and
Southern Ghana. The study also explores relationship between deforestation and health. In
this light, the tentative proposition of this study that the researcher tries to find out is the
assumption that: Deforestation has health implications or effects on the local people.
3.1.3. The Research Design
This thesis comparatively aimed at describing relationship between deforestation and health
and also to explain differences and similarities of deforestation in both southern and Northern
Ghana. Babie (1992) noted that it was seen inadequate to collect data from the field. Due to
time constraints the researcher relied on related secondary literature both locally and
internationally to inform this study. This comparative study, excluding other reasons is for
the fulfilment of the Master of Science in International Social Welfare and Health Policy
(MIS) programme.
3.1.4. Types of Data
Due to the nature of this comparative research and the researcher’s inability to visit the field,
the study solely depended on the existing related literatures from libraries. The main data
sources used to inform the study were books, articles, journals, dissertations and also
searching from the internet.
3.1.5. Technique of Data Analysis
Based on the type of data that was used to inform this research, content analysis was used as
the main technique of data analysis. As noted by Chambliss and Schutt (2004), content
analysis is a form of research method or technique for systematically analysing and making
17
inferences from texts. In the broader perspective, content analysis could also mean a survey
of documents to make inferences (Rubin and Babie, 2004).
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4. CHAPTER FOUR
4.1. Discussion
4.1.1. Introduction
This chapter analyses how deforestation impacts on the health of the occupants of the north
and south of Ghana. However, due to the inability of the researcher to travel to the study
areas in Ghana he used his personal discretion and few literature reviews to speculate the
health impact of deforestation on the two colonial administrative divide of the country, the
northern and the southern Ghana.
4.1.2. Is the health impact of deforestation likely to be the same or different in
northern and southern Ghana?
The over dependence on natural resources specifically the forest cover in rural areas in Ghana
where more than 60 percent of Ghana’s 20 million people depend directly on clearing it for
agriculture due to part, lack of secure livelihoods subjects them to the impacts of localized
disasters such as droughts, local floods, epidemics and wildfires in both southern and
northern Ghana.
Plasmodium falciparum malaria which is very severe and common in Africa continent and
Latin America yearly causes at least one million deaths, most of which occur in Africa and
children below five years of age and pregnant women. Malaria is the most common
infectious disease that takes many lives especially women and children in the northern Ghana
than southern Ghana due to much forest loss (deforestation) causing climate change that will
consequently promote mosquito breeding. The relatively higher rates of deforestation in the
north of Ghana are directly proportional to incidence of malaria disease. This is consistent
with the research results of Sarah et al (2010) who opined that incidence of malaria is directly
associated with the rates of deforestation. The forest floor primary growth is thick and well
shaded and with rich layer of acidic organic material that renders unfavourable conditions for
mosquito bleeding. But many of these forests is destroyed for agricultural activities or burnt
for charcoal or in search of bush meat in the north exposing the deforested area to sunlight
which raises the temperature favourable for mosquitoes bleeding. This may be consistent
with Patz et al, 200 who opined that cleared lands are more generally sunlit and prone to the
formation of puddles with more neutral pH which favours specific anopheline larvae
development.
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The much loss of forest cover in Ghana has rendered many parts of the country’s land barren
and subjects it to effects of excess rains (floods). The forest plays an important role in
checking floods. Floods have been a common phenomenon of recent in Ghana especially in
the three northern regions and have led to many losses of lives and property and poor health.
For instance in 2005 Ghana was one of the worst hit by flooding in the West Africa. Reports
(Daily Graphic, 2005) indicated that this flooding led to 20 people killed across the Upper
East, Upper West and Northern regions of the country. The estimations of National Disaster
Management Organisation (NADMO) had it that about 350,000 people were severely
affected during these flooding incidents and several hundred hectares of crops of farmland
were completely washed away whiles In June 2001 torrential rain caused widespread
flooding in southern Ghana and particularly Accra, leaving 11 people dead and over 100,000
without homes. This is synonymous to Correy et al (2007) research results which concluded
that floods frequency is inversely correlated to the amount of remaining forest directly
proportional to natural forest loss. During the decade investigated, they found out that
nearly100 000 people were killed and 320 million people were displaced by floods, with total
reported economic damages exceeding US$1151 billion.
The northern and southern Ghana is faced with soil erosion and its effects as loss of soil
fertility due mainly to loss of vegetative environment that controls erosion. Soil erosion wipes
away many nutrients significant for human and plant health. Comparatively deforestation in
the southern Ghana is at the annual rate of about 2% of the total area (ROG 1991). The
woodland and park savannah in the north is facing serious depletion at the rate of about
20,000 ha year (Friar, 1987). The link between deforestation and soil erosion or loss of soil
fertility is confirmed by (Ruddle, 1996) who concluded that loss of soil fertility and thus
declining crop yields resulting in direct and indirect hunger and nutritional deprivation among
the poorer segments of the society and therefore increase health problems. Malnutrition is not
uncommon all over Ghana but worst in the three northern regions. This is confirmed by(
IBRD, 1989) whose research results show that 65% of pregnant and 45% of non pregnant
women showed systems of protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) compared with 43% pregnant
women and 30% non pregnant women in the southern Ghana (IBRD, 1989). It is also
consistent with (ROG 1986) that Iodine deficiency disorder (goitre) is a particular problem in
the northern Ghana where 10.7% of the surveyed population is afflicted. This is because soil
erosion in the arid areas (northern Ghana) has stripped away the iodine content in soils such
that it cannot be absorbed by crops (ROG-UNICEF 1990).Approximately 99.7% of human
20
food and food nutrients for human health comes from cropland which is being degraded by
more than 10million ha a year as a result of deforestation (FAO, 1998).
The health impact of causes of climate change in Ghana, specifically deforestation cannot be
overemphasised especially in the three northern regions of Ghana where most households
depend on rain-fed agriculture such as peasant and commercial farming to fend for their
families and also derive proceeds accruing from the sale of farm produce. The northern
Ghana relies on only one unreliable rainy season for food production. Inconclusively the
unreliability rainfall pattern is due to elements such as mass deforestation that is leading to
climate change in the north. The woodland and park savannah in the north is facing serious
depletion at the rate of about 20,000 ha year (Friar, 1987). Food production is therefore very
unreliable and low, high malaria incidence, deaths due to floods in comparison to the south
that have double rainy season, less deforestation rate and thick forest low malaria incidence
and low frequencies. This is linked to less deforestation in the southern Ghana as the annual
rate of about 2% of the total area (ROG 1991). The estimate of WHO about climate change
health impacts in the year 2000 (McMichael et al., 2004), an estimated 200 000 deaths
currently occur each year in the world’s low-income countries from a subset of climatesensitive health outcomes –crop failure and malnutrition, diarrhoeal disease, malaria and
flooding.
There are several evidences that show that harmful particles such as carbon monoxide
emanating from forest fires are very harmful to human. A study showed relationship between
forest fires and health care needs was demonstrated in the US. In 1998, there were extensive
wildfires in Florida. As compared to the preceding year, emergency department visits
increased 91% for asthma, 132% for bronchitis with acute visits increased 91% for asthma,
132% for bronchitis with acute exacerbation and 37% for chest pain. (CDC_US 1999).
There are also similar results on a retrospective evaluation of the health impacts of a large
wildfire in a northern California Indian reservation, visits to the local medical clinic for
respiratory illness increased by 52% over the same period the prior year [146]. During the ten
weeks that the fire lasted, PM10 levels exceeded 150 μg/m3 (24-hr average) 15 times, and on
two days the levels exceeded 500 μg/m3. Weekly concentrations of PM10 were strongly
correlated with weekly visits for respiratory illness during the fire year (r = 0.74), but not in
the prior year (r = -0.63). In a community survey of 289 respondents, more than 60% reported
respiratory symptoms during the smoke episode; 20% reported symptoms persisting at least
21
two weeks after the smoke cleared. Individuals with pre-existing cardiopulmonary diseases
reported significantly more symptoms before, during, and after the fire than those without
such illnesses. The investigators also retrospectively evaluated the efficacy of several public
health interventions in symptom reduction: (1) filtered and unfiltered masks distributed free
of charge; (2) vouchers for free hotel accommodations in towns away from the smoke to
assist evacuation efforts; (3) high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) cleaners distributed for
residential use; and, (4) public service announcements (PSAs) about exposure reduction
strategies. Mott and colleagues found that increased duration of use of a residential HEPA air
cleaner was associated with decreased odds of reporting increased symptoms (OR = 0.54,
95% CI (0.32 - 0.89)), with an inverse trend of symptom reporting with increasing duration of
use. Similarly, ability to accurately recall a PSA was also associated with reduced odds for
respiratory symptoms. In contrast, there was no detectable beneficial effect of evacuation
from smoky areas or of the use of masks. However, the timing and duration of evacuation
were not optimal: on the days with the highest recorded smoke concentrations, over 80% of
the subjects had not evacuated.
More recently, Sutherland and colleagues reported an increase in an index of respiratory
symptoms (dyspnoea, cough, chest tightness, wheezing, and sputum production) amongst a
panel of 21 subjects with COPD associated with two days of elevated ambient particle levels
resulting from a forest fire near Denver. On the two days in which symptom scores were
increased, average PM2.5 concentrations increased to 63 μg/m3 relative to an average of 14
μg/m3 on control days [147].
The above studies have several structural limitations, however especially community
exposure to biomass smoke show a generally reliable relationship between exposure and
increased respiratory symptoms, increased risk of respiratory illness, including hospital
emergency room visits, and decreased lung function.
There are no available data on empirical studies on bushfires and respiratory diseases on both
northern and southern Ghana, however since bushfires are one of the main methods used to
clear forest for agricultural activities and hunting expeditions in the northern Ghana it is by
implication useful to speculate that respiratory diseases might be more common in hospitals
outpatient attendance and admissions than southern Ghana where logging and mining
activities deforest the vegetation cover.
22
Global warming has numerous negative effects on human health. Penetration of the zone by
the UV-B radiation causes astronomical increases in the temperature which catalyses growth
of bacteria and the spread of many tropical diseases such as cerebrospinal meningitis. The
global warming has effect on the northern Ghana increasing the already high rocketing
temperatures which promotes high incidence of infectious diseases. The north has lost a lot
its vegetative cover through deforestation. Temperatures in the south are comparatively lower
in the south and therefore lower disease incidence. In the light of this, northern Ghana
experiences high incidence of CSM than south due high temperatures caused by deforestation
even though first case of meningitis was discovered in the south, Cape Coast among east
Africans who was brought in to campaign against the majority tribe in the south, Ashanti in
1900(Waddy, 1957). Ghana and for matter northern Ghana CSM outbreak occurs 8-12 years
interval. Retrospectively, epidemics occurred in 1919/21, 1939, 1944/45, 1948/50 (Waddy,
1957), 1960/61, 1972/73 (Belcher et al., 1977) and 1984. In1996/97 Ghana experienced the
biggest epidemic which recorded 18703 cases and 1356 deaths (Woods et al., 2000) with
Kassena Nankana District (KND) in the northern Ghana recorded 1396 cases with 69 deaths
(Enos, 1997). This is synonymous to. The Who’s partial estimate of climate change health
impacts in the year 2000 cited in (McMichael et al., 2004), an estimated 200 000 deaths
currently occur each year in the world’s low-income countries from a subset of climatesensitive health outcomes –crop failure and malnutrition, diarrhoeal disease, malaria and
flooding. Around 85% of those deaths are in children. Studies in the UK, Australia and
Canada have shown a clear relationship between short-term (e.g. weekly) temperatures and
the rate of occurrence of salmonella food-poisoning.
They care delivery is much changing in Ghana. While many major centres are better served,
the rural areas have often no modern health facilities. As a result, traditional and herbal
medicine is providing the most important accessible source of health care in the rural
settlements in Ghana (Abbiw et al, 2002). Medicinal plants have been used and well accepted
by mostly the rural population in Ghana (Ekpe 2002). (Burley and Styles 1976) opined that
the forests plants are also significant for their medicinal and pharmacological uses .The rapid
destruction of the forests subjects the formal and informal pharmaceutical sectors of Ghana
lack of potential new drugs due to loss of genetic resources. This impact is severe in the north
since deforestation is rampant relative to the south.
Irrigation facilities are much needed in the northern part of Ghana to sustain farmers’ income
all the year round, due to the one-time rainy season as compared to double wet season in the
south. But constructions of such facilities deforest much vegetative cover and also raise the
23
water table that promotes incidence of vector-borne diseases. This is similar to research
conducted 1by (appawu et al 2001) that annual transmission potential of lymphatic filariasis
(elephantiasis) have been found to be higher in irrigated areas than communities without
irrigated in Ghana.Filariasis is caused by a mosquito-borne helminth. Outbreaks often occur
from rising water tables following water project developments. This was confirmed by
another observation where opening irrigation channels during the dry season resulted in a
significant increase of filariasis vectors.
1
Filariasis vecotors are mosquitoes that transmits filariasis to humans
24
5. CHAPTER FIVE
5.1. Causes of Deforestation in Ghana
There are several direct and indirect linkages of deforestation to human health in general.
However these health impacts are sparsely distributed across Ghana. To therefore find
remedies to alleviate these unhealthy situations created by deforestation in Ghana, if not
completely eradicate them, it is prudent to identify the main cause(s) of the disease(health
impacts) and destroy it or break the chain of connections between deforestation and human
health in Ghana. This study has in no small measure identified several distal (indirect) and
proximate (direct) causes of deforestation which leads to unhealthy effects on human beings
in Ghana. Forest loss in Ghana has therefore been caused by the interaction of different
factors identified as distal or Underlying driving forces such as poverty, international
trade/dependency theory, population growth and weak government policies and the
proximate (direct) causes of forest loss which include fire, mining, but more importantly
logging and farming (ITTO 1996).
5.2. Proximate/indirect Causes
5.2.1. Agriculture
The fast growing population of Ghana has much pressure on land for agricultural activities
such that people even encroach into forest reserves. (Kartawinata, 1997) Growing
populations need expanding food supplies so forests are destroyed by shifting cultivators for
annual or permanent crops (Rates of forest clearing are likely be higher in countries where
little or no progress has been made in agricultural productivity or where land productivity
falls after the natural land is removed(world Bank 1978, 18-19). Forests in generally are
disappeared both in countries still reliant on shifting cultivation and in those making the
transition to permanent copping patterns.
5.2.2. Logging
Ghana over the period 1996–2005 based on a definition that emphasizes the violation of
established forest management regulations. Of the total harvest, 70% or 2.3 – 2.7 million m3
annually is considered to be illegally logged. Chainsaw operators, who supply most of the
domestic or local lumber demand, account for two-thirds and the export timber industry
25
account for one-third of the illegal harvest. The most valuable timber species dominate the
illegal harvest and they appear to originate mostly from forest reserves, which as a
consequence are seriously threatened. Commercial logging operations deplete forest stocks
(Eckholm 1976, 39). Regulated timber extraction should not permanently damaged the forest
(Schmithusen 1976) but when it is not controlled, mechanised logging or even selective
timber harvesting may severely change the character of the forest (World Bank 1978, 19).
Regulated or unregulated timber extraction involves road constructions which indirectly
cause deforestation because it gives accessibility to agricultural populations in search for
virgin lands to deforest and start farming.
5.2.3. Mining
Ghana is blessed with a lot of natural resources such as petroleum products, gold, bauxite,
diamond and manganese. However these minerals are deposited in the southern Ghana and
much into its many forest resources. Mining of these minerals has resulted in massive
destruction of forest cover leading to deforestation. Extraction of these resources depends on
expertise and technology which lacks in the country. The government of Ghana established
motivational schemes such as tax exemptions which attracted a lot of mining companies into
the country which are sparsely distributed across the southern sector and with the use of
sophisticated machines destructing the natural forests. For instance, at around 1990, there
were as many as 60 mineral extraction mining companies in Ghana (ISSER 1999). The
activities of artisanal miners or small scale miners (galemsey as called in Ghana) have similar
impact on the vegetative cover of southern Ghana.
5.2.4. Bush fires and Grazing
Deforestation occurs in several ways either than clearing or wood removal. In Ghana,
especially the northern parts of the country bushfires are used for clearing of farmlands
through slash and burn and during hunting expedition to chase game out of habitation.
Besides bush fires many subsistence farmers rear animals of different kinds in addition to
farming (mixed farming), however these animals graze indiscriminately on every reachable
forest. The practice of annual burning in many areas prevents forests re-growth (FAO 1980c,
2-5), and grazing by goats, sheep and cattle has much the same effect (World Bank 1978, 34).
This practice may lead to compact of the soil or erosion of the soil.
26
5.2.5. Fuelwood/Charcoal production
Most populations across the globe especially the third world countries depend on wood fuels
as energy. Firewood and charcoal are mostly used domestically for cooking and heating. In
many parts of Africa, wood fuels account for as much as 95 percent of total energy use,
including energy for industries such as brewing, baking and brick making (Cecelski et al.
1979; Dunkerley et al. 1981, 48-57). Fuel wood and charcoal account for over 75% of the
total energy consumption in Ghana (Sayer et al. 1992). In Ghana, especially the northern
Ghana it is very common to see woman walking for long distances to harvest fuel wood
which is the major source of energy for the households(Ardayfio- Schandorf, 1993)The
demand for wood energy has been augmented by the recent dramatic increases in oil prices,
which have prevented the switch to non-wood based fuels. Such use of woodlands and
forests, including forests reserves by growing populations in search of wood fuels is one of
the most commonly cited causes of deforestation (Allen 1983).
5.3. Distal/indirect Causes
5.3.1. Poverty
The concept of poverty is complex and due to its complexity, poverty has series of meanings.
However, poverty focusing on income and consumption which allows for poverty lines
distinguishing poor from the rich using government sample surveys is used here to drive
home point. According to World Bank individual is poor when his or her consumption or
income levels fall below some minimum level necessary to meet basic needs. According to
Ghana Statistical Service, 1994 31% of the total population in Ghana had their yearly
expenditure below the nation’s poverty line of 132230 cedis (17US dollars). Rural population
constitutes 65% of the general population of the country which contributes 80% of the
national poverty. The rural population destruct much forest cover since it relies solely on the
surrounding natural forests for food, bushmeat and fuelwood. They people of Ghana therefore
destroy the vegetation cover because there is no any other alternative that can alleviate their
poverty than the proximal natural forest. Poverty has however increasingly become an
environmental problem (Durning, 1989)
5.3.2. International Trade/dependency theory
27
Many third world countries supply primary goods of different kind to the West to earn
tertiary goods in return. By application, the OECD countries depend on the low income
countries for some selected primary commodities to feed their market and placed certain
trade restrictions on many commodities in the low income countries that the West has them in
abundance. Ghana supplies cocoa, gold and timber to OECD countries in return for tertiary
goods but due to trade restrictions to exportation of other goods the country has rather
expanded production of these goods by overexploiting the natural vegetation such as cutting
down more trees for timber, destroying vegetation cover by mining companies to reach more
gold and destroying forest for cocoa plantations by farmers just to meet the demands of the
international market. As opined by political ecologists, external factors should not be ignored
in the analysis of causes of deforestation. Similarly dependency theory has it that low income
countries or developing countries implement policies that favour exports such as timber to
these markets and eventually augment unsustainable activities resulting to deforestation,
(Walter stein; Chase-Dunn 1998).
5.3.3. Misguided Government policies
Some policies of the government of Ghana meant to attract foreign investors into the country
rather help promote the destruction of the country’s forests by these investors. For example,
the 1985 investment code of Ghana gave many privileges to foreign investors such as tax
holidays up to five years and 20% tax reductions for newly established mineral extraction
companies in the rural communities whose activities lead to deforestation.
5.4. Similarities and Differences of Causes of deforestation in North and south of
Ghana
Some or all of the above causes of forest loss in Ghana are either practised in south or north
or both due to different motives. Farming activities, bush fires, fuelwood, poverty and
charcoal production are the main causes of forest loss in the three northern regions of Ghana.
However, all except for agricultural activities are less in the South. The double wet season in
the south makes it very cumbersome for fuelwood harvesting and charcoal production due to
lack of dry forest material. In this light, the North therefore feeds the South with charcoal and
fuelwood since there is extraordinarily higher demand down south for these goods
(dependency theory). This supplier and consumer link has impacted negatively on the forests
resources of the north as many people unusually cut down life trees for fuelwood and
charcoal for domestic use and meet the market demand down south. Also poverty as a distal
28
link to causes of deforestation in Ghana is relatively widespread in the dry savannah region
that covers roughly two thirds of Ghana’s northern territory.Available statistics indicates that
Ghana’s average of poverty is estimated as 39 percent while in the Northern Region it is 69
percent, Upper East Region 88 percent and the Upper West Region 84 percent (Ghana News
Agency, 2002). Unlike the south, where there is double growing seasons, the northern plains
are drought-prone and people have fewer economic alternatives and so they overexploit the
forest resources for livelihoods leading to deforestation. As poverty-environment thesis
speculates; poor people are often impoverished by a declining resource base, and thus forced
by their circumstances to degrade the environment further. (World Commission on
Environment and Development 1987; Durning1989; Cleaver and Schreiber 1994; Ekbom and
Bojo 1999).
Illegal and legal logging, agricultural activities and mineral extraction are the strong
proximate causes of forest loss in the south. Cocoa is an export commodity and in high
demand by the first countries capitalist oriented markets and therefore Ghana as satellite
(developing country) undergo mass clearing of its valuable forests for cocoa plantations and
transfers the produce to the metropolis (developed world). Mining activities is mainly
practised in the south due to its endowment with many natural resources. As a result foreign
mining companies are concentrated in the south and causing a lot of destruction to the forests.
Legal and illegal loggings have damaged forest cover in the south due to the higher demand
of timber by OECD countries. Government policies governing forest resources are so weak
across the country and so there is illegal logging and massive encroachment into even forest
reserves designated by the state.
5.5. Theoretical framework
The below theories tried to provide explanations to the destruction of the biosphere some of
which might give an insight into the research topic.
5.6. The Conventional theory of Common- pool Resource
In this theory, it is assumed that a resource such as forest, generates a highly predictable,
finite supply of one type of resource unit (hardwood timber or fuel wood for example)
in each relevant time period.
Users are assumed to be homogeneous in terms of their
assets, skills, discount rates and cultural views. They are also assumed to be short-term,
profit-maximising actors who possess complete information. In this theory, any one can
enter the resource and appropriate resource units. Users gain property rights only to what they
29
harvest, which they then sell in an open competitive market. The open-access condition is a
given.
The users make no effort to change it.
Users act independently and do not
communicate or coordinate their activities in any way. The prediction from this theory is that
overharvesting will result (Feeny et al, 1996).
5.7. Dependency theory/ world systems theory
This theory has been termed dependency by development economists and world systems
theory by sociologists. The nations of the world are organised into “a world system” based on
capitalism and market connections, (Walter stein; Chase-Dunn 1998). Nations are unequally
advantaged in this system, with the “core” nations having the most power in the market and
in the organisation of the world. Core nations used their power to maintain their privileged
position through the exploitation of “peripheral” and “semi-peripheral” countries. Core
countries are more developed. Economically contain the head quarters of most transnational
corporations, and wield considerable political influence over peripheral a semi-peripheral
countries. A poor countries export capitalism, peripheral and semi-peripheral countries are
drawn into world economic markets. This unequal organisation and the diffusion of
capitalism affect a host of economic outcomes. Consider land use and its effects, it is very
important to food markets. The low income countries or developing countries implement
policies that favour exports to these markets and eventually augment unsustainable activities
resulting to deforestation.
5.8. Economic Forces and government policies
A different body of theory focuses on economic factors as the affect land use and leads to
deforestation. Kaimowtz and Anglsen (1998) have undertaken the most exhaustive review of
economic models of deforestation. The most general source of deforestation in tropical areas
that they identify is the crop areas and pastures (pastures expansion) which is common in
Latin America and Africa. This is consistent with the type of general equilibrium models
posited by leading economists such as Deacon. General equilibrium models explore the
cumulative effect of decision by actors in an economy under devise taxes and inducements. If
there are no policies related to land use changes from forested to agriculture or pasture uses,
general equilibrium model posit that inefficiency will exist since standing forest and the
ecosystem services produced by them are not given any value in such a setting.
30
5.9. Delayed Model of Demographic Transition
This type of demographic transition is common in low income countries. The delayed
transition means that both the onset of the decline in mortality occurs at a late stage in history
and that the decline in fertility is further delayed in respect to a relatively rapid decline in
mortality. This has resulted in very fast population growth in many African countries (Omran
1971). Especially rapid population or dense population can increase demands for land and
wood, finally exceeding the capacity of forest that is supposed to give food, protection and
wood fuel (Brokensia and Asman 1979). It is very much not uncommon to see people in
Ghana illegally destroy forest reserves set aside by the central government to get access to
land for cultivation of crops to feed their numerous family members.
5.10.
Forests ownership in Ghana
In the twentieth century, the forest area of Ghana covered approximately 34 percent of the
total land area. Forest reservation was started in 1927 by the colonial administration and
ensured the reservation of 11 percent of the country’s total forest area. In all, 282 forest
reserves and 15 wildlife protected areas, occupying more than 38 000 km2 or about 16
percent of the total land area, were established and gazetted in Ghana. There was an
additional 4 000 km2 of forest outside this gazetted area. The main aim of the reservation
programme was to ensure the protection of substantial areas of forest, but the process of
forest land reservation ignored the traditional tenure system, which led to a negative attitude
to reserves among the forest owners and for that matter the general population, especially in
forest fringe communities. This situation was aggravated by a failure to inform forest
communities of their usufruct rights and therefore focusing on forest management on forest
protection by the central government.
All forest lands in Ghana are held in trust by the government, which manages them for the
stool landowners. The Forest and Wildlife Policy of 1948 stipulated that the government
manage forest resources single-handedly, without the collaboration of forest fringe
communities, and this did not yield many positive outcomes. Passage of the current Forest
and Wildlife Policy of 1994 led to some progress regarding stakeholder collaboration, but did
not solve the ownership issue regarding trees outside forest reserves and on farmland; the
lack of clear ownership status calls for a policy review. The forest sector faces a lot of
challenges related to forest ownership, resource tenure and the lack of effective participation
from resource owners and local communities in forest management decision-making.
31
In Ghana, forest ownership is derived from the system of land inheritance. There are two
forms of inheritance: the patrilineal system and the matrilineal system. Because of the
different historical settings of these two systems, they have different concepts of land, land
acquisition and landownership. Under the patrilineal system which is practised in north,
inheritance passes directly down the male line, while in the matrilineal system practised in
south, succession to property and land passes along the matrilineal line according to
primogeniture in the following order: brothers, sisters’ sons, sisters, and sisters’ daughters
(Agyeman Dua, 1991). These systems of land inheritance do not necessarily include tree
tenure right.
5.11.
Stakeholders
The stakeholders in the forest protection in Ghana, both on- and off-reserve, include the
central government through its Ministry of Lands, Forestry and Mines, the Forestry
Commission, stool landowners, district assemblies, forest fringe communities, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), timber contractors, administrators of stool lands, and
private plantation developers, both local and international. It is important to emphasize that in
Ghana ownership of land does not necessarily imply the ownership of and right to fell, extract
and convert logs into lumber without permission from FSD. It is an offence to fell timber,
convert it into lumber or convey it without the relevant permission stipulated by law.
Regarding stakeholders’ rights and responsibilities, only the government − through its
various ministries, department and agencies − has asserted its rights and responsibilities. This
is mainly the result of the government’s failure to formulate policy and define roles for
ensuring sustainable forest resource use, and of inequitable benefit sharing arrangements.
5.12.
Land tenure Systems in Ghana
The term land tenure refers to the various laws, rules and obligations that govern the holding
and/or ownership rights and interest in land (Kasanga, 1988). Generally the land tenure
system of a particular area depends greatly on the traditional or local political organization
within that particular community or locality in Ghana. The below land tenure types are
practised in Ghana.
5.13.
Forest reserves
32
Forest reserves are fully vested in the State through the Forest Ordinance of 1927, and all
forest and timber resources are held in trust by the government on behalf of the stool
landowners. Although land ownership did not change at the time of reservation, traditional
owners are denied rights of access to trees or land in reserves unless they have a permit from
FSD. Since its onset, this law has created animosity between local communities and FSD,
because of foregone benefits and the view that reserves were created without consultation.
The management of trees within forest reserves, and the rights to own, plant, use and dispose
of them are controlled by the State through the Forest Protection Decree of 1974.
(Asare, 2000) ownership of forest is closely linked to the indigenous system of
landownership. Land is communally owned and held in trust on behalf of the people through
the stools and skins. Landowners exert substantial control in deciding whether an area should
be set aside for reservation. Although national law grants the government the authority to
constitute a reserve on any land it deems appropriate, landowners must be consulted through
an arbitration process that is under the jurisdiction of a reserve settlement commissioner, who
must take landowners’ concerns into consideration. Some proposed reserves have had to be
abandoned because of strong opposition from landowners. Asare also reports that in some
instances, such as wildlife reserves, the government purchases the land outright from the
landowners, thereby becoming the property owner and enjoying the same rights as any other
landowner. In effect landowners − whether stools, skins, the government or individuals –
wield immense power on the setting aside of an area as permanent forest estate, and always
have rights to revenue from the exploitation of the resource.
5.14.
Communal forests
Communal forests are woodlands outside forest reserves; most of them are in northern part of
Ghana. Unlike the off-reserve forests of the south, which have economically exploitable
timber trees, the trees in communal forests can be used only by households as sources of
fruits, other food, medicines, etc. Communal forests are either natural or established by
communities with support form FSD and NGOs. Trees in these forests cannot be owned or
inherited by individuals, but usufruct rights − such as collection of herbs and fuelwood − can
be, according to the relevant rules and regulations. In Upper West region for instance, some
communities have reserved areas of land for fuelwood production.
33
5.15.
Sacred grove
Sacred groves are forests that communities have reserved on communal land. They occur in
both southern and northern part of Ghana and are usually very small in size. No individual
has the right to plant, use or inherit trees and other tree products in most of these traditional
forest groves, which are of great socio-cultural and religious significance. The rich histories
of these natural enclaves are diverse, but most are related to the beliefs and values of local
people. Traditional authorities employ indigenous strategies to exclude human activities from
sacred groves, retaining them in or near their original natural state. The most common of
these strategies are taboos that restrict people’s entry altogether or on particular days. In some
cases, the community’s fetish priest is the caretaker of its sacred groves and is usually granted
limited rights to sell tree products, but not the land; no individual has the right to dispose of
such land.
5.16.
The Taungya system
Taungya is a system of forest plantation in which small-scale farmers are given the
opportunity to cultivate crops between the seedlings of a forest plantation for the first few
years after planting (Amanor, 1996). The system was established in 1928 to restore Ghana’s
forests, solve the land shortage that farmers living near forest reserves were facing, and
finally provide the Forestry Department with human labour for plantation improvement.
Since then, lack of ownership rights to trees planted on reserved land has proved to be a grave
disadvantage for forest protection and sustainable management.
6. CHAPTER SIX
34
6.1. Possible Solutions to Deforestation in both south and North of Ghana
The health impact on people of Ghana by deforestation is enormous and needs to be curbed.
The root causes of the health impacts have been identified by this study as those mechanisms
that promote occurrence of deforestation. The mechanisms are therefore the distal and
proximate elements that bring about deforestation. Taking the research findings into
consideration, using laws as usual, in curbing the proximate causes without tackling the distal
causes will not yield maximum results since it is the distal causes that give birth to the
proximate ones. In this light, the study will first of all summarily deal with the solutions to
the distal causes of deforestation and thereafter give solutions to check proximate causes
based on where it occurs in terms of South and North of the country.
Chiefly, government should support family planning units of health institutions across the
country in terms of finance and logistics so that they can consistently educate the masses on
birth con troll measures. Poverty in Ghana is much within the informal sector. Banks can give
loans and training to the poor to go into income generating venture such as bread baking,
fishing, hair dressing and many others. This will give alternative sources of livelihood to
complete dependence on forest sources.
Many misguided laws designed by government should be reviewed by all stakeholders. For
instance, the 1985 investment code that gives five-year tax holiday and 20% tax rebate to
newly established companies operating in rural areas should be reviewed since it attracts
many mining and timber companies to forest areas with their attendant effects on forests.
Dependency theory states that nations of the world are organised into “a world system” based
on capitalism and market connections, where some nations are not favoured in this system,
with the western nations having the most power in the market and used their power to
maintain their privileged position through the exploitation of third world countries (Walter
stein; Chase-Du1998). From the theory it implies the West is part of causes of deforestation
in developing world and for that matter Ghana. The West can therefore help reduce forests
loss in Ghana by taking of certain trade restrictions that prevent Ghana and other low income
countries to diversify their export commodities which will limit pressure on timber products.
6.2. Reduction of deforestation in the southern Ghana
In connection with mining, logging and agriculture as proximate causes or reasons why there
is occurrence of deforestation in the southern Ghana, the following important areas may be
taken into consideration as practical measures to alleviate deforestation in the south
Evidently, in Ghana agricultural activities in both south and north are still being characterised
35
by elements of shifting cultivation including slash-and-burn deforestation preparing lands for
cultivation. Alternative livelihood and income generation measures encouraged such as snail
farming, apiculture, bee keeping and fish farming should be encouraged with motivations
such as subsidies and provision of technical know-how by the central government to attract
farmers who are solely dependent the forest lands. These practices have shown to be potential
alternative sources of income and employment, which could move people away from the
forest resources (Appiah, 2003). Farmers should also be educated by agriculture extension
officers on improved or modernised methods of farming to increase yield on the same
farmyard instead of destroying virgin forests for more yields.
Most forest resources in Ghana faced ownership problems hence lack control. The
Government have ownership rights for forest reserves and even timber trees outside the
reserves especially in the southern Ghana where logging is practised, excluding fringe
communities from the benefits accruing from the resource. Meanwhile the state lacks the
capacity especially adequate funds and personnel to enforce its ownership and user laws
(rights) to control forest resources. The forest resources therefore become a de facto tragedy
of the commons (open- access) and gives room for illegal logging or chainsaw operators to
maximise their utilities. It is estimated that in 1999, more than two-thirds of the wood
harvested in Ghana in the country was illegally harvested and dominated by activities of
chain saw operators(Gayfer et al, 2002). The many existing laws in the forest sector should
be implemented and enforced by the main institutions. These institutions should be provided
with the required human resource and logistics to carry out their functions without shortages.
Rural populations should be educated on the laws and consequences of flouting them.
Government should therefore formulate policy framework that promotes community forest
and encouraging communities to create forest reservations for them. This will drastically
nullify the negative effects of the 1974 Trees and Timber Decree, which gives ownership
rights of all timber trees in Ghana to only the government. The many laws in the forest sector
should be implemented and enforced. Rural populations should be educated on the laws and
consequences of flouting them.
Laws should be enacted that will compel the mining
companies to refill pits after mining and re-plants trees. This will not only curb deforestation
but also prevent breeding sites for mosquitoes.
6.3. Reducing Deforestation in Northern Ghana
The proximate causes of deforestation characterising the North are fuelwood and charcoal
production, bush fires, animal grazing and agriculture. However agriculture is well dealt with
36
in the previous page since it is one proximate cause that cuts across equally between north
and south. To begin with it is not an exaggeration to say that almost every household of
northern Ghana depends on fuel wood for cooking and heating. Burning of biomass definitely
leads to deforestation and apparently releases carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse
gases that cause universal climate change and its attendant effects. Policies that will embrace
introduction of improved stoves in the developing world will have the ability to reduce much
of these problems. The government of Ghana if would revisit the improved stoves project for
the three northern regions of the country which depend largely on forest resources for
domestic energy and income will check forests loss immeasurably. Furthermore, land/forest
rights of ownership do not favour women in the North unlike their counterparts down south.
There are no known customary laws that spell out their illegality to ownership rights. This is
worsening by the scarcity of farmlands making sons and family heads to assert male claims
and lineage principles strongly (Nukunya, 1972). In the three northern regions of Ghana,
women and children are responsible for harvesting of firewood and production of charcoal
for sale and for domestic use and so they overexploit the forest resources maximise their
utilities leading to deforestation. There should be transformation in customary laws that will
give women and daughters the right to own and to succeed family and private lands. This will
help woman protect and manage their forests in a sustainable manner. Bush fires is a common
phenomenon in Ghana and mostly used by farmers, hunters and cattle rangers to clear the
forest for crop cultivation, chase game and to promote fresh vegetative growth for animals
respectively. As Dagomba saying goes “As far as the bushfires continue, the grasshoppers
cannot congratulate each other".Dagomba is the biggest tribal group in northern region as
well as the entire northern Ghana. It is very common to see articulated lorry trucks loaded
with hunters from this tribe hunting expedition. Bush fires are used in such ventures to reach
game. The government of Ghana charge the body concerned to enforce the an anti-bushfire
law of PNDC Law 46, which prohibit the setting of fires except for certain agricultural,
forestry and game management purposes. Hunters could also be motivated with technical
know-how and loans to go into rearing grasscuters, rabbits, local and exotic poultry to help
meet their protein and income needs. Agriculture extension workers should teach cattle
owners to harvest and dry cattle feed during the wet season to be used in dry season will help
reduce incidence of bush fires in the North.
37
38
7. CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1. Conclusion
The study tried to find out if there is correlation between human health and deforestation and
if or no is that relationship similar or different in the southern from the northern Ghana. There
were revelations of impacts of deforestation on human health which seem to skew to the
north than south. Institutional failures regarding implementation of policies to .curb
destruction of forest cover which led to many forest resources attaining defacto (open-access)
tragedy of the commons was discovered and workable policies discussed. Causes of
deforestation were identified as proximate and distal causes. The distal causes were the
underlying causes such as misguided government policies, poverty and population growth
which influenced the appearance of proximate causes such as logging. Solutions to loss of
forest cover were therefore explained according to proximate and distal elements.
39
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