UNIT 4
REFERENCE SOURCES
Overview
When discussing OPAC, we noted that class numbers for reference sources are usually preceded with the
prefix ‘Ref’ as in Ref PN41 .H6 1980. Prefixes are used to help you locate an item in a particular section
or floor of the library. We have PAM for Pamphlets. TH for Theses, P for Periodicals, etc. In this
unit, we shall now examine fully reference sources as a major topic. We shall examine the definition,
categories and types of reference sources and their use. We shall also guide you in how to use reference
sources, and principles of organization in reference tools.
Objectives
Upon successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:

Explain the term reference sources (print and electronic)

Identify and explain the two categories of reference sources (general and subject specific)

Explain the uses of types in each category e.g. general, examples of which are publications and
subject specific, i.e. in the various disciplines.

Organizations and use of reference materials in Bowen University library.
TOPIC
Definition of reference sources
General and specific reference sources
Principles of organization in reference tools
REFERENCE SOURCES
‘Reference” is derived from the verb ‘refer’. This means ‘to turn to for aid or information’. A reference
source is therefore a source consulted for aid or information on a topic, an event, a theme, a place, a
person, a date, or a word (Gates, 1994).
According to Reitz (2004), a reference source is any publication from which authoritative information
may be obtained, including but not limited to reference books, catalog records, printed indexes and
abstracting services, and bibliographic databases. Individuals and services outside the library that can be
relied upon to provide authoritative information are considered resources for referral.
There are many types of reference sources, including dictionaries, encyclopedias, thesauri, directories,
almanacs, and handbooks. But in broader terms, reference works can also include materials such as
bibliographies, atlases, gazetteers, manuals, or statistical sources.
Entries in reference sources are usually arranged either in alphabetical order, classified order,
chronological, order or as databases. When arranged alphabetically, entries are by first letters of the topic
or a person’s last name and this may be supported by an index and cross-references between related topics
or people; when arranged by classified order, entries are divided into categories by topic, geographical
region, group identity or some other principle requiring the use of an index to find references to specific
topics; when arranged chronologically, entries are organized by date. Often in electronic databases,
entries may be in reverse-chronological order, that is the most recent date or information is listed first. In
electronic databases, each record contains fields which may be searched. Fields to be searched in a
database for books include author, title and subject and may also include the date or notes about the book.
Unsearchable fields include the publisher or place of publication.
Characteristics of Reference Sources:
i.
They are authoritative works that can be referred to for specific answers or information.
ii.
They are used to define a given topic and can provide background or introductory information on
a topic.
iii.
They suggest ways of finding materials on a topic or provide statistical or tabular data, as well as
technical instruction.
iv.
They are consulted for information and cannot be read from cover to cover e.g. dictionaries,
encyclopedia. These provide factual and detailed information which answer specific query.
v.
Reference books cannot be checked out of the library because they are usually referred to for
particular pieces of information. The writing style used in these works is informative.
CATEGORIES OF REFERENCE SOURCES
The categories of reference sources are into two and they are:
i.
The general and
ii.
The subject specific
The general reference collections include general language dictionaries such as Oxford English
Dictionary, general encyclopedias such as Encyclopedia Britannica, books in print and other general
reference sources.
The subject specific reference sources are subject related. They are shelved in the library extension
according to their classes in which they belong.
There are two types of reference sources:
a.
Those which contain the information needed like handbooks, dictionaries, etc.
b.
Those which tell the user where the information can be found like Information Access Tools
e.g. indexes, bibliographies, etc.
There are two formats of reference sources namely:
1.
The electronic format, and
2.
The print format.
The print formats are the conventional books. They can have a single copy of several volumes depending
on the extent of coverage and the style of presentation e.g. World Book Encyclopedia has 22 volumes,
Encyclopedia Britannica has 29 volumes.
Example of Reference Sources
Reference sources answer different types of questions. The common example of reference sources and
the kind of information contained in each are as follows:

Abstracts – Abstracts summarize the contents of a large work, such as a book or an article. An
abstract offers a concise description of the information contained in the work without the
interjection of any personal analysis from the abstract author. Abstracts can be used to give a
researcher a general idea of the contents of a work itself. If one reads an abstract and decides that
the work will be useful, then the actual work itself can be retrieved for use.

Almanacs – Almanac, a general reference source, is an annual compendium of practical dates, facts
and statistics, current and/or retrospective, often arranged in tables to facilitate comparison. It also
includes information regarding individual people, nations, specific events, and other types of
information. It contains useful facts about a wide range of topics which includes learning about
countries of the world, government, historical events and many other topics. It contains very basic
information about its entries, and there is a notable absence of overly creative language throughout.
Also, almanacs are a good source of brief information, and often contain citations for their sources
of information. Additionally, they can be utilized for biographical or directory information.
General almanacs include entries pertaining to many different subjects and topics. Examples
include World Almanac and Book of Facts, The New York Times Almanac, etc., while specific
almanacs cover specific subject areas or academic disciplines e.g. Almanac of American Politics,
etc.

Bibliographies – The term bibliography means a “list of books”. It however, assists in providing
information about a book or other work such as film or recordings, including author, publisher, and
place of publication. One may choose to utilize a bibliography when attempting to locate relevant
works about a particular topic, subject, or author. They can also be used as a verification tool of
checking citation information.

Biographical Sources – A biographical source is one in which information is given about
individual people. They may contain very brief information about an entry, or offer more detailed
and complete information about the history of someone’s life. Most often, the individuals listed
have made some significant contribution to warrant their inclusion in the source. One may choose
to use a biographical source when wishing to find information about a specific person in a certain
filed. Example includes Who’s who in Africa, McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography,
etc.

Dictionaries – Dictionary was derived from ‘dictionarius’ which means ‘a collection of words’
(Gates, 1994). Dictionaries include alphabetically arranged information about words or phrases,
either generally, such as in Webster’s New World College Dictionary, French Dictionaries, Oxford
English Dictionaries or in a more specific sense, such as A Dictionary of 1,000 Best Films,
McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. They may offer information such as
spelling or definitions.
We have General Dictionaries, Subject Dictionaries and Special Purpose Dictionaries.
General Dictionaries gives the common usage definition and some can go as far as describing their
origin, and special meanings, giving the correct spelling and pronunciation, and also provide
examples of how to use them with the appropriate social connotations. They may give synonyms,
antonyms, illustrative quotation, map and places, biographical facts, geographical and historical
information. Examples include Concise Oxford Dictionary, Oxford English Dictionary (Has 22
vols.).
Subject Dictionaries give definitions and usage of technical, medical, or subject specific works for
specific fields. Examples are Dictionary of Computer, Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics,
etc.
Special Purpose Dictionaries are used in particular circumstances or situations, not for a specific
subject e.g. for quotations, acronyms, antonyms, etc. Examples: English-French Dictionary,
Fowler’s Modern English Usage, etc.

Directories – Directories include information about people or organizations arranged
alphabetically. Entries include information such as addresses, and affiliations for people, and other
information for organizations, such as finances, officers, and purposes of the organizations.
Directories are often used to find specific information about people or organizations, information
about a company’s services or products, individuals in particular organization responsible for
different tasks, and biographical information or the history of an organization.
Special Purpose Directories include research directories which list research works either ongoing
or completed in a particular area for a given period of time. Examples include Telephone Directory,
Directory of Research Grants, Who’s who in the United Kingdom Information World, Directory of
Lawyers, Financial Aid for Research and Creative Activities Abroad.

Encyclopedias – These are a numbered set of books containing authoritative summary information
about a variety of topics in short essay forms, usually arranged alphabetically by headword or
classified in some manner. Headwords and texts are usually revised periodically for publication in
a new edition. Any indexes are usually located at the end of the last volume in multi volume
encyclopedias.
Encyclopedias are 2 categories namely – the general encyclopedia and the subject encyclopedia.
The General Encyclopedias cover nearly all subjects in a broad overview with the scope and detail
related to type and level of expected user. Examples include the Encyclopedia Britannica (it has 9
volumes), The World Book (22 volumes), etc. while The Subject Encyclopedias cover particular
fields in a more detailed and at a higher level depending on the type and scope. Examples include
Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Encyclopedia of Social Work, Business Encyclopedia,
etc.

Gazetteers – These are separately published dictionary of geographic names that gives the location
of each entry. It is also an index of the names of places and geographic features shown in an atlas,
usually printed in a separate section following the maps, with locations indicated by page number
or grind coordinated or map number. Examples are the US Gazetteer, The Columbia Gazetteer of
the World, etc.

Geographical Sources – These help in locating places and are needed for recreation, business, and
current events. Examples include, Atlases, Maps, Gazetteers, and Travel literature. Travel
Literature provides climatic information, mileage guides, geographical dictionaries, and
political/geographic information on individual country. Examples of these sources are Historical
Atlas of Africa, The Times Atlas of the World, Atlas of Tanzania, etc.

Government Publication – These are publications issued by local, state, national or international
governments. They provide primary information on the government and cover a wide range of
topics which include laws, statistics, departmental plans, annual reports, gazettes, census/population
statistics, national development plans, etc. These publications are placed on the web as html or
PDF files.

Guides – Guides provide information in printed handout or leaflet that explains how to use a library
service, e.g. Online catalog, interlibrary loan, etc; describes important resources on a subject
(World War II), in a discipline (History), or of a specific form (government documents, periodical
articles, etc.), or explains how to accomplish something (cite sources in a particular bibliographical
style, compile an annotated bibliography, etc.).
Guides are tools that are often the best possible resources to sue for a certain task. For instance, a
guide to reference books would offer entries that describe the best possible reference resources for
libraries and would serve to offer assistance to a library that wishes to evaluate its reference
collection. There are many different types of guide available, covering a vast array of subject areas,
including guides to pamphlets, periodicals, newspapers, and government documents.

Handbooks – Handbooks are reference sources that concentrate on a specific subject area and
usually focus on established information as opposed to the latest, most current developments in the
filed. The use of many handbooks often requires having a basic knowledge of a subject area
because they often contain information and use language that may be difficult for causal readers to
comprehend. Handbooks cover a limited area of knowledge, and can be used by people interested
in gaining specific in-depth knowledge about a specific topic.
Handbooks are sometimes used interchangeably with manuals and guides; contain data and tables
of information that are updated on an annual basis. They contain scientific data, formulas, etc.
Examples: A Handbook of Management, Handbook for Teachers in Universities and Colleges, etc.

Indexes – Indexes are tools which allow a user to various access points to locate needed
information. Access points can include author, title, subject or publisher, among other things.
Entries in an index have been carefully analyzed in order to determine which terms are most likely
to be sued as access points by an index user. Also, indexes vary in scope from the general, such as
Lexis Nevis Academic, to the specific, such as Criminal Justice Abstracts. An index may be
used in certain situations in which one has a particular area of interest and desires works relating to
that interest, or possibly an author name or title to be used to locate works.

Manuals – Manuals, much like handbooks, deal with a very specific subject matter and is narrow
in scope. However, the material covered within the manual is often quite detailed and difficult to
understand unless the reader possesses some type of background knowledge of the subject.
Manuals, like handbooks, are often used when one needs information dealing with a specific topic
or procedure on a much more focused detail-oriented level.

Statistical Sources – These focus specifically on charts and tables or statistical measures and
numbers. The largest compilers and publishers of statistical information, from population data, to
indicators of business and economic activity, to climate trends, are the state, national, and
international government bodies. Examples are International Financial Statistics, handbook of
Industrial Statistics, African Statistical Yearbook, UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, United Nations
Demographic Yearbook, etc.

Yearbooks – Yearbooks are reference tools that contain information pertaining to a specific year.
While a yearbook does not contain information from previous years, it does contain quite a bit of
information dealing with that one particular year, often separated by characteristics such as
subject area or geographic boundary. While many yearbooks are general in scope, there are also
many that deal with particular topics and include statistical information.
REFERENCES
Using reference sources, Retrieved November 15, 2009 from
http://www.how-to-stdy.com/study-skills/en/studying/41/using-reference-sources/
Katz, W. A. (1997), Introduction to Reference Work, 7th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill.
Ojedokun, A. A. (2007), Information Literacy for tertiary Education Students in Africa, Ibadan:
World Information Services Limited.
Ojo, S. O. et al. (eds.) (2003), Computing and Information Skills Fundamentals I: Lecture
series. Garborne: University of Botswana.
Reitz, J. M. (2004), Dictionary for Library and Information Science, London:
Unlimited.
University Library: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Sources; Retrieved October 29, 2009, from
http://www.library.illinois.edu/ugl/howdoi/refsources.html.
Third
note
Libraries
(2009),
Using
Reference
University of Chicago Library (2009), Reference sources; Retrieved October 29, 2009,
from http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/using/how/reference.html.l.
Washington University Library (2009), WSU Library Instruction:
Resources. Retrieved October 29, (2009), from
http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/usered/instrpages/reddefs/refdefs.html.
Types
of
Reference
UNIT 5
PERIODICAL LITERATURE
In the last unit, we discussed references in our examination of information access tools.
In this unit, we will explain the concepts and types of periodical literature. We will later discuss the roles
of periodical literature. Finally, we will guide you on how to locate periodic articles and evaluate them.
Objectives
Upon successful completing this unit, you should be able to:

Meaningfully discuss the role of periodical literature in the research process.

Meaningfully discuss the purpose of each type of periodical literature.

Locate, use and evaluate periodical articles.
TOPICS
Definition and characteristics of periodical literature (Serial/Periodical/Journal)
Types and uses of periodical literature.
Role of periodical literature.
Finding journals, magazines, etc in BU library.
Step-by-step: - Researching with periodicalsindexes
Evaluating articles in periodicals.
DEFINITIONS OF PERIDOICAL LITERATURE
According to Wikipedia, a periodical is a published work that appears in a new edition on a regular
schedule while a literature is defined as published writings in a particular style at regular intervals.
According to Payne (2007), a periodical is a publication produced at regular intervals e.g daily, weekly,
monthly, quarterly, annually.
A periodical literature is therefore defined as published work or writings on a particular subject in a
particular style at regular intervals.
Periodicals are referred to as publications issued at regular intervals. They are referred to as Serials.
They include newspaper, magazines and journals. Periodicals are the best source for current and up-todate information in a particular field. Most research papers require the use of scholarly journals, but
information found in general interest sources can be useful in obtaining background information, public
opinion, etc. They usually consist of a collection of articles ranging from a single page story in a
magazine to a 40 page study in a scholarly journal.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERIODICAL LITERATURE
The main characteristics of journals are:
a.
They have plain covers.
b.
They are mostly text.
c.
They have authors with institutional affiliations or professional titles.
d.
They usually have an abstract at the beginning of each article.
e.
They contain scholarly references, including a bibliography or list of references.
f.
They contain very little or no advertisement.
g.
They consist of longer articles (compared to a magazine).
h.
They contain tables and graphs rather than photographs.
The main characteristics of magazines are:
a.
They have a glossy look to attract the casual reader.
b.
They contain lots of advertisement.
c.
They consist of short articles (compared to journal).
d.
They have lots of photographs in them.
The main characteristics of newspapers are:
a.
They are frequent publication.
b.
Information is printed on newsprint.
c.
They have unbound sections.
d.
They contain lots of advertisement.
e.
News reports are written by field reporters.
f.
They contain lots of photographs.
g.
They provide answers to who, what, when where, why, how.
TYPES AND USES OF PERIODICAL LITERATURE

Trade or Commercial Periodicals: These types of periodicals are published for commercial
purposes to provide information on business. Practical information and concerns in a particular
industry are discussed here. They contain business news, product information, advertising, trends
in technology, and law. They include colourful illustrations and advertisements. They are
published weekly or monthly. They are not subject to peer review. The purpose of this
periodical is to make money rather than to provide information. They are targeted at
professionals in that industry or students researching that industry. Examples include Aviation
Week and Space Technology., American Libraries, etc.

Scholarly or Professional Journals: According to Ojedokun (2007), scholarly journals have
articles written by authorities in a specialized field (that is, scholars in the field or discipline).
They are issued by professional institutions or associations to provide news and events like
forthcoming workshops and conferences, etc. These journals give reports on original research or
experimentation, which is often on specific academic disciplines and constitute an important part
of the literature in the subject area. The contents of this research are subject or peer-review
process. Articles include footnotes or bibliographies to other sources using standardized citation
format. The target audience is the scholarly researcher, faculty, and students, that is, members of
a professional organization. These journals are published three times in a year, quarterly, 5 or 6
times in a year, bi-annually, or annually. Examples include Journal of Banking and Finance,
African Journal of Economic Policy, Journal of the American Medical Association, Journal of
Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, etc

Popular Magazines: These are periodicals for general reading for the purpose of informing and
entertaining. They have a glossy look to attract causal reader, have short articles and written in
simple language, and include extensive advertisement and photographs. The articles contained
here are usually on various subjects by different authors and sources are rarely cited. They are
aimed at the general public and are good sources of current news and opinions. Examples include
Ebony, Newsweek, Ovation, etc.

Newspapers: These provide current news and vital information on a wide range of topics issued
at stated, frequent intervals (usually daily). They contain news, opinions, advertisements, and
other items of current, often local, interest. Examples are The Punch, The Guardian, The Sun,
Vanguard, etc.
ROLES/ADVANTAGES OF PERIODICAL LITERATURE

Periodicals provide current, up-to-date and research-based information on a particular discipline or
subject because they are published frequently.

They act as the basis of scholarly communication system.

They provide additional information which may not be covered in textbooks or in a syllabus,
because they discuss current events long before they become the subject of a book

Periodicals advertise business at a cheaper cost compared to that of television stations.

They entertain users.

They promote a reading culture.

They include varieties of views and opinions readily available from different authors.

They contain information on the latest trends, products, research and theories

They are the best source of ephemeral or very specialized information.

More topics may be covered within one volume of a periodical than in a book due to the shorter
length of periodical articles.

They exist for every field and every interest, providing access to a variety of hard-to-find
information.
FINDING JOURNALS, MAGAZINES AND NEWSPAPERS IN A LIBRARY
Periodical search falls into 2 categories namely:
i.
The Known title search
ii.
The Subject search.
The Known Title Search is used by experienced library user. It involves a user searching directly on the
shelves. This direct search on the shelves can be consuming and difficult, a periodical list is therefore
prepared alphabetically by titles of all periodicals showing call number, location and status. OPAC is
used in searching for journal titles subscribed to in the library.
The Subject or Article Search may be difficult to search because they are not organized by articles but
displayed by titles. Assistance is rendered to the users searching for periodical article using the database
in the library such as AGORA, HINARI, POPLINE, ALUKA, etc. Articles not found in the database can
be obtained through Inter-Library Loan (ILL) which is presently non operative in Bowen University
Library.
STEP-BY-STEP:
RESEARCHING WITH PERIODICALS
To research periodicals or when you want information you do not look at the back of the book, like in a
textbook, neither do you search through stacks of individual periodicals for information. You rather
search with indexes produced for the periodical literature. Most periodicals do not have single index to
help find information. Examples of indexes produced to periodical literatures by some publishers to make
searchers easy include Social Science Index, Business Index, Chemical Index, Nigerian Newspaper index
etc.
PERIODICAL INDEXES
An index indicates where information can be found and also provide information sought. It is a reference
source that analyses a document by name and subject. Most print indexes are arranged in alphabetical
order by subject or author.
Indexes are information retrieval devices published as prints or electronic resources and subscribed for its
users.
Periodical indexes are list of records that describe some selected publications and are referred to as tools
that provide a list of articles about a certain topic along with the information needed in order to locate the
actual article by title and author of the article; name and a date of the periodical and the page number.
This is called citation.
Some periodical indexes are intended to cover general subjects while others specialize in particular fields
like the Humanities Index. Most periodical indexes are published monthly or quarterly.
The steps to take in searching for periodical are as follows:
 Describe your information need in writing. This will help to identify relevant articles for the
required information.
 Make lists of words and phrases that best describe all aspects of the topic which will help in
approaching your research from all angles.
 Decide on the appropriate periodical considering the subjects and dates covered and also the type
of material indexed.
 After identifying relevant articles, record the information needed to find the article which
includes the title and date or issue of the periodical, and the title and author of the article.
 Use the online catalogue (OPAC) or the library’s list of periodical holdings to find out if the
library has the publication identification identified in your search and has the volume, date and
issue needed.
 Record the bibliographic information for the articles you think you may use to save time and
frustration when the list of works cited are collected.
REFERENCES
Ojedokun, A. A. (2007), Information Literacy for tertiary Education Students in Africa, Ibadan:
World Information Services Limited.
Ojo, S. O. et al. (eds.) (2003), Computing and Information Skills Fundamentals I: Lecture
series. Garborne: University of Botswana.
Payne,
D. (2007).
What is a Periodical? Retrieved December 2,
http://www.ocad.ca/assers/pdfmedia/dorothy+hoover+library/ what is Periodical?
Powell,
A. (2009). Music Periodicals:
Retrieved on December 2, 2009 from
periodical/html
Third
note
2009, from
PDF.
how to find information in music periodicals.
http://lawrence.edu/library/music/muhi201how to find
Periodicals. Retrieved on December 2, 2009 from
http://www.answers.com/topic/periodical.
Staffordshire University (2008). Information Services. Retrieved December 2, 2009, from
http://www.staffs.ac.uk/uniservices/infoservices/library/about/collections/journals
/about
periodical/index.php.
What
is a periodical? Information commons. Retrieved
http://www.libraries.iub.edu/index.php?pageld=1486
December
2,
2009,
from
What is a periodical? Retrieved December 2, 2009, from
http://library.mcmaster.ca/periodicals/whatist.htm
UNIT 6
INTRODCUTION TO ELECTRONIC DATABASES
Overview
In this unit we will explain the concepts of indexes, abstracts and electronic databases and later
introduce the class to electronic resources. Finally, we will highlight and discuss criteria that can
be used to evaluate information sources.
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Conceptualize indexes, abstracts and electronic databases.
 Give examples of indexes, abstracts and electronic databases in your discipline
 Differentiate between credible and whimsical sources of information using identified
evaluation criteria.
Topics
Definition of Indexes, Abstracts and databases
Examples of Indexes, Abstracts and databases
Definition of databases and Internet/Online databases
Type of databases
Evaluation criteria
Indexes are reference tools that “point to” pieces of information located within a document. An
abstract is a brief paragraph that summarizes the key points and findings of the periodical article
itself. Many indexes include an abstract for each periodical article. Abstracts are very useful
for determining whether the article is likely to contain the kinds of information you need, without
having to go through the process of locating the complete article. Most indexes and abstracts are
now available as online computer databases that offer more powerful searching capabilities and
enable you to cover many years with a single search.
Examples of indexes and abstracts in various disciplines:
 Applied Science and Technology Index
 Bibliography and Index of Geology
 Biological Abstracts
 Chemical Abstracts
 Compendix Engineering
 Physics Abstracts
 Environmental Abstracts
 Image (for mining)
 AGRICOLA
 AGORA
 CAB Abstracts
 Electronic & Communication Abstracts
 Biology Digest
 Bioone
 Computer and Information Science Abstracts
 Worldwide Political Science Abstracts
 Race Relations Abstracts
 PsycINFO
 Public Administration Abstracts
 Philosopher’s Index
 Librarians’ Index to the Internet
 Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts
 Linguistics and Language Behaviour Abstract (LLBA)
 Literature Resource Centre
 Family & Society Studies Worldwide
 Family Studies Abstracts
 Education Abstracts
 Education Index Retrospective
 Essay and General Literature Index
 Books in Print (First Search)
 Child Development & Adolescent Studies


Abstracts in Anthropology
Art Abstracts
Indexes and abstracts in computerized format are called databases (e.g. Online Public Access
Catalogue – OPAC). A database contains machines-readable records for the purpose of
information storage and retrieval. Many databases are accessible through the internet, and
therefore are often called Internet databases or online databases. Publishers, businesses,
government agencies, professional and scholarly groups, and many other credible organizations
create them. Databases provide highly organized collections of information and can be classified
into 5 types:





Bibliographic: databases that provide bibliographic records. Periodical indexes and
library catalogue fall into this database category.
Full-text: databases that provide both bibliographic and full-text records.
Directory: databases that provide factual information about organizations, companies,
products, individuals or materials.
Numeric: databases that provide statistics and data in tables and graphs.
Multimedia: databases that combine text, graphics, photos, video and sound.
Examples of databases
o LEXIS-NEXIS
o MathsciNet
o MEDLINE,
o JSTOR,
o Dissertations and Theses,
o Google Scholar
Advantages of Using Electronic Databases
 Some provide citation information as well as full text articles
 Can be searched across multiple years unlike print indexes
Disadvantages of Using Electronic Databases
 There is no way of seeing how a subject fits into a field of knowledge as they do not
provide cross references.
 It is not easy to scan for information
Evaluation of Information Sources
Users will need to identify reliable sources of information. They would need to discriminate
between fact and interpretation, what is true and false, what is possible and what is impossible,
and what is probable and doubtful, to identify bias and learn how to question the quality of
information. In other words, users will need to make sense of these sources through assessment
of their contents, and hence their appropriateness for their use. Evaluation is thus one aspect of
critical thinking.
Evaluation Criteria
 Suitability
Scope
 Find the breadth of the article, book, website or other materials, and whether this matches
your expectations, i.e. whether it extensively covers your topic adequately; current,
historical or both; published in its entirely or published in an abbreviated or abridged
version; general or detailed in terms of specificity; updates other sources, substantiates
other materials you have read or adds new information
 Find out whether the material is primary or secondary in nature
 Find out if the resource covers the right time/period that you are interested in, it is
important for the user to explore enough sources to obtain a variety of viewpoints in
solving the information problem. User might need to use both primary and secondary
sources sometimes.
Audience
 Find out the intended audience of the source. Is it for popular, professional, or academic
audiences? This suggests the need to check the level of the information presented in terms of
the language used – elementary or highly technical. Does the technicality of language used
meet the user’s expectation? For a general audience, the language should not be too
technical or too advanced but just right for the need of the target audience.
Timeliness
 Check the date of publication of the source or its edition. Further edition could be an
indication that the source has been revised and updated to reflect changes in knowledge, and
has included omissions. It could also mean that the source has become a standard source in
the subject area and is therefore reliable.
 Authority/Reliability
The credibility or reliability of the author and publisher are primary considerations when
evaluating a source of information. The users of the source need to know if the information is
coming from a reliable author and publisher.
The author is the person or organization responsible for the work and may be an individual,
corporation, or sponsoring agency, such as a professional association. The user needs to find out
who the author is, his/her academic credentials (if individual, should include the author’s
occupation/position, education, and experience), and what else the author has written. Ask
yourself if you have seen the author’s name cited in other sources or bibliographies or if the
author’s name has been mentioned in conferences you have attended or associated with a
reputable institution.
The publisher could be a university/academic, professional, government, trade, or commercial
press. The user needs to find out what type of material the publisher publishes – scholar, trade,
news, popular, or sensational; and whether the publisher requires that the information be edited,
reviewed, or referred. For example, for a university press publication, the information contained
in the source would have been reviewed prior to publication.
The unfiltered, free-form nature of the Web presents unique challenges in determining a
website’s appropriateness as an information source. In evaluating a website, the searcher would
need to determine and/or find out the author’s credentials. If not found, think twice before using
information from the site. It is also important to know what motivated the individual or
organization that sponsors the site, for example, what products are they trying to sell. This, the
user would find in links such as “About us”, “Philosophy”, Background”, “Biography”,
“Who am I”, or similar information. Make sure a reputable organization or expert is behind it.
Searchers are particularly advised not to use undated factual or statistical information. The
searcher must learn to question where such information came from. Do not overlook quality;
therefore look out for quality indicators e.g. “links”, “additional site”, “related links”, etc.
However, there is a need to find out the credibility and authenticity of these links to other
resources. In other words, such links should have been evaluated or annotated for them to be
considered credible and authentic.
 Citations/ Documentation
The user may need to check if the author has consulted other sources. i.e. whether the sources of
information used in the work were cited. A bibliography, along with footnotes, indicates that the
author has consulted other sources and serves to authenticate the information that he or she is
presenting. In websites, reliable links or footnotes documenting sources, and referring to
additional resources and other viewpoints will serve the same purpose.
 Objectivity/ Accuracy
It is important to find out the point of view the author represents. The user must be able to
determine if the information covers fact, opinion, or propaganda. Is the information used in the
work verifiable? The user must note that while facts can usually be verified; opinions though
may be based on factual information; evolve from the interpretation of facts. A writer who is
skillful can make the user think their interpretations are facts. In addition, the user must
determine whether the author’s point of view is objective and impartial. Check if the language is
free of emotion-arousing words and bias. Similarly, the user must check if the information
appears valid and well researched, with ideas and arguments advanced more in line with other
works read on the same topic. i.e. whether it is scholarly. In other words, assumptions should be
reasonable, and errors and omissions must also be limited. Objective, correct referenced or
professionally sponsored information is also a mark of accuracy
 Primary versus Secondary Research
In determining the appropriateness of a resource, it may also be helpful to determine whether it is
primary research or secondary research. Primary research presents original research methods or
findings for the first time, e.g. a journal article, book, or other publication that presents new
findings and new theories, using with the data. A newspaper account written by a journalist who
was present at the event been described, is a primary source (an eye-witness, first-hand account),
and may also be primary “research”. A secondary research however does not present new
research but rather provides a compilation or evaluation of previously presented material e.g. a
scientific article summarizing research or data, such as in Scientific American, Discover, Annual
Review of Genetics, or Biological Reviews, an encyclopedia entry and entries in most other
reference books or a textbook.
 Writing Style/ Quality
Having read the source, determine whether the content is logically organized, with the main
points clearly presented. In addition, determine whether the author’s argument is not repetitive
and that the text is easy to read and clearly communicated.
 Currency
Fast moving fields produce more new information and so need to be updated frequently. Ensure
that the resource is updated frequently and not static. In the web environment, a six-month
interval is the maximum acceptable period between updates regardless of discipline. The
organization or person hosting the resource should have a commitment to ongoing maintenance
and stability of the resource. Avoid using outdated or undated resources.
 Uniqueness
Find out if the information in this resource is available in other forms (e.g. print, CD-ROM) and
what advantages the particular resource has. If derived from say a print source, does it have all
the features of the original or have extra features been added? Does it complement another
resource, e.g. providing updates to the print source? A particular resource may not be available
when required, and an alternative/mirror site or other forms of the resource may have to be used.
 Content
Find out if the site contains original information, or simply links. Is the resource an integral
resource, or has it been abstracted from another source, thereby losing meaning or links in the
process? Is it all images or a balance of text and images? Is there an option for text only, or
frames, or a suggested browser for better viewing? Is the information presented cited correctly?
What is the depth of coverage of information?
Sites can be useful both as information resources in themselves and as links to other information,
but users can be frustrated when it contains more useless links. Links must therefore be relevant
to the topic/category and must complement the document theme.
 Links made to other resources
Does the value of the site lie in its links to other resources? Ensure that the links are kept up to
date and made to appropriate information, not dead links and outdated information.
Check the bottom of the page for date of update and links should be made in such a way that it is
clear that an external site is being referred to.
 Searching
Study the search features of the search engine if provided. Determine how effectively
information can be retrieved from resources, if a useful search engine is provided, what operators
and ranking features are available and is the source organized in a logical and appropriate
manner e.g. chronologically for an historical source, or geographically for a regional resource.
Evaluation criteria are complementary. For example in evaluating accuracy you may have to
rely on the same information used in determining authority. In other words, no one factor can be
held in isolation.
References
Gregory, V. L. (2000) Selecting and managing electronic resources New York:
Schumann Publishers.
Neal-
Ojedokun, A. A. (2007) Information literacy for tertiary education students in Africa.
Ibadan: Third World Information Services.