Volume 19, No. 1
Spring 2010
author
Spring 2010
Original Research Articles
The Impact of Sports Participation on Violence and Victimization Among Rural Minority Adolescent Girls . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
Matthew J. Taylor, Rachel A. Wamser, Charleanea M. Arellano and Michelle E. Sanchez
Reaganism and the Dismantling of Civil Rights: Title IX in the 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-25
Theresa Walton
Performance Level and Sexual Harassment Prevalence among Female Athletes in the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-32
Kari Fasting, Celia Brackenridge and Nada Knorre
Changes in Intrinsic Motivation and Physical Activity among Overweight Women in a 12-Week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-46
Dragon Boat Exercise Intervention Study
Meghan H. McDonough, Catherine M. Sabiston, Whitney A. Sedgwick and Peter R.E. Crocker
Features of the Exercise Environment and Body Image: Preferences for Mirror and Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-57
Positions in the Aerobics Room
Ivanka Prichard and Marika Tiggeman
The All-American Girls Baseball League (AAGPBL): A Review of Literature and Its Reflection on Gender Issues . . . . . . . . 58-69
Laura J. Kenow
Physical Activity Barriers, Behaviors, and Beliefs of Overweight and Obese Working Women: A Preliminary Analysis . . . . 70-85
Rikki A. Cannioto
Book Reviews
The Hidden Faces of Eating Disorders and Body Image by Justine Reel and Kathy Beals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-88
Reviewed by Lynda Ransdell and Zoe Hewett
Why She Plays: The World of Women’s Basketball by Christine A. Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-90
Reviewed by Stephanie Bennett
NAGWS Position Paper
Ableism and Body Image: Conceptualizing How Individuals with Disabilities are Marginalized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-97
Justine J. Reel and Robert A. Bucciere
NAGWS Rachel Bryant Lecture
“Living the Spirit and the Dream of NAGWS” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-106
Joy T. DeSensi
Informational Items
Author Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-109
About NAGWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
author
Original Research Article
Changes in Intrinsic Motivation and Physical Activity
among Overweight Women in a 12-Week Dragon Boat
Exercise Intervention Study
Meghan H. McDonough, Purdue University; Catherine M. Sabiston, McGill University; Whitney A. Sedgwick, The University of British
Columbia and Peter R.E. Crocker, The University of British Columbia
Contact
Information:
Meghan McDonough
Department of Health and
Kinesiology,
Perdue University
800 W. Stadium Ave.
West Lafayette, IN 47907
E–mail:
[email protected]
Phone:
(756) 496–9483
Fax:
(765) 496–1239
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
Abstract
Physical and psychosocial health risks are associated with both excess body weight
and a sedentary lifestyle (National Institutes of Health [NIH], 1998). However,
few researchers have focused on behavioral and motivational processes associated
with exercise adoption and maintenance among overweight women. This study
examined the efficacy of a team-based physical activity intervention on motivation and activity from a self-determination theory perspective. Overweight, inactive
women (N=66) were randomly assigned to either a 12-week dragon boat program
or a control condition. Participation in the dragon boat exercise was associated
with increased intrinsic motivation and physical activity. Based on these data, the
researchers suggest that this novel, team-based exercise intervention may improve
motivation and activity levels in this at-risk population.
Inactivity and overweight/obesity have been identified as significant threats to
public health (U.S. Surgeon General, 2007; World Health Organization, 2000). In
addition, poor fitness has been identified as a significant health risk, above and
beyond its association with excessive body weight (Farrell, Braun, Barlow, Cheng,
& Blair, 2002). While inactivity and overweight/obesity do not necessarily co-occur,
they are linked (King et al., 2001; Cragg, Wolfe, Griffiths, & Cameron, 2007). In fact,
increasing physical activity has been identified as one way of battling the obesity
epidemic (Wing, 1999). Physical inactivity is particularly prevalent among women.
In Canada, 52 percent of adult women are not physically active enough to attain
health benefits (Cameron, Wolfe, & Craig, 2007), and 43 percent are considered
overweight or obese (Cragg et al., 2007). While there is extensive literature on exercise behavior, there has been little focus on subgroups of women who are at risk
for inactivity (Landry & Solmon, 2002). In addition, much of the work on exercise
behavior and related concepts, such as exercise motives and perceived barriers for
33
McDonough, Sabiston, Sedgwick and Crocker
exercise, has been atheroetical (Biddle & Nigg, 2000).
Given the potential for physical activity to enhance
physical and psychosocial health (American College of
Sports Medicine, 2006; Biddle, Fox, & Boutcher, 2000),
and the unique challenges that overweight or obese
adult women may face in trying to initiate and maintain exercise behaviors (Ball, Crawford, & Owen, 2000;
Chambliss, Finley, & Blair, 2004; Sabiston, McDonough,
Sedgwick, & Crocker, 2009), it is important to design
and examine theoretically derived exercise interventions
that target overweight adult women.
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a useful framework for understanding motivated behavior (Deci &
Ryan, 1985, 1991). Deci and Ryan (1985, 1991) suggested
that the key to predicting more adaptive outcomes lies
in understanding the reasons associated with motivation.
They proposed that several types of regulation exist on a
continuum from most self-determined, or more internally
controlled, to least self-determined, or most externally
controlled. The most self-determined form of motivation
is intrinsic motivation (IM), or doing the activity for its
own sake. There are three forms of IM (Pelletier et al.,
1995): (1) IM to experience sensations (doing the activity
for the positive physical and emotional effects), (2) IM to
learn (doing the activity to increase knowledge or acquire
new skills), and (3) IM to accomplish (participating in the
activity to achieve new goals).
There are four forms of extrinsic regulation that
represent decreasing levels of self-determination: (1)
integrated regulation involves exercising because it is in
line with one’s sense of self; (2) identified regulation is
a self-determined form of regulation that occurs when a
person does an activity because they want to attain a valued outcome; (3) introjected regulation occurs when an
activity is performed because of an internalized feeling
of obligation to do so; and (4) the least self-determined
motivation is external regulation, where an activity is
performed to gain a reward or avoid a punishment. In
addition, a lack of motivation is termed amotivation. In
physical activity settings, more self-determined forms of
motivation, such as exercising because one enjoys the
feeling of the movement or working out because one
values the health benefits of exercise, have been linked
to more adaptive responses including greater effort and
participation (e.g., Standage, Sebire, & Loney, 2008;
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
Vlachopoulos, Karageorghis, & Terry, 2000; Wilson,
Rodgers, Blanchard, & Gessell, 2003), and more positive
affective experiences (McDonough & Crocker, 2007;
Lutz, Lochbaum, & Turnbow, 2003).
The degree to which an individual is self-determined
for exercise is expected to depend on how well her needs
for feeling competent, autonomous, and related to others are met within the exercise context (Deci & Ryan,
1985; Ryan & Deci, 2002). Specifically, women who feel
more effective at producing desired outcomes, who have
volition to make exercise decisions, and who are socially
connected to others in exercise contexts are proposed
to be more self-determined in their exercise motivation.
The most effective exercise interventions for women are
individualized, flexible, and tailored to meet their specific
needs (Landry & Solmon, 2002). Intrinsic motivation for
physical activity and intervention program attendance
have been found to be associated with perceptions of
competence and enjoyment, involvement in sport-related
activities rather than exercise-type activities, and feelings of relatedness in the activity program (Edmunds,
Ntoumanis, & Duda, 2007; Frederick & Ryan, 1993;
McDonough & Crocker, 2007; Ryan, Frederick, Lepes,
Rubio, & Sheldon, 1997). Therefore, interventions that
facilitate social interaction; include accessible, novel,
sport-type activities; and allow some degree of flexibility
and individualization may be successful in this population. Furthermore, an intervention study that included
follow-up assessments of the SDT constructs, not just
activity adherence, would allow researchers and practitioners to more fully understand what is happening during
both the intervention and follow-up periods (Landry &
Solmon, 2002; Marcus & Stanton, 1993).
Most physical activity interventions conducted with
overweight or obese women have used walking (Gallagher,
Jakicic, Napolitano, & Marcus, 2006; Jacobsen, Donnelly,
Snyder-Heelan, & Livingston, 2003; Treasure, Lox, &
Lawton, 1998), individual exercise in a fitness center
(Edmunds et al., 2007), or aerobic dance classes (Marcus &
Stanton, 1993) as the mode of activity. Providing a novel
physical activity experience within a socially supportive
environment may help overcome some of the barriers to
exercise in this population and encourage intrinsic motivation for activity. Dragon boat paddling is a novel form
of physical activity that may be particularly well-suited for
34
Motivation Changes in an Exercise Intervention
this population. A dragon boat is a 22-person canoe and
paddling is a safe, non-weight bearing activity that allows
women of different fitness levels to participate together.
The intensity of each paddler’s workout can be easily
individualized, as each person can adjust how hard they
pull with the paddle to their own fitness and skill level.
Based on previous research in which dragon boating
has been used as an intervention activity for breast cancer survivors (McKenzie, 1998; McDonough, Sabiston,
& Crocker, 2008; Sabiston, McDonough, & Crocker,
2007), we expected that overweight participants would
experience enhanced self-perceptions and social support.
Furthermore, we predicted that these participants would
feel more competent, autonomous, and related to others in the activity context, and would experience more
self-determined motivation for exercise when compared
to a group of overweight inactive women who were not
involved in dragon boating.
Methods
Participants
Eighty-one women volunteered for the study and
passed the initial screening, which required them to be
19 years of age or older, have a body mass index (BMI)
of 26 kg/m2 or higher (classifying them as overweight;
NIH, 1998), and exercise less than 30 minutes three or
fewer times per week thus not meeting recommended
levels of physical activity for adults (Haskell et al.,
2007). In the 4-6 weeks between being recruited and
the beginning of the study, 15 women dropped out,
citing other commitments that would interfere with the
dragon boating schedule (n = 13) or the onset of an
injury or illness (n = 2). Therefore, 66 women began the
study and completed at least one data collection. The
participants ranged in age from 19 to 67 (M = 42.44,
SD = 11.82 years), and their BMI scores ranged from
26 to 51 kg/m2 (M = 32.67, SD = 5.47). The women
were primarily Caucasian (83%), and they tended to be
highly educated, with 75% having at least a university
undergraduate degree, and an additional 17% having
some post-secondary education beyond high school.
Procedures
Participants were recruited through a poster campaign
around the university campus and surrounding commu-
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
nity. Posters were placed in a variety of visible, high-traffic locations including bus stops, grocery stores, food
courts, community centers, libraries, and fitness facilities.
Women who were eligible to participate were encouraged
to call or email the researchers if they were interested in
the project. All women who contacted the researchers
were screened for BMI, age, and physical activity levels,
and were asked if they were willing to participate in the
randomly assigned dragon boat intervention or control
group condition. Screening for physical activity involved
asking women how often they exercise in a typical week.
They were eligible to be included in the study if they
exercised fewer than 3 times per week for 30 minutes. All
participants were offered free access to the dragon boat
program, either as part of the intervention or as a waitlist
control after the study was complete. Volunteers were
then randomly assigned to either the dragon boat intervention program (n = 34) or the control group (n = 32)
by flipping a coin, and were invited to an introductory
session that included the first data collection.
Participants in both groups attended the introductory session, which consisted of completing written
informed consent forms, PAR-Q health-screening forms,
and a baseline questionnaire assessing self-determined
motivation, relatedness, autonomy, competence, physical
activity, stage of change for exercise, perceived barriers, exercise thoughts, social support for exercise, body
image, and demographic information. The intervention
participants were also given a brief tour of the dragon
boat facility so that they would know where to meet and
what to expect on their first day of dragon boating. In
addition, all women in the intervention condition were
given instructions to complete at least 20 minutes of exercise at least 3 days a week, in addition to dragon boating.
To support this behavior, participants were provided
with copies of the Handbook for Canada’s Physical Activity
Guide to Healthy Active Living (Public Health Agency of
Canada, n.d.), which provided information and advice
on how to get started and maintain a healthy and active
lifestyle. All participants were also asked to keep a physical activity diary that they returned to the researchers on
a weekly basis via email or mail, or personally at dragon
boat practices if they were in the intervention group.
Two days later, women in the intervention condition met for their first 70-minute dragon boat session.
35
McDonough, Sabiston, Sedgwick and Crocker
These sessions continued two times per week for 12
weeks, and involved skill instruction and intermittent
aerobic and anaerobic exercise based on recommendations for novice dragon boat paddlers (Carlsson, 2002).
The dragon boat sessions were coached by the first
three authors, and several research assistants steered the
dragon boats at each session and provided additional
coaching and technical assistance as needed. All staff
members were certified in first aid and cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR), and underwent extensive training
in dragon boat paddling, steering, and coaching prior
to the intervention program. At the end of the program
period, participants in both groups completed the second questionnaire, containing the same measures as at
baseline. The dragon boat program was then offered
to the control group participants. At the end of the
second series of 12 weeks (24 weeks following the initiation of the program), the intervention group completed
a follow-up questionnaire, again containing the same
measures as at instances 1 and 2.
The control group was provided with access to the
dragon boat program immediately after the completion
of the intervention period so that they had the opportunity to dragon boat for 12 weeks in reasonably pleasant
weather. Therefore, while the effects of the intervention
can be compared with the control group, there was no
control group for the follow-up period.
Measures
The questionnaires contained measures assessing
self-determined motivation, relatedness, autonomy,
competence, physical activity, and demographic information. Stage of change for exercise, perceived barriers,
exercise thoughts, social support for exercise, and body
image measures were also assessed, but those results will
not be discussed because they were not a part of the
theoretical focus of the research question addressed in
this paper. In addition, eight women were randomly
selected from the dragon boat intervention group and
were asked to participate in qualitative interviews at the
same time points as the questionnaires in order to gain
further insight into their perceptions of and experiences
during the intervention. The qualitative data is the focus
of another study (Sabiston et al., 2009).
Motivation. Li’s (1999) exercise motivation scale was
used to assess eight types of motivation: amotivation,
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
external regulation, introjected regulation, identified
regulation, integrated regulation, intrinsic motivation to
experience sensations, intrinsic motivation to learn, and
intrinsic motivation to accomplish. The scale contained
31 items assessed on a six-point Likert scale ranging
from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Scale scores were
calculated as the mean of all items for a particular scale.
This scale was developed for use with adults in the exercise context, and adequate (Cronbach’s alpha (α) > .70)
reliability and validity—both in terms of factor structure
and in discriminating between exercisers and non-exercisers—has been demonstrated (Li, 1999).
Relatedness. Perceptions of relatedness to others in
exercise was assessed using a version of the Perceived
Relatedness Scale (Richer & Vallerand, 1998) that has been
translated into English and modified for use in the exercise context by Kowal and Fortier (1999; 2000). The scale
contains the stem, “In my relations with the people I exercise
with I feel…” followed by ten verbs (e.g., supported, related,
understood) that are rated on a seven-point Likert scale
ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The mean of
all items is calculated to arrive at a scale score for relatedness. This modified version of the scale has acceptable
internal consistency, and construct validity is supported
through evidence of positive relationships with flow and
intrinsic motivation (Kowal & Fortier, 1999, 2000).
Autonomy. Autonomy in exercise was measured using
the autonomy subscale of the Basic Need Satisfaction
at Work scale (Deci et al., 2001) adapted to refer to
exercise rather than the work context. The autonomy
scale had seven items, each assessed on a seven-point
Likert scale ranging from not at all true to very true. A
scale score for autonomy was calculated as the mean
of all seven items. The original scale was found to have
acceptable reliability (α = .79) and construct validity with American clerical workers (Deci et al., 2001).
Evidence of acceptable reliability (α = .70) and expected
relationships with motivation and participation has also
been demonstrated with a version of this scale adapted
for physical education (Ntoumanis, 2005).
Competence. Competence was assessed using the athletic competence subscale of the Self-Perception Profile
for College Students (Neeman & Harter, 1986). This scale
was designed to assess adults’ perceptions of ability or
skill in sport and physical activity. It contains four items,
36
Motivation Changes in an Exercise Intervention
each assessed using a structured alternative format on a
four-point scale. In this format, participants are presented
with two opposing statements, and are asked to choose
which statement is more true for them. Then, they must
decide if the statement is sort of true for them, or really
true for them. Evidence of adequate reliability (α = .92)
and validity of the scale’s factor structure has been found
with college-age adults (Neeman & Harter, 1986).
Physical Activity. A brief self-report measure of physical activity was used to provide a simple assessment of
types and amount of activity in which the participants
were currently participating. Participants were asked to
list any exercise or physical activities they were currently
doing, and to give the frequency and duration of each.
Energy expended in physical activity was calculated
by multiplying the MET value of each activity by the
total time (in hours) spent doing that activity per week,
by body weight (in kg), and by summing all activities
reported to yield the total energy expended per week
(in kCal) (Ainsworth et al., 1993, 2000). Researchers also
took attendance at each dragon boat session.
Data Analysis
The data were screened, and descriptive statistics and
scale reliabilities were calculated. A series of ANOVAs
were conducted to determine if there were any significant
differences between the control and experimental groups
at Time 1 on any of the variables in the study. Two
(group) by two (time) repeated-measures MANOVAs
with follow-up ANOVAs were used to examine whether
there were significant changes over the 12-week intervention. In cases where significant interactions (i.e., intervention effects) occurred, simple main effects were calculated
to examine the significance of group changes. In addition, for cases where significant changes were attributed
to the intervention, repeated-measures ANOVAs were
used to examine whether changes in those variables were
still significantly different from baseline at the end of a
12-week follow-up period.
Results
Data Screening
One participant was removed from the analyses
because she dropped out of the intervention program
after only three practices due to her perception that
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
dragon boating had led to increased arm size. While
there were other participants who had poor attendance
during the intervention (e.g., six women [18% of the
experimental group] attended fewer than 10 sessions),
none of these individuals left the program entirely.
Less than one percent of the data points were missing. Missing data were not correlated to any other variables in the data set, and could therefore be treated as
missing at random. Person mean substitution was used
to impute missing data in cases where a minimum of 50
percent of the items on a particular scale were not missing (Hawthorne & Elliott, 2005). In cases where data on
a particular variable were still missing, those individuals
were excluded from analyses involving those variables,
as reported in the results of each analysis.
Most variables were approximately normal, with
the exception of amotivation at time 1 and time 2,
which was positively skewed. This finding is consistent
with previous literature on individuals who voluntarily engage in a physical activity program (Mullan,
Markland, & Ingledew, 1997). A logarithm transformation resulted in acceptable skewness values, and therefore this transformed amotivation variable was used in
subsequent analyses (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).
Descriptive Statistics and Reliabilities
Descriptive statistics and reliabilities are found in
Table 1. All scales except for introjected regulation
had adequate (> .70) internal consistency statistics
(Nunnally, 1978). Deleting items from this scale did
not substantially improve reliability, so analyses proceeded without any modifications. All results involving
introjection should be interpreted with caution due to
its low reliability. There were no significant differences
between the control and experimental groups at Time 1
on any of the variables in the study.
Intervention Effects
Motivation. The intervention was associated with
changes in motivation (see Table 2) as demonstrated by
a significant multivariate time Í group interaction for
the regulation types on the self-determined continuum.
Significant group-by-time interactions were found using
follow-up repeated-measures ANOVAs for all three types
of intrinsic motivation: sensation, to learn, and to accomplish. Based on tests of simple main effects (see Table 2
37
McDonough, Sabiston, Sedgwick and Crocker
and Figure 1a-c), the dragon boat group increased significantly in intrinsic motivation to experience sensations
(Mt1 = 4.75, SDt1 = .15; Mt2 = 5.14, SDt2 = .11), while the
control group did not change, (Mt1 = 4.82, SDt1 = .73;
Mt2 = 4.81, SDt2 = .68). Similarly, the dragon boat group
increased significantly in intrinsic motivation to learn,
(Mt1 = 4.10, SDt1 = 1.04; Mt2 = 4.67, SDt2 = .89), while the
control group did not change (Mt1 = 4.03, SDt1 = .93; Mt2
= 4.10, SDt2 = .79). Changes in intrinsic motivation to
accomplish did not reach significant levels for either the
experimental or the control group (Mt1 = 4.67, SDt1 = .91;
Mt2 = 4.22, SDt2 = .82).
Repeated-measures ANOVAs were then done with
the experimental group only to examine whether the
increases in intrinsic motivation to experience sensations and intrinsic motivation to learn were still significantly higher than baseline three months following the
completion of the intervention (see Table 2 and Figure
1a-c). Intrinsic motivation to experience sensations
was significantly higher at the 3-month follow-up (Mt1
= 4.73, SDt1 = .87; Mt3 = 5.10, SDt3 = .65). However,
intrinsic motivation to learn was not significantly higher
at the 3-month follow-up (Mt1 = 4.18, SDt1 = 1.06; Mt3
= 4.47, SDt3 = 1.01). Therefore, the experimental group
maintained the increased intrinsic motivation to experience sensations but not intrinsic motivation to learn.
Psychological Needs. A repeated-measures MANOVA
was conducted to examine whether there were changes
in psychological need fulfillment (see Table 3). The only
significant multivariate effect was a main effect for time.
Therefore, psychological need fulfillment changed over
the course of the study, but was not associated with
the intervention. Using repeated-measures ANOVAs we
found that the only significant univariate change was a
time effect for competence (see Table 3). Specifically,
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Reliabilities
Time 1
Motivation
Amotivation
External Regulation
Introjected Regulation
Identified Regulation
Integrated Regulation
IM-Sensations
IM-Learn
IM-Accomplish
Psychological Needs
Autonomy
Competence
Relatedness
Physical Activity (kcal/week)
Time 2
α2
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
1.44
2.26
3.67
5.21
4.53
4.70
3.99
4.55
.68
1.08
1.02
.72
.89
.87
1.06
.88
1.43
2.33
3.82
5.32
4.66
4.98
4.40
4.62
.73
.99
.97
.56
.89
.66
.89
.81
1.40
2.32
3.81
5.33
4.78
5.10
4.43
4.84
.65
1.14
.99
.65
.87
.66
.99
.65
.82
.81
.66
.83
.77
.85
.89
.79
5.31
4.74
4.74
1615.28
1.03
.80
1.09
1157.20
5.27
2.25
4.86
1521.42
1.05
.83
1.07
1733.42
5.38
2.25
4.96
1733.06
1.06
.74
1.20
1144.77
.77
.87
.91
N/A
1
Time 3 is based on the dragon boat group only.
2
α values are reported for time 1 variables. Values were similar at time 2 and 3.
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
Time 31
38
Motivation Changes in an Exercise Intervention
Table 2
Tests of Intervention Effects on Motivation
Repeated Measures of MANOVA
Source
Wilks’s Lambda
Time
Group
Time X Group
.77
.90
.73
df
8, 51
8, 51
8, 51
Multivariate F
1.88
.70
2.32*
Partial η2
.23
.10
.27
p
.08
.69
.03
Time X Group Effects for Repeated Measures ANOVAS testing changes from Time 1-2
Amotivation
External Regulation
Introjected Regulation
Identified Regulation
Integrated Regulation
Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Sensations
Intrinsic Motivation to Learn
Intrinsic Motivation to Accomplish
df
1, 58
1, 58
1, 58
1, 58
1, 58
1, 58
1, 58
1, 58
F
1.91
.60
2.59
.88
.08
5.05*
4.59*
6.56*
Partial η2
.03
.01
.04
.02
<.01
.08
.07
.10
p
.17
.44
.11
.35
.78
.03
.04
.01
df
F
Partial η2
p
Simples Main Effects for Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Sensations
Dragon Boating Group
1, 30
8.15*
.21
.01
Control group
1, 28
.01
<.01
.94
Intrinsic Motivation to Learn
Dragon Boating Group
1, 30
10.07*
.25
<.01
Control Group
1, 28
.30
.01
.59
Repeated Measures ANOVAS Testing Changes in Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Sensations and Intrinsic Motivation
to Learn in Dragon Boating Group from Time 1-3
Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Sensations
Intrinsic Motivation to Learn
df
1, 29
1, 29
F
8.54*
4.18
Partial η2
.23
.07
p
.01
.16
*p <.05
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
39
McDonough, Sabiston, Sedgwick and Crocker
competence perceptions improved over the course of
the study in both groups (Mt1 = 2.04, SDt1 = .79; Mt2 =
2.24, SDt2 = .83). At the 3-month follow-up, perceived
competence was still higher than baseline values (see
Table 3; Mt1 = 1.97, SD12 = .70; Mt3 = 2.22, SDt3 = .76).
At least for the experimental group, increases in competence perceptions experienced during the intervention
period were maintained through follow-up.
Physical Activity. There was a significant group-bytime interaction for physical activity (see Table 4).
Based on follow-up simple main effects tests (see Table
4 and Figure 1d) we found that the dragon boat group
significantly increased physical activity levels (Mt1 =
1615.41 kcal/week, SDt1 = 1080.36 kcal/week; Mt2 =
2205.41 kcal/week, SDt2 = 1915.84 kcal/week), while the
control group did not change (Mt1 = 1725.85 kcal/week,
SDt1 = 1276.41 kcal/week; Mt2 = 1547.48 kcal/week, SDt2
Table 3
Tests of Intervention Effects on Psychological Need Fulfillment
Repeated Measures MANOVA
Source
Wilks’ Lambda
df
Multivariate F
Time
.83
3, 44
3.10*
Group
.92
3, 44
1.25
Time X Group
.93
3, 44
1.10
Time Effects for Repeated Measures ANOVAS testing changes from Time 1-2
Partial η2
.18
.08
.07
df
F
Partial η2
Competence
1, 48
9.01
.16
Autonomy
1, 58
.74
.01
Relatedness
1, 56
.80
.01
Repeated Measures ANOVA Testing Changes in Competence in Experimental Group from Time 1-3
df
1, 24
Competence
F
5.46*
Partial η2
.19
p
.04
.31
.36
p
<.01
.39
.38
p
.03
*p< .05
Table 4
Tests of Intervention Effects on Physical Activity
Repeated Measures ANOVA
Source
Time
Time X Group
Simple Main Effects
Partial η2
.03
.09
p
.22
.02
df
F
Partial η2
Dragon Boating Group
1, 30
5.47*
.15
Control Group
1, 27
.73
.03
Repeated Measures ANOVA Testing Changes in Experimental Group from Time 1-3
p
.03
.40
WSPAJ
Vol. 19,Activity
No. 1 Spring 2010
Physical
df
1, 57
1, 57
df
1, 29
Multivariate F
1.54
5.36
F
1.25
Partial η2
.04
p
.27
40
Motivation Changes in an Exercise Intervention
= 811.31 kcal/week). At the 3-month follow-up, however, activity levels were not significantly different than
at baseline (see Table 4; Mt1 = 1610.94 kcal/week, SDt1
= 1086.15 kcal/week; Mt3 = 1809.85 kcal/week, SDt3 =
1269.53 kcal/week).
Discussion
In this study we compared two interventions aimed
at improving psychosocial predictors of exercise and
physical activity levels among overweight women: a
control group that received a standard print information intervention, and a group that was offered a
dragon boating program as a novel and social physical
activity. Participation in the dragon boating program
led to increases in intrinsic motivation and physical
activity that were not demonstrated in the control
group. Furthermore, at least for the dragon boat group,
improvements in intrinsic motivation to experience
sensation and competence experienced during the
Figure 1
Changes in intrinsic motivation to experience sensation (a), learn (b), and to accomplish (c) and in physical activity
(d) during the intervention (0-12 weeks) and follow-up period (12-14 weeks) among the dragon boat and control groups.
Points represent the mean level of intrinsic motivation; vertical lines represent standard errors of the means.
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
41
McDonough, Sabiston, Sedgwick and Crocker
intervention were maintained three months after the
completion of the program. Considering that this is a
population at risk for low levels of physical activity and
attrition from activity programs, this is promising preliminary information about the effectiveness of novel
team activity programs like dragon boating to meet the
exercising needs of overweight women.
The most positive finding from this study was that
participating in dragon boating resulted in increased
intrinsic motivation for exercise among overweight
women. Intrinsic motivation is associated with more
adaptive cognitive, behavioral, and emotional consequences (see Vallerand, 2007 for a review), and participation in exercise specifically (Fortier, Sweet, O’Sullivan, &
Williams, 2007; Milne, Wallman, Guilfoyle, Gordon, &
Courneya, 2008; Standage et al., 2008). Dragon boating
may be a particularly useful group activity to include in
exercise interventions for this population as it may be a
viable way to help increase and maintain activity levels,
and create a positive exercise experience for women.
Most intervention studies focused on this population
do not incorporate interactive group activities, and it
seems that this may be a beneficial area of future research.
It is important to note that this type of intervention is
more than a group physical activity program because it
is focused on a group of similar people. This may contribute to reality confirmation, a type of social support
where interactions with people who are similar to oneself
and who see things the same way confirm one’s perspectives and perceptions (Richman, Rosenfeld, & Hardy,
1993). Also, qualitative studies focused on adult women
(McDermott, 2000, 2004) and breast cancer survivors
(McDonough et al., 2008; Sabiston et al., 2007) have
included evidence of the importance of exercising among
similar others for benefits such as increased competence,
a better sense of self, enjoyment, and empowerment.
However, in the qualitative work done with participants
in this exercise intervention (Sabiston et al., 2009) some
women reported that making meaningful connections
with others in the dragon boat group was difficult, corroborating the finding that relatedness did not change in
the present study. While they had similar fitness levels
and weight concerns, and generally reported others to be
pleasant and fun, they did not necessarily have similar
interests, goals, and outlooks.
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
Perceptions of competence improvements in both
the control and dragon boat groups are consistent
with previous studies examining exercise interventions
involving giving participants printed information aimed
at helping them initiate and maintain exercise behavior.
For example, Levy and Cardinal (2004) examined the
efficacy of a print-based intervention (which included
goal setting and social support tips) designed to help
adults with low activity levels experience autonomy,
competence, and relatedness in exercise. This mail-mediated intervention resulted in improvements in autonomy perceptions and physical activity in the absence of
any personalized instruction or provision of an exercise
program. In contrast to their study, both groups in the
current study increased perceptions of exercise competence. It is possible that the established printed physical activity guide used in the present study facilitated
increased perceptions of competence because of the
ease of presentation and the variety of exercises that are
now targeted with the guide. This information may be
adequate for increasing overweight women’s knowledge
about and comfort with physical activities, which in
turn may improve their perceived competence.
Contrary to our expectations, the dragon boat
intervention did not have unique effects on psychological need fulfillment. Data from cross-sectional studies
with adult dragon boaters (McDonough & Crocker,
2007) and exercise class participants (Wilson, Rodgers,
& Fraser, 2002) is consistent with the theory that
autonomy, competence, and relatedness are predictors
of self-determined motivation. Furthermore, Wilson and
colleagues (2003) showed that need fulfillment increased
across a 12-week, mixed-gender exercise class. However,
work examining changes in psychological need fulfillment over time among overweight or obese women
involved in an exercise program is limited. Edmunds
and colleagues (2007) compared overweight and obese
adults who adhere to a 3-month exercise program
with those who drop out and found that those with
greater adherence had greater increases in relatedness
needs over time, and that need satisfaction predicted
self-determined motivation in the sample as a whole.
However, as reported previously (Sabiston et al., 2009),
participating in this interactive group physical activity
with other women with similar weight and physical
activity levels was not necessarily enough to facilitate
42
Motivation Changes in an Exercise Intervention
the development of meaningful social connections.
Future research is needed to examine whether more
intensive interventions that specifically target fostering
more meaningful social connections through exercise
interventions has an impact on motivation and physical
activity behavior in this population.
Alternative mechanisms that could explain the
intervention effect on intrinsic motivation include that
the women in the dragon boat group were outside in
a novel environment, participating in an instructional
program aimed at teaching them a new skill. The opportunity to be outdoors and the presentation of a new
skill in an enjoyable manner may have had a positive
influence on intrinsic motivation to experience sensations, to learn, and to accomplish, even if they did not
lead to significant increases in competence, autonomy,
and relatedness need fulfillment. Prior research with
SDT has shown that the effects of various elements of
the social environment on motivation are not necessarily fully mediated by the fulfillment of the three psychological needs (e.g., McDonough & Crocker, 2007).
Further research is needed to explore whether there are
direct effects of the environment on intrinsic motivation, or other mediating processes involved.
There are several limitations to the present study
that must be considered when interpreting the results
and considering directions for future study. First, this
was a small study, and some non-significant findings
may have resulted from a lack of power. Dragon boat
programs require considerable resources and organization compared to many of the more typical exercise
interventions studied, such as walking and aerobic
dance classes, and therefore we were limited in the
number of boat spaces we could make available for
the study. Despite this limitation, numerous significant
differences were detected that support looking further
at the efficacy of intervention programs of this nature.
WSPAJ Vol. 19, No. 1 Spring 2010
Low attendance may have also decreased the potential
for affecting significant change in some participants,
but struggling with attendance in an exercise program
is commonly experienced in this population, and is precisely one of the reasons why we chose to target overweight women for this project. The fact that significant
intervention effects in intrinsic motivation and physical
activity were found despite this challenge can be considered a strength of these findings. Finally, the lack of
data for the control group during the follow-up period
is not preferable, but was necessary in order to be able
to offer the dragon boat program to the control group
participants for the full 12 weeks before the dragon
boat season ended and the weather became unpleasant.
Nineteen of the control group participants opted to
take part in the dragon boat program.
The outcomes of this study provide evidence to
inform future intervention studies looking at psychosocial health. Given this preliminary evidence that dragon
boating may be an effective activity for increasing
exercise participation and seems to help address the
issue of increasing intrinsic motivation for exercise in
this population, it is important to consider future work
examining the long-term impact of such a program.
While a 12-week program is sufficient to experience
some psychosocial and physical changes from exercise,
questions surrounding the impact of enhanced intrinsic
motivation on long-term adherence in these programs
and sustained improvements in psychosocial variables
have not been documented. Overall, dragon boating
coupled with an information intervention appear to
be an effective way to increase intrinsic motivation,
activity levels, and perceptions of competence among
overweight women in the short term, and provides a
promising avenue for future research examining longterm exercise adherence in this under-researched, at-risk
population. n
43
McDonough, Sabiston, Sedgwick and Crocker
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