Structural art
- When Structure becomes an Art Form
By Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger
Copenhagen School of Design and Technology
Specialist advisor: James Harty
7.i
17.03.2016
Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Table of contents
Abstract_____________________________________________________________________Page 4.
Introduction__________________________________________________________________Page 5.
The who and the what_________________________________________________________Page 7.
Roles of the professions____________________________________________Page 7.
Case studies____________________________________________________Page 10.

The Acropolis and its influence_____________________Page 10.

Arches________________________________________Page 12.

Concrete a modern design_________________________Page 15.

Structural glazing________________________________Page 18.

Tension cables__________________________________Page 22.

Bridges & the Eiffel tower_________________________Page 25.
And the how_________________________________________________________________Page 29.
Conclusion__________________________________________________________________Page 39.
Bibliography________________________________________________________________Page 41.
Appendices__________________________________________________________________Page 43.
3 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Abstract
This report deals with Structural art, when function and design act in unison and therefore creating
structure as an art form.
It examines, through a few chosen case studies, how the structure has affected the architecture
aesthetically.
The content is aimed mainly at architects, especially newly educated ones or still students, and
constructing architects but also engineers to grasp a better understanding of the importance of how
structure affects the overall design.
It intends to make the architect and other professionals consider how to implement the structure into the
design already in an early stage of the concept design. How working closely with engineers already
then will have a positive effect both aesthetically and functionally. By enhancing the building
conceptually, and being able to create a design where little changes have to be made, structurally
effecting the overall design and time having to be spent later on.
4 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Introduction
Is it structure or is it architecture?
What is a structure? A structure is a system in which loads will be transferred from one to another.
When focusing on the loads in buildings, structures will carry the following types of loads; living loads,
people, furniture, dead loads for example snow. It will also carry the structure itself along with
structurally stabilizing the building, also called wind loads.
This report is written as an insight into structure, through an architectural point of view, rather than a
technical point. Within it I wish to create an understanding of structure, from a design perspective.
Structures are an interactional part of architecture, combining the different professions of architects,
engineers and constructing architects and indispensable.
At the end of this report, the reader will in future think – Have I taken full advantage of the structure?
Is it integrated, and therefore contributing and communicating the design concept? What does the
design of this building require of the structure? And in general have a larger consideration, of the
structure architecturally.
Instead of hiding structures away, the building should be enriched by celebrating the technology of
them. Engineers must also accept the fact, that for this to happen, the structures must also be
aesthetically pleasing to the eye, rather than only functional.
There is a known flaw within architectural studies, which I’ve heard from architecture students.
Students are taught to be free thinking, and not necessarily design something buildable. This is a skill
they later require by picking it up along the way when working. There is nothing worse than a newly
educated architect, who doesn’t take the construction into consideration and then later on when the
drawings become developed the engineers inform that it is simply not possible to create the building, at
least not without certain structures and changes that need to be made. This can completely change the
design, and leave the architect with a feeling of the design being ruined.
5 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design If the architect could integrate the structure as part of the design, earlier in the design process, it could
enrich the building with the aesthetics of function. We know from other everyday things that, anything
that has a purpose can be enriching.
When looking at buildings from the renaissance time, the architect and builder would be the same
person. You got the sense of the buildings structure being whole with the concept, and often can’t tell
where architecture stops and structure starts, because it is all one.
Moving on to a modern era, structure has become a science in itself and separated from art. Both
professions celebrated by two different eyes and skillsets, working in the same industry, but then seen
from two different perspectives creating a gap.
In a lot of modern buildings the structure is hidden as much as possible, unmemorable or unpleasing for
the eyes as it sticks out from a beautiful piece of architecture. The architect has been unable to
implement the structure and merely hidden it. But why hide something that is a necessity? Something
that carries, provides strength and stability. Why hide something with such positive features rather than
celebrate it, when there is a possibility to make it beautiful?
In the first part of this report, I will start with “The who and the what” of the industry. I will do so by,
introducing the changing roles of the professions behind architecture and structure, from way back
when until now. Then I will present a few case studies of structure, explaining a little bit about them
structurally. In the second part of the report, I will be looking into “the how”, doing so I mean go into
depth treatment of the structure in these cases and analyse and discuss the importance and impact these
types of structures has had on these buildings architecturally.
6 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design The who and the what
Roles of the professions
To ever understand something, in this case structure as a function and architecture as a design acting in
unison, it is a good idea to look back at the past, to understand the present and how it has evolved. We
know these days’ structure and architecture lie under different disciplines; science and art/aesthetics.
Let’s start by looking at a piece of architecture where there was no engineer or structural assessment
done, but it was structurally built, purely on the fact that it had worked previously on a different
building. The building in question is The Chartres Cathedral, which was mostly constructed between
1194-1250. This type of passed down knowledge was a rollover effect. Past done from the Gothic
master builders to the Renaissance architects.
The reason for building structurally like this using the rollover effect, according to Jim Gordon (1978),
could be to do with the fact that the builders from that time never thought from a scientific point of
view. They never thought about how a structure carried a load, but were “too much obsessed by the
moral significance of good workmanship” and the aesthetics of architecture including structural
architecture.
Without science, computers or even calculations, Gordon is very adamant that there was no way to test
out the safety of structures within a scientific way, like we have now a days. There was also no way to
make new methods, but you just has to use the tested and known building options, the rollover effect.
Any new efforts would worst case scenario end catastrophic for example a whole building falling
down, as you never knew what the outcome would be. Structural models where often built, and scaled
up, but this was never 100 percent sure that it would then work.
So the craftsmen and builders accepted this (actually quite like how we stereotypically view an
engineer today – stuck in there ways and only want to use the standard solutions, they know work and
are safe).
We might be able to thank the Roman Catholic Inquisition, for the study of structures in 1633. Galileo
(1564-1642) at the time made a number of contributions, to what is now known as engineering, as
7 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design distinct from pure physics after, becoming known as a heretic from going against the church and its
beliefs, stating that the earth revolved around the sun. He lived under house arrest, and in order to
occupy himself with something less damaging than his previous studies, he turned to structures. He
looked into the strength of materials, as a new role and discipline that was independent and unrelated to
the craftsmanship of the medieval builders. This was the pre beginnings of the gap between architects
and structural engineers, with these new techniques within drafting and drawing perspective views, and
within this “the pertinence, cohesion and comprehensiveness of an architectural response could be
summarised by its quality of rigour”. (Burdett, Wang 1990)
But not to forget, even though he was a man of science, he also held an aesthetic mentality. He
acquired this mentality in 1588 when he found inspiration in the artistic traditions in Florence both
from the city, and also from the works by the Renaissance artists. So even though he scientifically
brought us forward he still had an appreciation for the aesthetics.
Moving on from Galileo we can take a look further back in the past, at Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519).
He was an Italian polymath which among other subjects included architecture and engineering, again
showing the entwinement of the professions.
And looking even further back to Italian born Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446). He was a
designer/builder within architecture, and was recognized to be the first modern engineer, planner and
sole construction supervisor. He furthered the new discipline leading to the establishment of civil
engineering which blossomed into the industrial revolution. These were the beginnings, which led
ultimately to engineering becoming a subject of its own and complete split from architecture.
Like the previous men, our modern day Santiago Calatrava (1951-present) brings the best of both
worlds together, he is both an architect and engineer.
Since the idyllic times of these previous artists, we live in a world where architecture and engineering
is on two different ends of the scale. The how things are built without much attention to aesthetics and
the aesthetics without much consideration to the how. Calatrava didn’t feel it was enough to be able to
8 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design form shapes, use and understand aesthetics when he finished architecture school. How could he design
a building to its most potential, if he didn’t know how to structurally keep it standing? It has once been
explained like so; “knowing how to draw a beautiful bird but not understanding how it could fly”. – the
bird may look beautiful on paper, but it will never soar through the air.
Being able to understand both these arts, Calatrava has been able create things no one else can, because
he sees beauty but understands function. This has led to such builds as the drawbridge in Buenos Aires
which moves outward instead of the traditional upwards, along with many other “moveable and
working” pieces of architecture.
Santiago Calatrava has taken on a modern twist of the old ways when looking at architecture, and we
can ask ourselves, if that is why he is now one of the worlds leading elite architects, from blurring the
lines between structure and architecture. I say, with a twist because he has taken both jobs again, but
now with the scientific methods to help him, as opposed to the old days where the rollover effect
existed.
But in the words of Giedion (1941) ‘History cannot be touched without changing it’
As Moe Smith, in 2012 has stated, our modern society has split the two subjects in a way that has
created conflicting parties, rather than two symbiosis parties. This has been done through the teachings
and practice of architecture and engineering of buildings. There is therefore a lacking of common
ground, which we only have ourselves to blame. Creating problems within design and function.
I will be looking into structures, from back to olden Greece, to now within the next few chosen case
studies. I am doing so, as to get a better understanding of what sort of structures exist, before looking at
how these structures are used and what they do for architecture. This will give a sense of how the two
disciplines intertwine.
9 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Case studies
The Acropolis and its influence
Acropolis has become a symbol in architecture, especially because of its columns. Although
structurally the columns are not a breakthrough in engineering, as it is a passed down method (the
rollover effect), it has been used to enhance the architectural aesthetics of it.
Acropolis is rectangular shaped and bears 8 columns on each end and 17 on each side creating a
modulation, a pattern. These columns support the beams, which carries a ridged roof and is made
entirely of detailed stone from roof to bottom.
We see architecture daily, all over the world, which has been influenced by these famous columns in
monuments, public buildings even domestic homes.
We can compare two Grecian influenced buildings in Nimes in the south of France from very different
times. The one which is named Maison Carrée, a building from around 2000 years ago, a temple from
the Roman Empire. This building has the characteristics one associates with that period, with the
Grecian and Roman features. It reminds much of Acropolis with its free standing lime stone columns
and detailing.
In 1993 a building opposite Maison Carrée was erected called Carré d’Art designed by Foster +
Partners. Carré d’Art is a modern day Maison Carrée, a sleek design of glass and free standing steel
columns. (The Structural Basis of Architecture. 2011)
It is interesting to see these two buildings against each other and how they resemble with the same
building shape and use of columns as a hugh part of the design, but yet how different they seem at the
same time with the different use of materials.
10 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Below is a photo capturing both the front of Maison Carrée and Carré d’Art.
The technical side
The main structural design behind The Acropolis and inspired designs, is of course the great iconic
columns. Columns are compression elements, they transmit loads, meaning in this instance they keep
the roof up in the air. The columns are compressed and stiff elements and keep from sinking through
from the force of being pushed together. Many factors have to do with how much weight the columns
can carry, including material and measurements before they reached there buckling load.
(Understanding Structures. 2003)
This was as mentioned above the basic design on how to build. The builders/designers didn’t quite
know the science behind it, but it held structure up.
11 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Arches
Arches have been generously used in public buildings, especially cathedrals and churches as the
structure allows for space, both in form of open areas, not only two dimensionally as arches, but also
three dimensionally with vaults/domes creating great spaces up to the ceilings. Because of science
within structural technology, stone and brick started to replace wood, meaning that these amazing
buildings could be built. We can for example take a look at the Cattedrale di Santa Maria del the main
church of Florence, Italy, originally called Il Duomo di Firenze. It is still today one of Italy’s largest
churches with a building area of 8,300 m2. The cathedral was originally designed by Anoflfo de
Cambio. Work began in 1296 and was structurally completed in 1436. The dome was engineered by
Filippo Brunelleschi and it is still the largest brick dome ever constructed in the world, with an
impressive measurement of 114.5 meters (84 meters from the ground), a diameter of 42 meters and a
great rise of 32 meters. Brunelleschi was not only an engineer, he was also an architect, a rather great
one. It was he who first formulated how to construct a 3D space on a 2D plane, using monocular
perspective (used on the domes).
What is quite interesting about the construction of this particular dome (except for its size) is that it
consists of two layers. The inner dome is heavier, concealing a structure that holds the domes shape,
with a “hole” in the top center. The outer shell is thinner and is supported entirely by the inner dome
but enclosed to shelter from the weather, but thinning allows just a little bit of light through.
The choice of materials were quite smart, instead of using something heavy like stone, bricks were used
to build the dome using a herringbone pattern, created especially. Using this pattern meant that the
bricks where redirected outwards towards the dome's supports, instead of downwards to the floor,
which stopped the bricks from falling down under construction.
From cathedrals to the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, USA, the arch has been around for as long as some
ancient lost cultures, and is one of the most famous and basic structures used, and as you can see is not
only limited to cathedrals.
12 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design The gateway is a monument commemorating the historical event of President Jefferson in 1803,
purchasing Louisiana from Napoleon and therefor opening the way to expansion westward of the
county, changing it forever. It was Eero Saarinen, who won the commission (from under his farther)
and became the start of his career as an architect.
The arch is 193 meters high and wide and is cladded in stainless steel with filled walls of concrete at
the bottom as to increase the weight (though hollow upwards). The foundation of the arch goes down
18 meters below ground level. (Architects + Engineers = Structures. 2002)
13 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design The technical side
When looking into the behaviour of arch structures, we again look at a compression structure.
However the pressure points are different in arches, compared to columns. Rather than a straight force
down, like there is in columns, on arches it goes to 2 end points and therefor are 3 pin pointed. This can
be explained by the rope theory. If you hold a rope at both ends, the midpoint will automatically pull
down into U-shape. You will feel a force pulling your hands together towards each other, making the U
thinner. Therefor we know that if the rope was replaced by another stiffer material this motion of
pulling the ends apart creates a tension. So turning the material upside down the force will then go
down to both ends, pushing inward at the midpoint and outward at the end.
We therefor know, that the shape of the arch will determine the maximum compression strength, (along
with material, bending stresses and so on) before the structure would buckle.
When looking at the Gateway arch we can also understand there is a vertical cantilever structure. The
cantilevering works as a wind transverse (resistance of live load), thanks to the legs being wide and
hollow. A must when there is a lack of lateral bracing. (Understanding Structures. 2003)
14 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Concrete a modern design
Concrete is one of the most used materials in the modern building industry and a must to mention, as it
is the perfect example of a structural material used for architecture.
Concrete can be quite amazing as architectural effect, and brutalism is a very good example of it being
used. Below is a perfect example of this expression within City Hall in Boston by Kallmann,
McKinnell and Knowles.
When looking into concrete it is very interesting to take a moment to appreciate Louis Kahn (19011974). Many years ago Louise decided to use only massive materials, like concrete and masonry as
structures for his buildings instead of lightweight materials, such as steel, which we usually associated
with modern structures. He believed buildings should have souls and thought concrete to be one of the
most honest materials. I want to specifically look at The Tribune Review Publishing Company
Building, the office and printing plant for the Tribune Review newspaper in Greensburg, PA. August
15 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Komendant, who is an expert in reinforced concrete, and therefor Kahn's preferred collaborator, was
the consulting structural engineer.
Although the building is not in his usual line of work and the building is considered to be one of Kahn's
relatively minor works, it has some interesting features. Kahn began work on the design in 1958 and
the building was completed in 1962.
The building holds high ceilings, is rectangular boxed shaped and dealt into three main sections
through the long direction. The middle section holds the services while also acts like a sound buffer
between the other sections.
In perfect Loui Kahn style, instead of a steel skeleton the structure is made up of pre- stressed concrete
beams and supported by piers made of concrete blocks, these piers span 15 meters. There is therefore
no need for extra internal structure systems in the form of columns. The piers are built up of brick sized
concrete blocks, to visualize the concrete structure while using large concrete blocks for the nonbearing walls, thereby showing it is two separate elements of the structure embedded in each other,
instead of using different materials as you normally would, but still showing the structure off, making it
visible but still in concrete.
From a design perspective Loui Kahn has chosen not to modulate the piers, creating a different
architectural visualization, instead they are spaced in what might seem coincidentally, some are slightly
closer while some are wider spaced apart. He has placed them so that the sunlight projects an
interesting light effect upon them.
All in all he has used some different styles too, compared to what is seen as a norm within architecture,
but he has completely pulled of using concrete both structurally and architecturally. He has thought
forward how the structure would look, emphasizing it, and using it to divide the building up so
functionally it made sense for example the sound buffering section. A perfect Loui Kahn style building.
16 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design The technical side
It is made from water, cement and aggregate (gravel, crushed stone or sand). In the “pure form”
concrete works strong in compression but week in tension. That is why it is most often reinforced,
which was discovered late/end of the 19th century, after test reinforcing it with iron and steel. It can be
used for internal and external structures. It can resist and transfer loads with minimal thickness. It can
be used as structural systems like beams and columns working both loadbearing and stabilizing.
There is two ways of using concrete in buildings, precast and cast in-situ. Precast is where elements
will be manufactured prior to arriving on site. Common elements that are precast are columns, beams,
slabs, wall panels and even stairs. In-situ concrete is directly poured on site.
The dry materials get mixed with the water, this is called hydration, the mixture is then mixed and will
have a more liquid form. The mixture is poured and then starts to set after approximately a short hour
and the concrete will then need around three to six days to cure (set) but will continue hardening for
years. (Understanding Structures. 2003)
17 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Structural glazing
The black diamond is a library, built as an extension off the old royal library, designed by
Schmidt/hammer/lassen. From an interview with a partner from Schmidt/hammer/lassen, I found out
that originally the client’s only requests were to make a building made of brick and that should be
directly attached to the old brick library, removing the small slim extension. SHL did none of these
requests. They moved the building towards the canal to celebrate the waterfront and having the public
congregating along the water (first time in Copenhagen’s city life), and wrapped the extension with the
same façade skin, having the traffic moving between the slim old extension and the new premises.
They designed the external facades slanted and consisting of black polished granite cladding and
structural glazing in the atrium of the building. The building is all together 20.733 m2 with 450 rooms
and 800 doors spread over 8 storeys. The atriums glass facade is carried by the big steel girders
weighing a great 1 ton per meter and is held by steel 'figures sevens ', both the “sevens” and the girder
is manufactured in Poland.
The whole building is thought to be lifted from the ground, allowing an unforeseen (by then) public
flow and urban carpet to run through the street
level.
This means that the “diamond” was floating
over a glazed bottom, allowing people to have a
direct relation to a public library, moving away
from the old understanding of a library as a
closed institution of knowledge archive, but
rather an open institution of knowledge sharing.
Therefore, once you lift the building and recess
the glazed bottom to emphasize a perception of
a “floating volume”, the alignment of the glazed
ground floor was behind the alignment of the
glazed curtain wall. The seven-shaped girders
18 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design add to this lifting. Furthermore, there is a conflict of angles between the tilted façade and the curtain
wall, and the vertical glazed ground floor façade which the girders help with.
The structural glazing is pre stressed glass, the system used is press rods and tension cables, which in a
vertical array can handle a pressure load of 10 tons. The connection to the glass façade is called a
“spider” system and held onto the glass by a point-fixed bolted system. They used this system as it was
and still is very popular and allows great depths through the glazed curtain walls. It creates a perception
of a “structureless” façade, once you are aligned with the central axis coming from the old library and a
floor above street level, and the same from the Christianshavn canal, including today’s boat tours and
cirkelbroen perception of the building from the outside.
The whole building is quite forged from the competition concept. Little has actually changed, but rather
refined.
Picture below shows Competition vs. reality. The structure was design all the way through by SHL.
MOE were the engineers, they supported with the calculations, but the design as mentioned previously
comes from conceptual intentions, combined with a popular curtain wall system of that time (20 years
ago).
19 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design The technical side
When designing structural glazing the understanding of the behaviour of the system has changed since
the 1970’s, when structural glazing first started to be used. There used to be an understanding that the
system needed to be ridged so the glass was less exposed with less movement, but now we realize that
in fact when the structure and glass is allowed to move the systems can better tolerate loads and
weather conditions.
It is important to understand there is different forms of glazing, glazing methods which are merely
sealed onto the building (curtain walls) and I will be looking into structural glazing which carry loads.
There are a few different options of structural systems, when it comes to structural glazing, but
basically you can chose between two methods; framed and frameless. I will be mainly taking a look
into frameless systems as it is a more modern and less understood design.
Framed systems include stick, unitized, veneer and panel.
Stick is the more traditional system type. It is constructed from long vertical and horizontal mullions
(the “sticks”).
A unitized system is a factory pre-assembled units that are sealed on site. Unitized are also made semi
unitized where the structural framing (mullions) is assembled on site, more like the stick system.
The veneer system is much like the traditional stick system.
Panel structural glazing is probably the framed system that has most transparency like a frameless
system. Its frame is minimal width and like point-fixed bolted structure (read below) it is hung on the
structure.
Frameless systems include point-fixed bolted and point-fixed clamped.
This system is trending at the moment, a popular common name for these two types is spider fitting.
20 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design The first system, point-fixed bolted is the most popular and expensive. The glass is perforated, one of
the reasons of it being more expensive, and attached to the supporting structure with stainless steel
spider fittings. The spider is fitted with bolts through the perforations, these bolts are specially made to
fit the size of the glazing system and the load it must bear. Typically with this system the glass will
hang from the top spider connection. This means the structure will be more ridged at the top and allow
movement at the bottom.
The second system, point-fixed clamped, is similar to the first in the sense of the glass being connected
to the backer structure, but the connection to the glass is different as it is clamped to the glass instead.
The benefit of using this system, is that it leaves out the extra costs of having to perforate the glass,
which is also cheaper and easier to fabricate. Though this system is more beneficial when looking at the
glass, the clamps are however more expensive and complex than the bolting system. This system is
opposite to the other, in the way that the structure doesn’t hang but it is supported at the bottom,
meaning that it has movement at the top instead. (Structural Glass Facades and Enclosures. 2011) 21 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Tension cables
Suspension is technically quite the opposite of other structures. The structure hangs from tensions these
tension cables rather than being solid and supported from the ground.
This type of structure requires balance and calculations.
If we are looking into an honest design, we can for sure say that the tension element used fits under this
category. When used not one bit of unnecessary material is used, because of the pre calculations and
the pulling force.
A tension system can often supplement other constructions for example a cantilever construction by the
anchoring motion.
This type of structure can be used for many different types of building elements for example, bridges,
walls even as a supporting structure on balconies.
I will go into two examples of this type of construction being used.
The first case where tension cables has been used, is the Musée Gallo-Romain de St.-Romain-en-Gal in
Vienne, France. The architects on the project were Chaix Morel & Associates. The area where the
building is constructed, is a ruin of the ancient city of St.-Roman-en-Gal. Therefore when designing a
building that was to be placed on this area, it was important to be considerate of the existing ground
already from the very beginning of the concept stage. Therefor they decided to go with a structure in
which little disturbance to the ground is needed – a hanging tension structure of vertical steel rods. This
was used for the floors, which were hung by the roofs beams. The floors of the building now float
above the ground giving a rather interesting and different architectural tone, instead of traditionally
being foundationed or raised using closely spaced columns. (The Structural Basis of Architecture.
2011)
Tensions hangers are not always vertical like we can see in this next case study of Brøndby Stadium,
where exposed structure of tension rods to enhance the architectural design.
22 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design It was a small architectural company of four employees who are behind the expansion of Brøndby
stadium. But they have proved that it's not always size that matters. Talent and an ability to think
outside the box won them the competition. However they knew where their strengths lay and where
there weakness were. The vast engineering tasks in the stadium expansion where 'outsourced' to Carl
Bro. And a single freelance engineer, Otto Haagh, was also hired.
Usually the company's tasks fall under industrial construction - but in a much smaller size than
Brøndby Stadium.
According to the architects at Erik L. Hansen architects & Engineers the construction of the stadium
consists of 32 stair that leads the crowds up to their seats. They carry the pre-stressed tribune beams,
which in turn carries the tribune slabs.
The towers are built of 30 cm thick wall elements with column knots. The foundations under the stair
towers are the size of a detached house.
The stair towers and tribune beams is called a post-tensioned construction. But here comes the
interesting part, from the foundation up through the stair towers wall elements and tribune beams there
is embedded a tube, which by the juxtaposition of the elements is mounted a series of steel tension
cables.
The cables are locked in the bottom and top. The tension acts as a drawbar, so that the platform does
not heeled over when it is affected by the horizontal forces from the wind.
In addition to the vertical tension cables that maintains staircase structure to the foundation, there are
also a number of horizontal tension cables, which ensure that the tribune beams do not slip. They run
from the tip of the tribune beams to the back of the stair towers.
As you may get the sense of, it’s a very structural piece of architecture. Very honest, and the way every
part connects openly gives a sense of beauty and satisfaction, like the joints in a hand.
23 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design The technical side
Weather there is talk about the vertical hanger like used on the first case study or the inclining hanger
also known as the stayed system, like used in the second case study we know that because of gravity
tension will be created.
With the vertical hanger it will be so; A structural loadbearing support element (A) will anchor a thin
often long vertical loadbearing element (B) will carry a load (C), giving the look of the load (C)
floating.
The inclining hanger will be similar; A structural support element (A) will be grounded and at the top
anchor, a thin often long slanted loadbearing element (B) will carry a load (C), giving the look of the
load (C) floating.
Through pre stressing of the tension rods are strategically used on structures where wind or other lateral
forces may be encountered. The pre stressing can be compared to pitching a tent up. Once the rope is
anchored and tightened when connected to the pole, the pole stays in place, balancing out any sideway
movement. (The Structural Basis of Architecture. 2011)
24 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Bridge & The Eiffel Tower
There are many types of bridges and many different types of materials used such as concrete, steel and
different construction types such as arch, beam, and suspension among many others.
But I want to take a look at a cantilevering bridge, specifically the Forth Bridge. It is a railway bridge
over the Firth of Forth in Scotland and spans over a great length of 2,467m with a width of 9.8m at the
center. Until 1917 it was the worlds longest single cantilevering bridge, and still today the second
longest.
The construction on the bridge began in 1882 and opened to public in 1890. It is made of a steel
structure.
25 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design What is particularly interesting about this type of construction for a bridge, is that it is anchored only to
one end, in this case on the two main cantilevering segments anchored to the ground, then
“suspending” a simple span in the middle. So it basically allows for an overhang without external
bracing, compared to other types of construction which are supported at both ends. It is quite
impressive for such a powerful structure. (The Structural Basis of Architecture. 2011)
When looking at this particular bridge, your mind can tend to wonder towards the Eiffel tower, the
Forth bridges French contemporary. A purely honest structural design like the bridge, but of wrought
iron. Every piece is used, and is a part of the structure and holds it together.
The Eiffel tower was designed in 1884, and construction was completed in 1889 and is named after the
engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower. The build itself took 2 years. It
was first designed by engineers Maurice Koechlin and Emilie Nouguier, where they envisioned 4
tapering piers of lattice girders formed in a squared which then going higher and higher up melt
together and became one at the top. Then architect Stephen Sauvestre and sculptor Bartholdi overtook
the design, until construction began.
This is a fun work division as usually it would be the other way round the professions work with the
project. It was now the engineers who became the artists and created a new piece of architecture.
Thanks to advances in structural science new materials were created and could be used. The Eiffel
tower is specifically built of wrought iron also known as puddled iron, is a very pure form of structural
iron can could provide the much needed strength, durability and flexibility for the tower. The advance
in using this new material was also a “symbol on not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the
century of Industry and Science in which we are living."
It would become the symbol of the exposition which would show the artistic progress in architecture in
Paris. The Eiffel tower would show the original idea of beauty before structure, a twist of which we
know from the old builders are their view on the aesthetics of architecture including structural
26 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design architecture. The difference this time being though that they now understood how a structure carries a
load. This idea would then bring about a rebirth of modern architecture with of such of the old views of
architecture and structure but with science in the mix. For this progress of the building industry and the
rebirth of modern architecture to happen, the aesthetic aspects of the Eiffel tower was a necessity and it
was very important to entwine with structure. By recognizing that to take the next step in engineering,
the industry and science would need to be embraced by the modern engineer as too be able to create
modern structures, thereby creating modern architecture.
It was because of this acknowledgement, that the Eiffel tower was able to be built, symbolizing the
development of the scientific technology within engineering and construction but also architecture,
combining them as one. Changing how mankind thought about construction and architecture, the Eiffel
towers purpose was to embrace the aesthetics that came directly and honestly from structure.
27 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design The technical side
The Forth Bridge was based on the very old engineering bridge principal of a light central girder being
supported by a cantilevering beam. As we now from the previous case looking at cantilevers this means
that the structure is only supported at one end and is projected into the air in a horizontal motion.
From looking at the Forth Bridge we can evaluate that the bridge distributes its loads between the
supports. This is again, as seen in beams and columns, is load transferal/transfer of forces.
As there was no computers back then, to back up the idea like we have now a days, the principal was
illustrated physically in a demonstration of the use of compression and tension.
In the “playful but scientific” photo we can relate the suspended span to the middle, where the weight
is smallest. The outstretched arms symbolizes the tension while the rope, with the help of the wooden
poles, represents the compressions need to resist. The brick counterweights act as the foundationing
anchors for the cantilever. (The Structural Basis of Architecture. 2011)
28 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design And the how
In this next section of the rapport I would like to go into depths with the structure in the previous case
studies. I will be analysing and discussing the importance structure has had on these buildings with the
help of the book “Structure as Architecture”, and how the structure has impacted the architecture.
If we say a building is a piece of architecture, we must also understand that without structure holding
the building up and connecting it together, the building can’t exist. Therefore there is no piece of
architecture. We can also say that a structure is a piece of architecture. So therefore we understand that
one doesn’t exist without the other.
Columns & Beams
External structure can also be in the form of columns, dominating a façade and all in all deciding the
overall look of a building. Acropolises whole external is columns creating a sense of modulation, but
we can also look at other examples where the columns frame and mark the main entrance making it
powerful, and also creates a sense of modulation.
Structures can be used to define/divide areas and create spatial organization, for example columns &
beams help define a space internally. Ideally to maximize a space internally and give it the most
flexibility, you would place the structure on the outside like an insects shell is its bones. This solution is
not always possible though and often you will have to live with structural constraints if you wish the
building to change form, shape or function at a later time.
So if the wish is flexibility or openness, the most common approach would be to grid beams and
columns, instead of using loadbearing walls.
Columns can define circulation within a building, literally by restricting movement within that area by
creating a path, or like mentioned above, mark an entrance. A structure like columns can even create a
sense of spatial space, defining an open area. Beams can have a similar effect by playing with the eye
29 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design because of their horizontal role. Not forgetting that this form also plays a role in the height within a
space.
This is why it is important to early on in the concept to integrate the concept and functionality
requirements the building has, so there is no disturbance in the working design later on when a column
is suddenly placed in the middle of the room because if not, the building will collapse partially or even
completely.
Materials and shapes play a big role on the design outcome of the structures. They can add different
feelings, atmosphere or even life to the building. For example square concrete columns can give an
industrial and masculine feel, but concrete columns formed in a Grecian style can give a romantic
feeling. Likewise structural glazing can give a clean sleek feeling and steel structures can give that
industrial masculine feeling.
The raw industrial look, is often a pure and real design. There is no extra unnecessary materials used,
and what is shown has a purpose. When looking at gothic architecture it is very over the top in general.
A lot of the structures are exposed, but have also been “arted out” with extra flamboyant ornamentation
and sometimes you may look at a piece of this and think it doesn’t serve any purpose and doesn’t
belong there. A structure that serves no function, creates a sense of dishonesty, rendering it useless.
When talking about interior structure, exposed columns and beams are a common picture. It can enrich
a surfaces character, creating a surface pattern and depth, for example exposed wooden beams can give
a feeling of warmth and comfort, they automatically affect how a space is perceived, and this is a form
of spatial impact.
In modern day architecture the tendency is to go for “less is more”. Less detail, more clean lines,
thinner, lighter structures or simply hiding the structure to create this environment. The engineers strive
to design structures that are minimized and lighter and creating structure with maximum
loadbearing/stiffness but with less material. This is too please the modern day architects, but here is
where a common discussion starts. When looking at structures in buildings from the past, it is clear that
the main idealism was the heavier and robust the structure, the greater and stronger they seem, whereas
many modern day architects argue the opposite, the lighter and minimalized the structure, the stronger
30 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design it says it is. This is why materials isn’t the only size atmospheres differentiator but thickness also, does
a thicker column giving a strong masculine feeling and a slender one giving a feminine feeling? Or is it
actually the opposite? Well this is where materials may come again, as a supporting factor leading the
design in either one or the other direction.
Arches
So what can we understand from domes in cathedrals? The shell like surface means that a 3D space is
created within but also defining the roof. The dome is a structure and an enclosure.
The shell itself is a structure and a surface structure, creating the shape inside and out. Here it is the
right orientation, curved geometry and support placement that is key. When reinforced concrete is used
the shell can be compared to an eggshell, forces coming from the outside like loads bearing down on
the structure will not break it.
The arch, the 2D dome, has existed for a long time and is one of the most famous and basic structures
that have been used and is still one of the most amazing geometrical shapes we can use constructively,
in a building. The arch can create a form of circulation, one will automatically perceive an arch as an
entrance or gateway. But in modern architecture as opposed to older buildings, the arch has taken on a
new role. Historically, the arch was more of a necessity to make openings in the masonry, as opposed
to a straight crossbar having high dimensions in order to cope with comparatively narrow openings.
Now we have a lot of "modern" materials, for example reinforced concrete, steel and composites that
can withstand a lot of forces and are cheaper to use. Another thing is also do with the arch taking on
other shapes and forms and nowadays used more like an architectural device, than as a constructive
necessity - and this is mainly due to economy and time. But if the arch is used as part of the structure it
just might not be visible. Time tends to have different expression architecturally. Through the 50’s
many interesting forms were created for example Sarinen and Utzon included three dimensional
double-curved shapes like the Sydney Opera house, wherein the arch is also part of the overall
structure.
31 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Concrete a modern design
Why do we use so much concrete in our modern architecture? It is flexible when wet and can be shaped
and moulded into almost any shape and obtain any surface pattern desirable. Along with being able to
change a specific expression or feeling, the colouring by adding pigmentation under mixture it gives
endless possibilities to express different concepts as opposed to a traditional material, for example
wood, where it’s most expressive by its natural form, grain and colour. Concrete can also imitate other
materials. If wood is pressed against moist concrete, it can form itself after the woods grain, giving it
the wood appearance. Another example is concrete used in a ferry terminal in Hamburg. The concrete
is pre-cast into A-frames cantilevering brackets. They have been painted shiny blue and often are
mistaken for a steel construction. Being able to reinforce concrete, also means that the collaboration
between architecture and construction can be quite elegant.
Thanks to reinforced concrete which is one of the ultimate examples of science working for the ability
to create something beautiful. It is durable, easy to produce and work with. It is also fairly inexpensive
as a building material which makes it economically sustainable, and therefore a very used material in
the building industry. Let’s face it money matters and is a big factor. But apart from that it is also an
extremely durable material, maintenance free and can withstand moist and fire.
Using reinforced concrete means that walls can also work as structural systems, a concept used a lot in
modern design so that the need for columns are minimized when designing spatially, creating a clean
and non-cluttered floor space. we take a look at this concept under beams and columns – an advantage
when columns can’t be used in the right way architecturally when designing spaces including flow and
comfort but are only used to function as a need as science.
Of course with concrete no matter which form, it must be understood when using it in a design it is not
a very flexibly material after it is set in the sense of the buildings use maybe changing. It is a very
permanent material and therefore should mainly be used where the structure is permanent. This is a
reason you do not just build all walls out of it with a house for example where the needs of the people
living in it may change. This is why material is a factor that must be understood within the designing
process, the architect must to a certain extent forth see the client’s needs and the use of the building,
32 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design being private or public buildings (bridges being a pretty safe bet that they won’t change). The materials
of course being a leading factor in the sense of the science part of the structure design.
Glass – structural glazing
It’s a rather modern day design, being able to let vast amounts of light into buildings, but something
that has always been sought after where different solutions have been tried. You often see in old
buildings it is minimal how much light goes in through (small windows etc.) this is also a climate
factor. In Denmark for example where the temperature fluctuates from warm summers to very cold
winters, you had to be able to regulate the indoor climate. If the building contained big windows the
building would be harder to warm up in the winter.
Now a days, thanks to special glass and metal skeletal structures, it is a whole new ballgame. Before
where there was structure there was no light. We’ve gone from having stone and masonry structures
and controlling light sources, with small light openings to the light sources becoming the structure. It
no longer has to be one or the other.
Glass facades are a relatively new method which has both advantages and disadvantages. When
looking at the two different types of structural glazing (framed and frameless), aesthetically there is
differences if you use a framed or frameless structural glazing system, there is also differences
aesthetically within the systems under those two types. Using point-fixed bolted systems gives the
sleekest effect, except from the panel system, as it is the system with least interruptions.
But a smooth glass facade can be quite sad and maybe a little boring, but in interaction with other
building elements it can give an interesting play.
But it is not only aesthetically the building is affected by weather framed or frameless structural glazing
is used, there is also a few other points to consider. Framed glazing can potentially create problems
such as sound transmission, unwanted heat transfer, air filtration and moisture penetration. The
moisture penetrated through around the glass (through the frames), whereas tests have proven with
frameless glazing is used, where the joints between the glass consists of silicone, it provides as a good
33 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design weather seal. So it is still not a perfect system, but when we look at how far we’ve come with structural
science, it can give thoughts to where we will be in other 1000 years.
But there can also be challenges indoors when using large glass fronts when taking atmosphere into
consideration and it is therefore extremely important to be aware of where the glass facades used. For
example, you can look at Campus Roskilde, glass fronts were used to the north and closing the facades
more to the south (Brick facades, with windows). It works quite well architecturally as it opens the
buildings to the north, where people arrive from giving a welcoming feeling and close to the south and
the highway giving a safe private feeling.
Tension
The tension rod is one of the most efficient structural elements, as it is incredibly strong material so
little of it is needed. This means that tension rods can appear invisible and reduce the visual obstruction
of a structure. These rods can also be used as vertically or slanted hangers. By strategically using
tension hangers, you can create a spatial atmosphere where the structure that is connected to the
hangers appears to be floating in space. When looking into this floating structure it is also interesting to
look at the structural principal between the connections to the foundation; is it rooted and takes form
from the ground- solid? Or is it lifted and seem light as if it floats? If using a hanging structure the
obvious choice would be to carry on the floating connection.
As we’ve seen under structural glazing it is also a tension bracing system that is used to connect the
facades to the structure, again minimizing the obstruction behind the glass, so there are views from the
inside and optimizing light allowance, and allowing the structure a bit of movement if necessary.
It is not only the architectural effect of floating and minimal obstruction or the actual rods themselves
that are interesting designs notions but the connection details also hold interesting and often complex
roles within the conceptual design. This again shows the architectural enhancement of a structural
element, even just a small one!
34 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Bridges & The Eiffel Tower
When designing a bridge the engineer(s) must look at not only what structure is required and how the
weight will transfer to the supports, but also how this will look aesthetically. Here the Eiffel tower is a
perfect example with its embracement of the aesthetics that come from the sure structure of it. The idea
behind the Eiffel tower and the entwinement of architecture and engineering is exactly how bridges
should be designed and actually the engineer/architect Eiffel who was behind the Eiffel tower has also
designed many bridges, showing it is the same sort of construction.
Bridges are often a long span, connecting areas, they might open up right into the middle of a city. The
bridge will more than likely be seen from many views from the city or change a landscapes
surroundings. Therefore when designing a bridge thought must be put into how it aesthetically looks as
it will have enormous contribution to its surroundings.
It is clear to see that the ever evolving fashion of architecture not only effects buildings, but also
structures like bridges. You can clearly see what era they are from, fitting nicely in. Shapes, materials
and structure types are taken into deep consideration.
Bridges show some of the truest forms of structural art. They are the definition of design and function
acting in unison and how structure is art. They achieve an architectural beauty through honest design
with minimum effort.
If we take for example a cable-stayed bridge representing the twenty first century like the The Rama
VIII Bridge in Bangkok, Thailand. Little aesthetic architectural treatment is needed, as the tension
cables in themselves are purely structural, but in themselves are an interesting design feature and create
extremely interesting concepts. This sort of bridge is a rather new form. We can compare it too, for
example a renaissance time bridge like The Pont du Gard. We can clearly see it is from a different time,
not by looking at its condition, but how the arch is structurally built. The main structure consists of arch
compression and stone being the main architectural design, it has a very romantic look to it. We can
clearly see through the technique and materials used The Rama VIII Bridge is new compared The Pont
du Gard.
35 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design The bridge case, the forth bridge which we looked into above, expresses its architectural design
through the materials used. It has a very industrial feel because of the steel, showing again how much
effect materials have on the overall design outcome. The Eiffel Tower is the symbol of structural art,
but bridges are an ongoing and evolving definement of this.
To round off…
After looking at these structure types it is interesting to compare to the five points of architecture
developed by Le Corbusier.
1. Pilotis – Replacement of supporting walls by a grid of reinforced concrete columns, which bears
the structural load is the basis of the new aesthetic.
2. The free designing of the ground plan—the absence of supporting walls—means the house is
unrestrained in its internal use.
3. The free design of the façade—separating the exterior of the building from its structural function—
sets the façade free from structural constraints.
4. The horizontal window, which cuts the façade along its entire length, lights rooms equally.
5. Roof gardens on a flat roof can serve a domestic purpose while providing essential protection to the
concrete roof
These five points are especially summed up in Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye. First point, the structure
support is lifted off the ground by reinforced concrete stilts (pilotis). When the first point is
accomplished, the second point is possible, he now had complete freedom to design his open floor plan,
without the need for supporting walls. It also allowed the third point, and for him to create a nonbearing façade including curtain walls, a free design exactly how he wanted it. The fourth point is
executed on the second floor, long horizontal windows, allowing views of the yard and vast amounts of
light in. The fifth point is the roof garden on top of the flat surface compensates for the area the
buildings sits on and protects the concrete.
36 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design These five points, worked as a new vocabulary within a new approach of the design of domestic
architecture, and has been used since repeatedly. It gave way for designs that became more airy, light,
and spacious with the help of uninterrupted openings in the buildings facades, and by removing the
restricting walls within. After reading the previous sections we know what this can do internally for
architecture and the indoor atmosphere.
Looking back to the old days again and the fact that there was no science in structures, and it was
purely based on traditions past down from master builder to apprentice is the reason there was no
distinction between structure and design, as there was no science in it couldn’t be called engineering
before the break through of the industrial revolution.
If we look back to the black diamond, we can see that when designing the building there was great
thought put into the structural design already from the beginning, what would be used, how it looked
and would enhance the buildings conceptual design, this goes to show therefor that if the architects can
create a buildings structure so early on in the concept design, you can integrate it, making the buildings
design so much stronger, with minimal changes and complications due to missing structural
requirements.
Apart from minimal design changes, we also know that exposing structure, can enhance the buildings
aesthetical concept. By already doing so early in the concept, structures can be designed to enhance this
purpose. If we imagine an empty space. It seems boring without all the “noise” of furniture and so on.
What would make this room a design in itself, could be structural detailing. Detailing can transform
and speak a concept by itself. It shows the connection between what holds the space together, combing
the different joints and finishes – “unifying separate elements”. If we go back to Loui Kahn, who
speaks about buildings having souls, we can compare to creating life when creating buildings, all the
extra detailing and structure is like the joints in us holding us together. By elaborating the structural
details within a building, it can clarify the expression of structural action and thereby aesthetically
enhancing the buildings concept and design.
Of course when exposing structure it must be evaluated whether or not it will contribute to the design
architecturally. If it doesn’t enhance visually what you are trying to communicate architecturally and
37 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design conceptually, it should not be shown. A little can go a long way and as we know, often a building will
consists of more than one type of structural system and if there is no artistic connection between these
systems it might give the wrong impression, or look messy so on. Again a reason to decide early on
what and how you want to enhance the design by using structure. A buildings structure will not only be
decided by the architectural motion but also the function of the building. What size will it be? A small
house or a big open commercial building. Such a building may need specific structures. And do the
structures mesh together? Structural scale must be taken into consideration. In modern day architecture
we strive to build better and sleeker, creating new methods, this has resulted in some cases where the
columns have looked under scaled compared to the rest of the structure. But it has been done to strive
after, going back to the earlier discussion, on slimmer sizes now meaning a stronger material – so what
the architect has been trying to say with it.
You might ask is this all over the top? Well consider this. A building’s exterior often depends on how
the structure and building’s envelope work together and the first look onto a building from the outside
is what will determine first impressions of the building. If we take a look at the CCTV headquarters in
China, there is an irregular grid on building’s surface. This visible expression is its primary support,
showing the forces travelling through the tubes structure; the smaller the diagonal patterns being the
strongest load support systems. It is clear that the structure is incorporated within the facades aesthetic
expression, rendering it more interesting to look at because it makes the character stronger. What is
also import to consider is if the external structural concepts follows through inside?
An interesting way at looking at construction is that it acts like a team force. Each with its own
competences and strengths. Alone they are weak but together they create something strong and sturdy.
Architecture is also a part of this team force, creating it beautiful.
A common sentence I’ve heard as to why drawing competitions are lost is because the building was not
realistic. Of course architects are more than capable of designing something beautiful, but like the
pretty bird on paper that can’t fly, if it can’t be built because the architects never had an understanding
of how the building will stand of course it will never win.
38 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Conclusion
So is it structure or is it architecture?
On the basis of this rapport we can conclude that within good designs, one does not exist without the
other.
This report was written on the basis of understanding and reading structures, from an architectural point
of view. From reading the structures, we can conclude from the first part of the report, that in a sense
all structures amount to doing the same – carrying, loadbearing and stabilzing. But in the second part
we see how it is done, within different systems and within these different systems and materials, how it
has added to the architectural design in different ways. Columns and beams create space and spatial
organization to a design. Arches create a two dimensional walkthrough or shape a roof three
dimensionally. Structural glazing allows light into a building and cantilevering shifts loads in an
interesting going against the way we believe a structure can behave. All of these cases can give one sort
of atmosphere, but can give a complete different with the change of just one thing, for example the
materials used or the thickness. Visible or nonvisible structures, create interest in otherwise bland
surfaces and spaces. So obviously among just what is stated in this report, there is many different ways
structure can contribute to the overall design.
Architecture doesn’t exist without structure and can be enriched by the structural design, when we
think about acropolis, are minds automatically go to the columns. Likewise structure is architecture,
think the Eiffel tower, bridges, a building built entirely of a structural material like concrete.
We notice a change in the roles who take on the two disciplines, have changed over the centuries. It
used to be a builder/craftsman/designer, who would design the whole piece of architecture including
the structure. There was talk of knowledge shared by a roll over effect rendering these professionals
freethinkers but, and therefor structurally not making many advances within science, but merely
working with handed down knowledge. The problem with these lack of advances scientifically meant
39 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design not many advances in the design could be made either. You can’t build something you don’t know how
to make stand up.
Then that all changed with Brunelleschi, da Vinci and Galileo who worked with architecture and made
advances within science too. Since then though with the advances, a gap has grown. Structure has come
further away from architecture and aesthetics of engineering, until Santiago Calatrava, who can see the
importance of the two professions joint together. The one discipline should not hold the other back like
it used to. We can see that the separation has been an advantage with the advances that have therefore
been possible. But the understanding of them should be more entwined with the professions, and with
better cooperation so as they don’t stray too far away from each other and no longer find common
ground.
The number of scientifically advances will only grow from here, and it will be the architects job to
implement them architecturally, and we know this is only going to be possibly if the architects
understand the workings of these advances. So of course it is unlikely many professionals will like
Calatrava, both become educated within architecture and engineering. It is however important for both
professions to understand the extensive work and joint cooperation there needs to be. It should be seen
as a positive relationship instead of the gap that exists between them now, as structural design is owned
by both professions, the scientific load-bearing by the engineers and the aesthetical expression by the
architect. They should work together to create designs and communicate side by side, rather than on
separate ends of the scale, and already from an early stage in the design process and forward. Doing
this would mean less changes will arise later because of structural implications making the design
optimized and stronger. This is an advantage both aesthetically and physically. By creating this positive
attitude, the structure will no longer hold the architect back on design possibilities, but push it forward.
Structure can have an enormous impact on a building, functionally how the building works and can be
used, but also aesthetically on the design and atmosphere and there is endless potential to implement it.
Only by joining forces can we make fantastically, truly functional, innovative architecture.
40 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Bibliography
Charleson, Andrew W.: Structure as Architecture
Published. Elsevier, 2005. (Book)
Sandaker, Bjørn N., Eggen, Arne P., Cruvellier, Mark R: The Structural Basis of Architecture
2nd Edition.
Published. Routledge, 2011. (Book)
Margolius, Ivan.: Architects + Engineers = Structures
Published. Wiley-Academy, 2002. (Book)
Seward, Derek.: Understanding Structures
3rd Edition.
Published. Palgrave Macmillian, 2003. (Book)
41 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Patterson, Mic: Structural Glass Facades and Enclosures
Published. John Wiley & sons, 2011
Internet
address:
https://books.google.dk/books?id=qsqi2jdH7ecC&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33&dq=structural+glazing+syste
ms&source=bl&ots=S2cYWlOA51&sig=nJ10Xgi063u1dwH92gmLIWWLVI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5h9GhjovLAhWGWSwKHdjyCB84ChDoAQhRMAk#v=on
epage&q=structural%20glazing%20systems&f=false - Visited. 22.02.2016 (Book)
http://projects.ecfs.org/bome/cities/DBand2004/Paris/MKutnick/eiffeltower.html - Visited 01.03.2016
Interview 26/02/2016 with Tiago Pereira, Associate Partner at Schmidt/hammer/lassen architects
Interim Director and Head of Concept Development Copenhagen
42 Imogen Cecilia Bigum Ellenger, 7.i Copenhagen School of Technology and Design Appendices
43