HIST 161
Paige Poulos
Due 11/29/2010
Assignment #5
ALL ARE FREE OR NONE ARE FREE
The American civil rights movement picked up significant momentum in the 1960s, as an
increasing number of black citizens demanded that America reevaluate the definition of freedom and bring
to light that many citizens, such as students, women, and racial minorities, felt “excluded from [the] full
enjoyment of American freedom” (Foner 913). The civil rights movement in the 1960s was catalyzed by
events from the previous decade. Three events of the 1950s that impacted the civil rights movement were
America’s fight to contain communism, the uproar over segregated neighborhoods, and the attack on
segregation in schools. The federal government’s dedication to containing communism abroad provoked
many non-whites to wonder why communism was considered a threat to society, but racism was not.
The containment of communism was one of America’s greatest concerns during the Cold War with
the Soviet Union, which started in 1947. America, “as the leader of the ‘free world,’” accepted the
“responsibility of supporting ‘freedom-loving peoples’ wherever communism threatened them” (843). The
U.S. government rallied support from citizens to justify spending millions of dollars to contain
communism, which it felt aligned with “hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos” (845), across the globe.
This was demonstrated in the Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, National Security Act, and the McCarran
Act; America’s quest to identify communists at home, via hearings by the House Un-American Activities
Committee, is illustrated in Image 1. Naturally, African Americans wondered why the federal government
could label “communism as ‘un-American,’ but not racism” (869). President Truman was a staunch
supporter of black civil rights; this was demonstrated by his civil rights program, which included measures
to ensure blacks had the same educational and job opportunities as whites and to outlaw lynching and the
poll tax. Congress, clearly not as dedicated to the civil rights movement as Truman, failed to approve any
of the measures. As a result, many black citizens were upset that America was ready to fight for freedom
abroad, but unprepared to fight for freedom at home. As Truman pointed out, if the U.S. was going to offer
citizens of other countries the “‘choice of freedom or enslavement,’ it must ‘correct the remaining
1 imperfections in [its] practice of democracy’” (857). Non-white citizens’ frustration with America’s
resistance to provide all Americans with the same freedoms and rights was evident in the housing market as
well.
While the 1950s made “the dream…of home ownership and middle-class incomes” (881) a reality
for many Americans, blacks were denied the “American dream.” Federal agencies financed segregation by
insuring mortgages that excluded non-whites as potential buyers of houses and refusing to subsidize
mortgages in integrated neighborhoods (881); a Supreme Court ruling against such practices was blatantly
ignored. William Levitt, a developer, argued that if he sold one house to a black family, then most of his
white customers would not buy houses in the same community (882); many whites felt that an influx of
non-whites in a neighborhood would “lower the quality of life and destroy property values” (883).
Discrimination in the workplace, which is illustrated in Image 2, and lack of educational opportunities
forced non-whites to remain in unskilled, low-paying jobs. Thus, about half of the black population lived
in poverty. As whites moved to the suburbs, which symbolized freedom, non-whites remained “trapped in
urban ghettos, seen by many whites as places of crime, poverty, and welfare” (883). While non-whites
called for residential integration, which would allow anyone to rent or purchase homes anywhere, whites
were reluctant to grant such freedom to non-whites; whites retained the idea that their “freedom of
association” with non-whites was more important than providing equal rights and freedoms to all races.
Further frustration with lack of equal rights and opportunities mounted when non-whites attempted to
attend all-white schools.
Although part of Eisenhower’s domestic agenda, dubbed Modern Republicanism, attempted to
convince Americans that his party was concerned with the “economic conditions of ordinary citizens”
(889), blacks did not fall into the realm of “ordinary citizens”; perhaps, this was due to Eisenhower’s
distaste of the civil rights movement (908). Thus, the Eisenhower administration left the dealings of racial
discrimination solely in the hands of the court system. The Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka,
Kansas decision is an example of the courts’ progression towards racial integration, which is demonstrated
in Image 3. Oliver Brown went to court to fight for racial integration in schools so his young daughter
2 could attend a nearby all-white school rather than having to cross railroad tracks to get to an all-black
school. Thurgood Marshall, an attorney and leader of the NAACP, argued that “separate but equal”
facilities were never equal, because they “stigmatized one group of citizens as unfit to associate with
others” (903). He furthered his argument by citing a study conducted by New York psychologists, which
found that segregation severely damaged black children and reduced their self-esteem. All of the Supreme
Court justices agreed that, “segregation in public education…violated the equal protection…guaranteed by
the Fourteenth Amendment” (904). Furthermore, the decision stated that “separate educational facilities
[were] inherently unequal” (904). Although the decision did not address segregation in other areas of
America life, it marked a milestone in the civil rights movement and catalyzed the dismantling of
segregation.
Black Americans’ struggle for equal rights and freedoms in the 1950s, as was demonstrated during
America’s fight to contain communism and opposition to segregated housing communities and schools, led
to the explosive civil rights movement of the 1960s. The documentary, Eyes on the Prize, provides firsthand accounts of blacks’ struggle for freedom and equality and the resistance of many whites to accept any
such changes. For example, after a court decision that declared segregation in diners and waiting rooms
illegal, blacks and whites—dubbed Freedom Riders—rode buses throughout the South to test whether cities
would abide by the new law; black and white passengers would sit next to each other in a single bench and
a pair of blacks would sit in the front of the bus, challenging the tradition of seating whites in the front of
the bus and blacks in the back. Their determination to overcome obstacles in the fight for equal rights is
illustrated in Image 4. The Freedom Ride revealed that many whites were still against racial integration, as
the Freedom Riders were often met by angry mobs of white protesters. Since many felt that blacks
intentionally caused riots by attempting to initiate racial integration, some citizens felt that the Freedom
Riders were not entitled to protection from white rioters. Americans against racial integration had yet to
realize that segregation negatively impacts everyone; as a civil rights protestor’s sign indicated, “All are
free or none are free” (“Ain’t Scared”).
3 IMAGE 1
This image, taken July 1, 1953 by George Skadding, depicts Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam testifying at a
hearing conducted by the House Un-American Activities Committee. The committee aimed to identify
Americans who aligned with the Communist Party or whose actions suggested that they supported
communism. Americans’ fear that the spread of communism would threaten their freedom fueled the
federal government’s mission to identify and punish “un-American” citizens.
The serious expressions of the members of the audience suggest that the hearings were not to be taken
lightly. All of the seats are taken and people are standing along the walls so they can listen to the hearing
first-hand; this suggests that the committee’s agenda was important to Americans. This dedication to
containing communism is exactly what frustrated black Americans; they could not fathom how America
could fight to contain communism abroad, thereby providing peoples with the freedoms they desire, yet
deny the citizens of their own country the same freedoms. The height of the ceiling suggests that
identifying communists at home played a larger role than simply making America a safer place; it
prevented potential communists from contributing to the rise of communism abroad.
4 IMAGE 2
This photograph, taken May 1, 1950 by Leonard McCombe, depicts men lined up outside a Cadillac
employment office.
The potential employees are segregated on either side of the building’s door. The long line of white males
compared to the single black male suggests that most blacks felt it was a waste of time to apply for a job at
Cadillac. The black male’s posture emits confidence and determination; his facial expression doesn’t
suggest regret or shame for applying at Cadillac. His gaze suggests that he is aware of his surroundings but
unconcerned with anything other than obtaining a job. The posture of the white male in the front of the line
suggests arrogance; the slight smirk on his face suggests that he knows he will be considered for any job
opening before the black male. His smirk also suggests that the black male was absurd to think that
Cadillac would hire him over any of the white males waiting in line.
5 IMAGE 3
This image, photographed on September 2, 1956 by Howard Sochurek, depicts white students of Clinton
High School in Tennessee watching black students enter the recently desegregated school.
The black students’ gaze is focused on the path in front of them; instead of looking down at the ground as
they walk, which would suggest shame, regret, or fear, they are looking straight ahead, which suggests
confidence and determination. Their posture emanates the attitude that they have just as much of a right to
attend Clinton High as the white students who are watching them. The way the black students are walking
as a pack visually unites them as a single, strong unit that will not be easily frightened away or threatened.
The crevice in the cement steps seems to symbolize segregated entities that whites and blacks were
originally accustomed to before the desegregation of the school; the two girls on the top step are on
opposite sides of the crevice, each with a foot securely planted on the step, suggesting that desegregation is
the new norm of the community.
6 IMAGE 4
This image depicts a Freedom Ride bus on fire.
Although the male sitting on the ground in the bottom-left of the image appears so defeated that he cannot
look at the burning bus, the other three Freedom Riders in the picture appear to be calmly contemplating
how to overcome this obstacle. The closeness of the four Freedom Riders suggests that although each one
is shaken up by the turn of events, they will not allow the setback to undermine their goal of testing cities’
compliance with the court decision calling for desegregation in restaurants and waiting rooms. The upward
angle of the camera gives a clear view of the sky and suggests that the Freedom Riders are seeking
religious guidance for extra strength to continue their journey towards equal rights for blacks.
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
“Ain’t Scared of Your Jails.” By Steve Fayer. Dir. Orlando Bagwell. Eyes on the Prize. Public
Broadcasting Station (PBS). 4 Feb. 1987.
Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty! An American History. 2nd Ed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company,
2009.
“Freedom Riders Bus Burned Near Anniston, Alabama.” 1961. 27 May 2010
<http://www.blackpast.org/?q=aah/freedom-rides-1961>.
Leroy, Nancy. “Communism in America and Abroad.” California State University, Sacramento. Library
Media Services Room, Sacramento, CA. 10 Nov. 2010. Lecture.
McCombe, Leonard. “Men Lined Up Outside Cadillac Employment Office.” 1 May 1950. 26 Nov. 2010
<http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/tlp721089/Time-Life-Pictures>. Skadding, George. “Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam at the House Un-American Activities Hearing.” 1 Jul
1953. 26 Nov. 2010 <http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/50317830/Time-Life-Pictures>. Sochurek, Howard. “Students on Their Way to Desegregated Clinton High.” 2 Sep. 1956. 26 May 2010
<http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/82497001/Time-Life-Pictures>.
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