The Alberta Bair Theater Department of Education and Outreach Presents The Phoenix and the Dragon: Multicultural Meanings of Sol Location: MSU‐B Downtown Campus Cost: $40.00 for seminar and Music of the Sun with ETHEL Quartet and Robert Mirabal $10.00 for seminar non‐credit option Instructor: Dr. William Mouat Credits Earned: 6 (six) OPI credits or .33 MSU‐B graduate credit To register, call 406.294.5202 or e‐mail: [email protected] Tuesday, January 21, 2014 at 6:00 p.m. I.
SEMINAR LECTURE TOPICS OUTLINE by Dr. William Mouat A. The Myth of the Phoenix  What, in your opinion as an educator, is the most endurable Phoenix to Sun correlation? (Examples may include – but do not need to be limited to ‐ the birth and death of nature and the seasons and/or the rise and fall of man‐made dynasties from a grandiose spiritual and metaphorical perspective.) How could this viewpoint be designed into a teaching unit or lesson plan? Please provide an example or examples. B. Chinese Dragon Symbols 
Clearly, the Chinese dragon has specific meanings based upon epic and profound Chinese and Mongolian cultural paradigm shifts. Two research and curriculum design units could be developed from this thesis: 1. How was the dragon interpreted into Western Mythos and folk tales? What are the direct Eastern parallels and/or contradictions to more or less “familiar” Western dragons? 2. Expand upon another mythological creature or actual animal with regard to a specific astronomical body or phenomenon. Examples could include the reasons for the Zodiac signs, the names of planets, etc. C. Native American Symbolism 
What is your current plan – considering full integration of a Native American Studies component – to provide sufficient North, Central and South American cultural and historic details into the study of the various myths and symbols? Do you prefer timelines and pictorial references to a traditional, prosaic approach? Does music and storytelling play a large part in your unit design? In your opinion, what is the single, most effective means to integrate the arts into Native American symbolism and folklore? D. Astrophysics 
List one or more of the most practical, sustainable and successful arts integration components that can or are being used in the following fields: (Feel free to use examples in music, theater, poetry, visual art, kinesthetic art or any other relevant media or mixed media.) Please provide a quantifiable model. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Acoustical Physics Solar Evolution/Astronomy Spectrographic Analysis and Particle Physics Star‐Mapping Quantum Mechanics and Relativity Other/TBA II.
Online Research Information Packet for Teachers A. Exploring the Myth of the Phoenix Where Did it Come from and Why Has it Such Power? Charlotte Kuchinsky The mythical bird known as the phoenix combines the acts of death and rebirth into a powerful image; that of a creature of such strength and majesty that it can burn itself up and then rise again from its own ashes. But where did such a concept arise and what does it represent? Some credit the Phoenicians with the birth of this mythical bird. Others credit ancient Egypt. Either way, the phoenix was a symbol of immortality. It would heal itself upon injury and it could live for hundreds and, in some cases, even thousands of years. With the Egyptian obsession with immortality, it is easy to see why many believe that the mythical bird sprung from their fertile imaginations. It is definitely the sort of story that fits in with their culture and religious beliefs. As the myth goes, only a single phoenix existed at any given point in time. It was considered the most noble among birds and, therefore, often equated with symbols of power like the gods themselves. Every 500 years or so (depending upon the culture), the bird would feel its death coming upon it. When this occurred, it would build a nest from fragrant spices. This would become both its funeral pyre and its place of rebirth. But the Egyptians weren't the only culture to believe in the phoenix myth. It also existed throughout Europe, Asia, and the Orient. Over time, the phoenix became associated with creation itself and even, in some instances, with death as well. In Egypt, the phoenix was pictured as a "bennu," a kind of heron like bird with feathers on its head that gave it a resemblance of a crown. Its name literally meant "to rise." The bennu was a sacred bird that was believed to represent the resurrection of the Egyptian god Osiris. It could heal any mortal wound with its tears. The Greeks are credited with giving the bird the name by which it would eventually be known to all – the phoenix. Like the Egyptians, both the Greeks and the Romans attached the bird symbolically to their gods, most specifically the sun god. However, the Greek and Roman phoenix birds bore little resemblance to Egypt's depiction. Instead, they were more often pictured as peacock or eagle‐like. The one thing that all versions of the phoenix had in common was the color – the flame red of fire. It is the Arabian phoenix that most closely resembles the mythical bird as we know it today. Their interpretation of the bird was majestic. It was said to be covered in scarlet red plumage with golden accents that glistened in the sun as it flew. In Chinese mythology, the phoenix, which was called the Feng Huang, took on new meaning. It became the symbol of the sacred power granted to the Empress from the gods themselves. It also represented the merger of the ying and the yang (male and female). The Chinese phoenix was often considered a much gentler creature than most other versions. It was described as a bird of grace and refinement, much like the Empress herself. However, other descriptions were much more horrific in nature, combining not only the qualities and features of various birds, but those of other animals as well. Depictions and stories of the phoenix can be dated back over 7,000 years in China. Many tell of the bird's bravery and courage, grace and wisdom, virtue and good luck. The Japanese phoenix bears a great deal of resemblance to that of the Chinese. It too, is considered a symbol of the merger of male and female, with Ho representing the male side and Oo representing the female side. This version of the bird, called the HoOo, was believed only to appear when a ruler of great virtue sat upon the throne, heralding in a period of peace and prosperity for the Japanese people. For a while, the idea of the phoenix was even accepted as an early Christian symbol representing Christ's ultimate defeat of death through the resurrection. But many took offense to the drawn parallel and it didn't survive over time. It was replaced with a much stronger sign of Christ's miraculous life‐after‐death ascension; that of the cross. Over the years, the mythical bird began to live anew in magical tales of flight and fancy in the pages of literature. Even today, it is recognized in one of the most beloved modern day book and movie series, the tales of Harry Potter. Whether or not the phoenix ever really existed seems to matter little. For it is the idea behind the bird – its symbology – that holds the real power. It is a symbol of power over death and the constant rebirth of life. In short, it symbolizes the circle of life as it truly exists today and forever more. B. The grandeur of the ancient Chinese dragon symbol is explained here. Dragons are said to be evil and diabolical creatures. In Christian symbology, a dragon is seen defeated by the archangel Michael, whereas in myths and fairy tales dragons are killed and slain by the hero of the story. In China however, this mythological symbol dates back to 3000 BC and stands for happiness, immortality, procreation, fertility and activity. Dragons were believed to ward off evil spirits. Take a look at a Chinese city and you'll see dragons decorating ancient monuments and buildings, sometimes playing with a pearl or thunder‐ball. One can also see dragons on the garments of ancient Chinese generals. The Emperor alone had nine of them on his brocade. From the Han dynasty and on (206 BC ‐ 220 AD) dragons took a symbolic meaning based on their colours. Chinese dragons were often red or gold, turquoise or white. The turquoise dragon was the symbol of the Emperor, the East, the rising sun, the rain as well as the fifth element of the Chinese zodiac. The white dragon on the other hand stood for the West and death. According to Chinese mythology, dragons lived under the surface of the Earth and only visited the world in the second month of the Chinese calendar to cause rain and thunder. They looked like snakes and had no wings. Each one of its four short legs had five toes, unlike the Korean one, which had four and the Japanese one, which had three. The five‐toed dragons symbolized power and in China these dragons were called "Lung." There exist four major categories of Lung. A) Tien‐Lung, the Celestial Dragon which protects the House of Gods, B) Shen‐Lung, the Spiritual Dragon in control of the wind and the air, C) Ti‐Lung, the Earth Dragon in control of the rivers and all the water on Earth and D) Fut's‐Lung, The Underworld Dragon which guards the precious metals and gems. So Chinese dragons, unlike European legends, stand for good deeds and can often be seen parading in Chinese festivals. The Chinese New Year's Day or the Chinese Spring Festival as it is better known, for example, takes place in January or February, depending on the lunar calendar, and the Chinese dragon is seen parading in the streets. It's the biggest celebration of the year. It's a chance for families to gather from all parts of China. Chinese wear their new clothes and pay a visit to friends and family wishing everybody "a Great New Year, Happiness and Fortune." And then springtime comes. The Day of the Lanterns is another celebration where dragons are seen parading. It takes place the 15th day of the first lunar month. Hundreds of lanterns are put on display and Chinese eat rice and pasta, which symbolize happiness in life. Finally, there is also the celebration of autumn when Chinese make a sacrifice to the Moon, which is most beautiful this time of the year. It takes place the 15th day of the eighth lunar month. Chinese dragons mean no harm and are often compared to the country itself. ~Essortment, 2013 C. What Does Native American Symbolism Mean? Decorative and symbolic, these designs are seen frequently: Visitors to the Southwest are often intrigued by the variety and aesthetic appeal of the design elements used in Native American arts and crafts. The designs on Indian pottery, weavings, baskets and silver and stone jewelry are so intricate and carefully constructed, it is inconceivable they are not configurations holding some deeper meaning, shaped from a forgotten age, relics of an arcane language, or symbols of some old and secret religion. In all cultures, symbols borrow from experience, vision, and religion and become individualized through the creative process of the artist/symbol‐maker. The designs used in the Southwest are from varied sources and they have been adapted and used by divergent tribes. Some have sifted in slowly as different groups arrived bringing their own inventory of designs; others have arrived with new technologies; still others have origins and, therefore, meanings, that will never be deciphered. The designs may be decorative, symbolic or combinations of both. Meanings may change from tribe to tribe. In one location a symbol may have meaning and in an adjacent tribe be used entirely as a decorative element. In short, every variation is possible. If a symbol is produced by one culture and interpreted by another, its meaning is far more often obscured than clarified. So it is with the symbols and designs of the Indian people of the Southwest. Over the years, both Native American designs (merely decorative forms) and symbols (a sign representing an idea, a quality or an association) have been subject to "interpretation" by non‐Indian dealers and traders. Often, these interpretations are explained in terms of Anglo‐European concepts that were nonexistent to the Native American. The result frequently bears little or no relationship to the true meaning of the symbols. Designs and symbols used in the Southwest actually have come from many places. Some design elements emerge out of the nature of the craft. The warp and weft of baskets or blankets produce a preponderance of geometrics, stars, swastikas and whirlwind designs. One of the most controversial of Native American designs is the swastika. While the swastika immediately brings to mind Nazi Germany, it is not only a native Southwestern design, it can be called a native design almost anywhere in the world. It is the result of basket weaving where the ends of a simple cross design are turned either to the right or left, depending on the direction of the weaving, to form a swastika. Its meanings are as diverse as its worldwide origins. Other designs also have been introduced with the technology of a craft. For example, a host of designs appear in metal dies which were derived from much older stamps used to decorate leather. These designs have been called by such fanciful names as rattlesnake jaws, Thunderbird tracks or a medicine man's eye. Others bear more prosaic names such as fence, tipi, mountain range, hogan, sun's rays, headdress or running water. However, in most instances they are purely decorative and their presence may be noted far back in history as elements of cultures other than that of the Native American. In the craft of silversmithing, the Thunderbird is used lavishly on stamped jewelry. The Thunderbird came to the Southwest via industrial dies furnished to Indian artists. While it is a symbol of importance among the Plains Indians, this immense bird is neither characterized by the Southwestern Indians, nor do their myths offer explanations. Rather, the bird symbols of importance in the Southwest are the giant Knife‐wing of the Zuni or the vulture, Kwatoko, of the Hopi. Nonetheless, the unknown individuals who supplied the dies for the silver felt that the Thunderbird was a "good Indian design" and so it appears on Southwestern jewelry and even on the beams of the Great Hall in the Albuquerque International Airport. The form of the silver naja, or pendant, at the end of the squash blossom necklace is traceable to Moorish Spain and even farther back in time to a device used to ward off the evil eye. Earlier still, it was found as boar's tusks hanging point‐to‐point decorating a Roman legionnaire's staff. In the same way, the squash blossom bead emerges from the pomegranate blossoms of Spain. Despite the multiple origins and mistaken interpretations of designs and symbols used in the Southwest, it is possible to recognize the meanings of many representations used in Native American works. The simplest of all representations is that which characterizes some element of the environment (bird, man, flower, horse, etc.) and is clearly distinguishable. Almost always it is used as a decorative device and nothing more, although its form may vary from tribe to tribe. These symbols are frequently seen on the pottery, weavings and jewelry made by Native Americans of the Southwest and generally can be interpreted as indicated. Several other symbols that arise from Native American cultures have become unrecognizable in their new "interpretations" including the butterfly. The snake and lightning or lightning arrow are considered by the native Southwesterner to be a single element as they are the same visual form. The snake does not symbolize "defiance" except possibly in New England, nor is its meaning "wisdom." Lightning is used by Anglo‐Europeans indoctrinated in Greek mythology to denote swiftness, but among the Pueblo Indians snakes and lightning are equated with and symbolize rain, hence, fertility. These bird signs are often listed by traders as meaning "carefree or light‐hearted," but the symbol is the macaw, a Zuni symbol for summer. This is but a glimpse of the rich inventory of Native American designs and symbols which are an integral part of antique and contemporary arts and crafts of this area and, in the form of petroglyphs throughout the Southwest, on the ancient rocks of this ancient land. Thanks to Barton Wright of Phoenix, Arizona for contributing this information and these drawings. Originally appeared in The Collector’s Guide to Albuquerque Metro Area ‐ Volume 8 The Myth of a 12th Planet in Sumero‐Mesopotamian Astronomy: A Study of Cylinder Seal VA 243 Introduction Readers of Zecharia Sitchin’s books, particularly The 12th Planet, will recognize the seal pictured on the following page under the first point ‐ VA 243 (so named because it is number 243 in the collection of the Vorderasiatische Museum in Berlin). This seal is the centerpiece of Sitchin’s theory that the Sumerians had advanced astronomical knowledge of the planetary bodies in our solar system. This knowledge was allegedly given to the Sumerians by extraterrestrials, whom Sitchin identifies as the Anunnaki gods of Sumero‐Mesopotamian mythology. In the upper left‐hand corner of the seal, Sitchin argues, one sees the sun surrounded by eleven globes. Since ancient peoples (including the Sumerians according to Sitchin) held the sun and moon to be “planets,” these eleven globes plus the sun add up to twelve planets. Of course, since we now know of nine planets plus our sun and moon, part of Sitchin’s argument is that the Sumerians knew of an extra planet beyond Pluto. This extra planet is considered by Sitchin to be Nibiru, an astronomical body mentioned in Mesopotamian texts. Sitchin’s works detail his contention that Nibiru passes through our solar system every 3600 years, and so some believers in Sitchin’s theory contend that Nibiru will return soon. Some followers of Sitchin’s ideas also refer to Nibiru as “Planet X”. Is Sitchin correct – in whole or in part? Is Nibiru a 12th planet that will soon return? Does VA243 prove his thesis? Unfortunately for Sitchin and his followers, the answer to each of these questions is no. What follows are the salient points of the problems with Sitchin's interpretation of the seal. A much more thorough (14 pp.) paper with more illustrations and images is available in PDF form. In the discussion that follows, I will demonstrate that VA243 in no way supports Sitchin’s ideas. My reasons / lines of argument for this are: 1) The inscription on the seal says nothing about astronomy, Nibiru, or planets. 2) The alleged "sun" symbol on the seal is not the sun. We know this for sure because it does not conform to the consistent depiction / symbology of the sun on hundreds of other cylinder seals, monuments, and pieces of Sumero‐Mesopotamian art. 3) There is not a single text in any extant Sumero‐Mesopotamian text that says the Sumerians or Mesopotamians knew of more than five planets. There are a number of cuneiform tablets that deal with astronomy, all of which have been compiled and published. These sources are accessible to the reader, but at varying levels of difficulty (for a brief overview of these materials on this website, go to the Nibiru page / paper). Overview 1) The Inscriptions The seal is transliterated (the Sumero‐Akkadian signs in English letters) and translated in the principal publication of the Berlin Vorderasiatische Museum’s publication of its seal collection, Vorderasiatische Rollsiegel (“West Asian Cylinder Seals”; 1940) by Mesopotamian scholar Anton Moortgat on page 101. This book is in German, so I offer the German and an English translation: Line 1 = dub‐si‐ga “Dubsiga” [a personal name of an apparently powerful person Line 2 = ili‐il‐la‐at “Ili‐illat” [another personal name, this time of the seal’s owner] Line 3 = ir3‐su “dein Knecht” [German for “your servant” So the full (rather boring) inscription of VA243 reads: “Dubsiga, Ili‐illat, your/his servant.” Nothing in the inscription suggests anything remotely to do with astronomy or planets. 2) The Alleged Sun Symbol In simplest terms, the alleged "sun" in the upper left corner of the seal isn't a sun, and so the artwork doesn't depict the sun and our solar system. It's a STAR. We know this because of the consistent sun iconography of Sumero‐Mesopotamian art. In case you're thinking, "well the sun is a star," the Sumerians and Mesopotamians distinguished these bodies in their artwork. Here's the normal sun symbol of Sumero‐Mesopotamian art: Note: The sun symbol always has either four arms plus wavy lines extending from a "ball" in the middle, or it is a ball with wavy lines. VA 243 has no wavy lines. It does not depict the sun. Below are examples of star symbols. Stars could have 6, 7, or 8 pts. in Sumero‐Mesopotamian art (VA 243 has six): VA 243 H. Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, Plate XXXIII‐b H. Frankfort, Cylinder Seals, Plate XXVI One of the most common artistic motifs in Sumero‐Mesopotamian art is the depiction of sun, crescent moon, and star TOGETHER, side by side. This shows they distinguished the symbols (and these bodies. Hence, to a Sumerian, the symbol on VA 243 was not the sun: star (L) moon (C) sun (R) Note the wavy lines in the sun symbol; a wholly different style than VA 243. Note again in the above the wavy lines in the sun symbol (lower right) as opposed to the star at the top; a wholly different style than VA 243. Is that all? Hardly. There are many more examples and images, along with more discussion, in the PDF file on this seal available on my other website. We also haven't even gotten to the matter of Sumero‐
Akkadian astronomical texts, the content of which is flatly opposed to Sitchin's teachings. Sitchin’s entire cosmological‐mythological system is based on three lines of argument: (1) The cylinder seal VA 243 and it's misidentified sun. (2) The claim that Nibiru lies beyond Pluto and is home to the Anunnaki, neither of which come from the actual texts (see the chart on my Nibiru page).[5] (3) The “reconstruction” of the formation of our solar system, accomplished by matching the names of gods in Sumerian creation‐cosmological texts with planets – and then describing a “cosmic billiards” scenario supposedly conveyed to us in these texts. Cuneiform astronomical texts never list any more than five planets (seven if one counts sun and moon), and actually tell us which planets are which gods in their mythology. It should be no surprise that the Sumero‐Akkadian planet‐god correlations disagree with Sitchin’s. In regard to these god‐planet correlations, here are the Sumero‐Akkadian god names and planet names tied to each other in MUL.APIN, an astronomical compendium in two cuneiform tablets (and it's not incomplete – see the PDF file for scholarly studies on it so you can check the facts for yourself). Comparing the actual Mesopotamian information with Sitchin once again shows Sitchin's entire system is wrong – you either believe the Sumerians or him. Addendum: Mike referenced the artistic depiction of the Pleiades on the show. Here are two examples (cf. upper right hand corner of second image – which demonstrates that stars could be depicted with BOTH pointed stars AND "balls" in the same seal): Again, for more examples and images and in‐depth discussion, see the PDF file. 3) Bibliography on Cuneiform astronomical tablets and Sumero‐Mesopotamian astronomical knowledge and practice: General Sources: Francesca Rochberg, “Astronomy and Calendars in Ancient Mesopotamia,” Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. III, pp. 1925‐1940 (ed., Jack Sasson, 2000) Bartel L. van der Waerden, Science Awakening, vol. 2: The Birth of Astronomy (1974) Technical but Still Readable Wayne Horowitz, Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography (1998) N.M. Swerdlow, Ancient Astronomy and Celestial Divination (2000) Scholarly (Very Technical) Resources: Otto Neugebauer, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity (1953) Otto Neugebauer, Astronomical Cuneiform Texts (1955) Erica Reiner and David Pingree, Enuma Elish Enlil Tablet 63, The Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa (1975) Hermann Hunger and David Pingree, MUL.APIN: An Astronomical Compendium in Cuneiform (1989) Hermann Hunger and David Pingree, Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia (1999) N. Swerdlow, The Babylonian Theory of the Planets (1998) David Brown, Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy‐Astrology (2000) D. SOLAR PHYSICS AND TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS The Structure of the Sun Astrophysicists classify the Sun as a star of average size, temperature, and brightness – a typical dwarf star just past middle age. It has a power output of about 1026 watts and is expected to continue producing energy at that rate for another 5 billion years. The Sun is said to have a diameter of 1.4 million kilometers, about 109 times the diameter of Earth, but this is a slightly misleading statement because the Sun has no true “surface.” There is nothing hard, or definite, about the solar disk that we see; in fact, the matter that makes up the apparent surface is so rarified that we would consider it to be a vacuum here on Earth. It is more accurate to think of the Sun’s boundary as extending far out into the solar system, well beyond Earth. In studying the structure of the Sun, solar physicists divide it into four domains: the interior, the surface atmospheres, the inner corona, and the outer corona. Section 1. – The Interior The Sun’s interior domain includes the core, the radiative layer, and the convective layer. The core is the source of the Sun’s energy, the site of thermonuclear fusion. At a temperature of about 15,000,000 K, matter is in the state known as a plasma: atomic nuclei (principally protons) and electrons moving at very high speeds. Under these conditions two protons can collide, overcome their electrical repulsion, and become cemented together by the strong nuclear force. This process is known as nuclear fusion, and it results in the formation of heavier elements as well as the release of energy in the form of gamma ray photons. The energy output of the Sun’s core is so large that it would shine about 1013 times brighter than the solar surface if we could “see” it. The immense energy produced in the core is bound by the surrounding radiative layer. This layer has an insulating effect that helps maintain the high temperature of the core. The gamma photons produced by fusion in the core are absorbed and re‐
emitted repeatedly by nuclei in the radiative layer, with the re‐emitted photons having successively lower energies and longer wavelengths. By the time the photons leave the Sun, their wavelengths are mostly in the visible range. The energy produced in the core can take as long as 50 million years to work its way through the radiative layer of the Sun! If the processes in the core of the Sun suddenly stopped, the surface would continue to shine for millions of years. Above the radiative layer is the convective layer where the temperature is lower, and radiation is less significant. Energy is transported outward mostly by convection. Hot regions at the bottom of this layer become buoyant and rise. At the same time, cooler material from above descends, and giant convective cells are formed. This convection is widespread throughout the Sun, except in the core and radiative layer where the temperature is too high. The tops of convective cells can be seen on the photosphere as granules. Convective circulation of plasma (charged particles) generates large magnetic fields that play an important role in producing sunspots and flares. Section 2. – Thermonuclear Fusion The nuclear fusion, now occurring in the core of the Sun, turns hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei. In fact, that is how the elements heavier than hydrogen are made; the thermonuclear fusion at the core of stars can produce the first 26 elements, up to iron. The Sun, because of its relatively small mass, will go through only the first two stages of fusion, the hydrogen‐helium stage and the helium‐carbon stage. Hydrogen‐helium fusion can occur in more than one way, but in any case the temperature must be in the vicinity of 15 million K so that two positively charged particles will be moving fast enough to overcome their electrical repulsion when they collide. The density must be large, and the immense solar gravity compresses the gas so that it is ten times as dense as gold at the center of the Sun. If the two particles can get close enough together, the very short‐range strong nuclear force will take effect and fuse them together. If we compare the total mass that went into this three‐step fusion reaction to the total mass at the end, we will see that a small amount of mass has disappeared. For this reaction, 0.7 percent of the mass disappears and is converted into energy according to E = mc2 (where E = energy, m = mass and c = the speed of light). The actual energy produced from this reaction (for a given 4 Hydrogen atoms) can be found by E = (0.007)(mass of 4H )c2 . In order to produce the known energy output of the Sun, 700 million tons of hydrogen are fused into 695 million tons of helium each second! It may be shocking to think that the Sun is losing mass at the rate of 5 million tons per second, but its total mass is so great that this rate of loss can continue for a long time (see Problem #6 at the end of the chapter). Scientists have dreamed of being able to harness fusion energy to produce electricity on Earth. In attempting the fusion process we are trying to duplicate the conditions in the interior of a star. There are significant problems associated with handling a plasma at 10 to 15 million degrees. Here is the process for the fusion of hydrogen into helium: 1. Two hydrogen nuclei (protons) collide andfuse. One proton turns into a neutron by the emission of a positron (which has a positivecharge). The positron immediately encounters its anti‐
particle, the electron; the pairthen annihilates, releasing two gamma rays. The result of this proton fusion is a deuterium nucleus. 2. A deuterium nucleus collides with a proton, and they fuse to form light helium, 3He. Energy is released in the form of another gamma ray photon. 3. Finally, two 3He nuclei collide and fuse into a nucleus of helium, 4He. Section 3. – The Surface Atmospheres The solar surface atmospheres are composed of the photosphere and the chromosphere. The photosphere is the part of the Sun that we see with our eyes – it produces most of the visible (white) light. Bubbles of hotter material well up from within the Sun, dividing the surface of the photosphere into bright granules that expand and fade in several minutes, Section 4. – The Inner Corona The inner corona is the wispy halo, extending more than a million kilometers out into space, that can be seen when the brilliant disk of the Sun is blocked by the Moon during a total eclipse. The cause of the high temperature of the corona, about 2,000,000 K, is not well understood. The corona is a large source of x‐rays which do not penetrate Earth’s atmosphere. With instruments on satellites we can look at the corona in x‐ray wavelengths and see many details that do not appear in visible light. From this vantage point it is clear that magnetic arches dominate the structure of the corona. Large and small magnetic active regions glow brightly at x‐ray wavelengths, while open magnetic field* structures appear as gaping coronal holes. The coronal material is generally confined by closed magnetic field structures, anchored at both ends, but the open field structure of coronal holes allows the corona to escape freely to form fast, low density streams in the solar wind. This material travels outward and causes disturbances in Earth’s magnetic field. Because of their effects on Earth, we would like to be able to predict when and where coronal holes will form, but as yet we cannot do this. *The concept of an open field line is one where the magnetic field line extends so far out before returning that in the close proximity of the Earth‐Sun system, the line appears “open.” Section 5. – The Outer Corona The outer corona extends to Earth and beyond. Its existence is not immediately obvious, since it cannot be seen directly; astrophysicists did not become aware of it until the 1950s. Watching the behavior of comets, Ludwig Biermann realized in the early 1950s that the solar corona must be expanding outward. By 1958, Eugene Parker concluded from theoretical models that particles streaming off the Sun were necessary to maintain the dynamic equilibrium of the corona. Parker’s mathematical prediction that particles streamed from the Sun at speeds of several hundred kilometers per second was verified in the early 1960s when satellites detected coronal outflow. This outflow came to be called the solar wind and its speed was accurately measured in 1962 by the Mariner 2 spacecraft bound for Venus. As Parker had predicted, this speed averaged about 400 km/s. In the 30 years since the discovery of the solar wind, we have learned much more about it, and its effects on Earth. The solar wind streams radially outward from the Sun. III.
Add
ditional Quesstions for Reflections Essays: 1. Which of the a
W
ancient myths of the sun aare your favo
orite and seem
m to stir the imagination?? For middle‐school
m
l teachers (grrade 6), pleasse feel free to
o elaborate on the Helios and/or Phoebus Apollo legends
A
s. Please listt the method
ds that you usse to integratte visual and//or performing arrts into your teaching straategies. 2. Why was it so W
difficult for sscholars of th
he 16th, 17th, 118th and 19th Centuries to accept new sccientific princciples and the
eories? Can yyou find paraallels in “wideely accepted beliefs vs. sccientific theo
ories and lawss” in the 21st Century? In your own wo
ords, describee the requisitte stteps in the journey from sscientific theo
ory to scienti fic law. Topiccs can includee (but are no
ot lim
mited to) item
ms from the following list:  Helioccentric vs. Geocentric Solaar System Mo
odels pherical Earth
h)  “Beyond this pointt there be draagons” (or flaat Earth vs. Sp
Old is the Eartth? In the 21sts Century, it is a common
nly‐held princciple that the  How O
earth is approximaately 4.5 billio
on years of aage, but if Bishop Ussher (1581‐1656) w
was on began “th
he night beforre Sunday, October 23, 40
004 correcct, and the daawn of creatio
BC,” th
hen the earth
h is only 6,017 years old! Explore this topic in term
ms of Evolutio
onism vs. Cre
eationism. Iss the notion that the Earth
h is 6,000 yeaars of age still being taugh
ht, and why? Please giive exampless and scenario
os. 3. SScience teach
hers, can the llegends and m
mythologies of Sol be inco
orporated intto modern so
olar sttudies and asstrophysics? Given a presentation or u
unit on the agge of the sun, the structurre of th
he sun and th
he function off the sun, how
w would mytths and legen
nds of Sol serrve as referen
nce points? Dr. Willliam M. Mou
uat Directo
or of Educatio
on and Comm
munity Outreaach (40
06) 294.5202
[email protected]