SAINT JAMES ICONOGRAPHY
ICONOGRAFÍA DE SANTIAGO: A IMAXE DE SANTIAGO NA HISTORIA
The depictions of the Apostle Saint James the Greater have been one
of the most diversified in Christian iconography since the Middle
Ages. The widespread devotion to the saint throughout Europe and,
from the 16th century in America, not only resulted in the adoption of
very different attitudes as a function of the varying devotional and
political needs of the time (mixing his roles as an apostle, a knight, a
pilgrim…), but also in echoing the diversity of customs and fashions
in clothing according to the epoch and place where the images were
made.
Saint James is the only apostle to have this variety of iconography.
In the first and oldest images, he is depicted with attributes common
to all the other apostles: a tunic and mantle, the holy book, barefoot
and with a phylactery or a script bearing their name or sentences
alluding to the Holy Scripture. This is the way he is represented in
the first sculptures of certain importance in the very Saint James’
Cathedral: the painting known as “Santiago entre cipreses” (Saint
James between the cypress trees) at the “Portada de Platerías”
(Silversmith Square Entrance) (circa 1111 – 1116) and in the
sculpture of the mullion known as the Portico de la Gloria, by Master
Mateo, made circa 1188. He is shown as the blessing Apostle, from
1135 to 1140, in the first chapter of the Liber Sancti Iacobi of the
Calixtine Codex.
Saint James is also a Pilgrim saint. He was sent by Jesus Christ on a
long journey to evangelise Hispania and, for this reason, in some of
the first depictions, he also bears the staff or walking stick. The
widespread devotion to the saint and the resulting influence of the
pilgrimage to his shrine made that fervent devotees identified with
him on setting out on their journey. The seated Saint James or the
saint in majesty gives even more drive to the evangelising mission,
and Saint James as a Soldier of Christ or a Knight were to be
frequently used as a symbol of the defence of the Christian Faith.
This diversity in the ways of depicting him was further enriched with
the role of Saint James as intercessor, with the Virgin Mary as the
chief mediator.
SAINT JAMES IN MAJESTY
SANTIAGO EN MAXESTADE
The image of Saint James seated, in majesty or in cathedra
appeared for the first time in the Cathedral of Santiago in the
sculpture by Master Mateo, for the mullion of the Portico of Glory
(circa 1188). This type of iconography, however, was by no means
common. Saint James is depicted as an apostle (tunic, mantle,
barefoot and a phylactery or holy book), but seated on a sumptuous
chair or throne. Generally, a text appears on the phylactery alluding
to his evangelising mission, like in the image in the Portico of Glory
in the phrase Misit me Dominus (“The Lord has sent me”). The staff
held in one of his hands was in the traditional form of the ceremonial
crosiers of the archbishops, and recalled the crook used by the
apostles as they spread the teachings of Christ. So the walking stick
reinforced the idea of the apostolic mission, which Jesus entrusted to
Saint James, while at the same time underscored the importance of
Santiago as an Episcopal see.
Years later, in 1211, a sculpture of Saint James seated was
commissioned for the High Altar, which despite the major
modifications to the altar in the 17th century, can still be seen today.
The text inscribed on its phylactery reads Hic est Corpus Divi Iacobi
Apostoli et Hispanorum Patroni (“Here lies the Body of the Divine
Apostle, Saint James, Patron Saint of the Kingdom of Hispania”).
Later, around 1250, another sculpture with the same image was
made for a chapel in the same cathedral. But this time the apostle
wore a crown, symbolising the Apostle who reigns. This iconographic
model gives Saint James some of the identifying features of pilgrims:
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the leather purse worn round the waist, the gourd, the tunic or the
hat.
Illustrations of Saint James seated are not found after the 15th
century. Beyond the area of influence of Galicia, a few examples are
found in France, particularly in the Brittany area, probably as a
consequence of the many maritime pilgrimages that set out from
that region. In the 18th century, engraved illustrations of Saint James
seated in the high altar of the cathedral were used once again to
decorate documents on the pilgrimage and prayers highlighting Saint
James as the Patron Saint of Spain.
Processional cross
Appliqué at the centre of
the cross consisting in a
seated Saint James
Spanish workshop
2nd third 16th century
Plateresque style
Silver. Gilded, chiseled
relief impressed by
punches and gravers.
That he is viewed as a pilgrim was emphasised from the outset in
the basilica of Santiago itself by portraying the Apostle with a
walking staff. Soon a leather purse was added. Both accessories are
essential for all walkers. The “bordón” (staff) or the “caxato”
(walking stick) with a handle serve to fend off animals and any
other hazards lying in wait. The “moral” (purse) or “escarcela”
(pouch) is a leather bag for keeping food in. But for the Church and
pilgrims, they also have the symbolic meaning of the long road of
penitence. The staff stands for the defence of the Faith against
temptation, and the purse for the mortification of the flesh and the
generosity of alms giving. In this manner, al least since the 9th
century, the Church established a blessing ceremony for those who
completed the pilgrimage where these two elements were
symbolically given to them.
SAINT JAMES THE PILGRIM
Other useful accessories for the traveller were the “calabaza”
(gourd), for carrying drink, and the “sombreiro” (hat) which,
depending on the season of the year or the country, was made of a
different material or had a particular shape. In other words, they
also varied according to the fashion of the time. The “esclavina”
(cape) is a small mantle, generally made of leather, covering the
shoulders, protecting the thorax from the cold and rain. It was
generally adorned with small shells and staffs made from a variety of
materials.
By the 12th century, pilgrimages to the sanctuary of Santiago de
Compostela had become a widespread ritual in Western Europe. At
the same time, the Church of Santiago had full endorsement by the
Pope as one of the most important centres in Christendom. Devotion
to the Apostle grew intensely, and numerous churches were
dedicated to him throughout the Christian world. From that point on,
a varied artistic production of religious images developed to
represent Saint James the Apostle.
From the 11th century onwards, the use of the “vieira” (scallop
shell) to symbolise the Saint James pilgrimage had become
increasingly common. The sermon, Veneranda Dies found in the
Liber Sancti Iacobi (1135-1140), attempted to provide a symbolic
justification for the shell as an emblem of charity, by comparing its
ribbed lines with the fingers on the hand. Initially, the shells, natural
or made of metal or jet, were purchased in the area surrounding the
cathedral to take on the return journey as proof that the pilgrimage
had been completed.
SANTIAGO PEREGRINO
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All these items appear, to a greater or lesser extent, in the images of
Saint James. The clothing and accessories of the images of the
Apostle almost always echo the fashion of the time and of each
country. The “libro” (book), whether open or closed, is always
depicted as a reminder of the apostolic mission. The first illustration
of Saint James wearing the traveller’s accessories seem to date back
to the 12th century, all along the main route of the Way of Saint
James.
CHANGES IN ATTIRE AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE ICONOGRAPHY OF
THE APOSTLE ST. JAMES
A transformación da indumentaria e o seu reflexo na iconografía do
Apóstolo Santiago
The illustrations depicting the Apostle Saint James show the changes
in attire throughout time not just as far as pilgrims and travellers are
concerned but in general. Furthermore, the clothing used changed
depending on the climate of each place, (for example, the warm
marten skin hat on the Saint James Pilgrim of John of Flanders was
more typical of Central Europe). Although the tunic and the mantle
were predominant in the Apostle´s outfit, these articles of clothing
gradually were adapted to the innovations of the time. Thus,
features such as rolled up cuffs, collars, cassocks, belts, brooches
and different types of footwear, as well as a wide range of elements
both from sumptuous and more humble clothing began to appear.
Undoubtedly the greatest variation has to do with hats, where
evolution from the medieval bonnet type to the double hem designs
of the 18th century can be traced.
A case in point of this adaptation of the attire with which the Apostle
was represented can be seen in the two wood sculptures from
around the 15th century. Both present similar clothing, a doublet or
long tunic reaching down to the feet, and an overcoat known as a
“roupiña” (a short-sleeved tunic, which was shorter and lowernecked). The use of these two garments was a fashion from the 14th
century among the Parisian bourgeoisie, which quickly spread to
central and northern Europe, so that images of Saint James dressed
in this manner reached Scandinavia, England and Spain. These
sculptures do, however, differ in the model of hat depicted; the
bonnet with folded brim was the most popular and was widely used
throughout Europe, whereas the peaked bonnet doubled over the
brims originated in England.
St. James, the Pilgrim
Galician workshop
14th – 15th centuries
Granite polychrome
St. James, the Pilgrim
Possibly, galician workshop
Late 14th century –early 15th century s. XV
Chestnut wood polychrome
St. James, the Pilgrim
Castilian workshop (?)
2nd half 15th century
Castilian pine wood
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St. James, the Pilgrim
Spanish –Flemish school
Late 15th century- early 16th century
Carving and polychrome wood
St. James, the Pilgrim
Juan de Flandes (Ca. 1465-1519)
1505-1519
Oil on canvas
Probably made for the altarpiece of the University
Chapel of the Universidad de Salamanca
Deposit from the Museo del Prado
St. James, the Pilgrim
Hispanic workshop
15th century
Gilding and polychrome wood
St. Jame, the Pilgrim
Castilian workshop. Spanish-Flemish style
Late 15th century-early 16th centuryI
Carved, golden wood polychrome.
Deposit from J. Varela Villamar
High relief of St. James, the Pilgrim
Galician workshop
16th century
Carving and polychrome granite
From the area of Padrón
St. James, the Pilgrim
Burgos workshop
circa 1500
Oak wood polychrome with traces of gilt.
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St. James, the Pilgrim
Spanish school. Spanish-Burgundian style
2nd third 15th century
Carving, gold-coloured and polychrome alabaster
St. James, the Pilgrim
Juan de Juanes (early 16th – 1579)
1560-1570
Oil on canvas
Made for the church of the Convento de la Corona de
Jesús de los Religiosos de san Francisco de Valencia
St. James, the Pilgrim
16th century
Carved in wood
St. James, the Pilgrim
Probably, Portuguese workshop
Last third 16th century
Carving alabaster
St. James, the Pilgrim
2nd third 16th century
Wood with traces of gilt
Deposited by J. Varela Villamor
St. James Pilgrim
Castilian workshop. Romanist style
2nd third 16th century
Gold-colored and polychrome wood
Depósito de J. Varela Villamar
St. James, the Pilgrim
Late 17th century- early 18th century
Carved, gilded and stewed wood
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St. James, the Pilgrim
Galician workshop
2nd third 19th century
Polychrome wood
Deposit by J. Varela Villamor
St. James, the Pilgrim
Bernardo Lorente Germán
1st half 18th century
Oil on canvas
The half-body representation of this Saint James pilgrim is in keeping with
the stylistic and technical characteristics of religious, devotional painting in
late 17th and early 18th century Spain. These criteria explain for instance
the foreshortening composition looking towards the viewer that evolves
from an iconographic type that is progressively used between the 16th and
17th centuries notably in the apostle series. But the most definying features
of this time are the naturalism of representations and the abundance of
backgrounds with the darkest hues of the palette. This gives these works a
tone of devotional absorption that is particularly favoured by the Church at
the height of the Counter-reformation controversy.
Bernardo Lorente Germán (1680-1759) was a painter from Seville who
was educated under the influence of the most outstanding painter in that
city, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, although Lorente painting has more
expressive power. As a result of the quality of his work, he was closely
linked to the painters who worked for King Felipe V during his stay in
Seville, for whom he painted a portrait of Infant Felipe. Proposed for the
office of Painter of the King, he turned it down because of his reserved
nature and his attachment to his homeland. However, in 1756 he did not
turn down the offer to become a member of the Academia de Bellas Artes
de San Fernando in Madrid.
St. James, the Pilgrim
18th century
Carving and polychrome wood
SAINT JAMES, THE KNIGHT
SANTIAGO CABALEIRO
The first explicit mention of Saint James, the Apostle as a knightinterceding for the Christian troops facing the Muslims – appears in
two texts dating from the first half of the 12th century. The Historia
Silense and the Liber Sancti Iacobi that is part of the Calixtine
Codex. They tell of the miraculous conquest of the city of Coimbra, in
1064, by Ferdinand I, thanks to the help of the Apostle. There arises
the warmongering function of Saint James as a Soldier of Christ –
miles Christi. According to tradition, Saint James had already helped
Christians, in 895 AD in the conquest of that same city. Later, in
1125, the Privilexio dos Votos (Privilege of Offerings) was drawn up.
This was a false document relating how the Apostle intervened to the
benefit of Ramiro I in the battle against the Muslims, supposedly
fought at Clavixo in 859. The objective here was to establish the
“Offering to Saint James” or a compulsory donation by the
peasantry of cereals and wine to the Church in Santiago in payment
for the help received.
The justification of Saint James as a knight of God had already been
given in the 8th century in a liturgical hymn of the Comentario á
Apocalipse (Commentary on the Apocalypse) written by Monk Beato
de Liébana. Saint James is named here protector of the kingdom of
Spain, standing up against calamities and the conquering infidels.
Since the 10th century, monarchs promoted the Patron Sainthood
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of Saint James on the kingdoms of Spain. This patronage,
politically motivated and in keeping with the miraculous traditions –
was promoted as beneficial to society at large, who was thus
protected by the Apostle. Monarchs would appeal for his help, not
only in their battles against the Muslims, but also against any
enemy, including those within the kingdom. Ferdinand II himself
founded the Order of Saint James in 1170 as an emblematic
institution to confront the Muslim armies.
What is considered to be the first sculpture of Saint James as a
knight (circa 1220) is on the Santiago Cathedral tympanum. We
should not lose sight of the fact that a knight was a social rank,
which was particularly important in the Middle Ages, a time of
territorial and religious conflict, so that it is a common, everyday
figure. Associating saints with the status of knights or soldiers of
Christ (Saint Demetrio, Saint George, Saint Millán…) had been
commonplace since the early days of Christianity. As Beato de
Liébana put it, they were the Armies of Heaven. Knights were
always white knights, symbolising purity, the body of Christ; his
steed was the Lord in Majesty. They fought to free Mankind from
evil, a role that originates in the mythology of Classical Antiquity. An
identical role was ascribed to Mohammed among the Muslims.
The warmongering image of Saint James gradually changed with the
passage of time to adapt to the changes in the causes to be
championed. Initially, with the exception of some documents Saint
James was rarely portrayed as a Soldier of Christ. From the 14th
century onwards, the image of Saint James, the Moor Slayer,
spread. It clearly depicted the Muslim soldiers under the horse. Even
when the Reconquest had been completed in Spain, the pressure of
the Turks on European territories remained for several centuries so
that this depiction took on a new meaning. Since the reign of Carlos
V, the iconography of Saint James, the Moor Slayer, became an
essential element in the exaltation of warfare and the triumph of the
Spanish monarchy. This was at a time when the Spanish Empire was
at its height. The Church authorities in Santiago at the same time
promoted the monarchy as an emblem of the defence of its
privileges. Thus, the alliance of political and religious power is
consolidated at a time when there was a strong controversy with the
Protestants. The image of Saint James, the Patron Saint of Spain
proved to be an emblem for the legitimisation of power even as late
as the 20th century.
Santiago at the Battle of Clavijo
Anonymous
17th-18th century
Oil on wood
Reliquary
Central medallion with Santiago at the battle of
Clavijo
18th century
Gilded, Castillian pine wood polychrome and enamel
copper.
Santiago at the battle of Clavijo
Anonymous
17th-18th century
Oil on canvas
Santiago at the battle of Clavijo
Madrid School
2nd half of the 17th century
Oil on canvas
Inscription on the coat of arms of Álava on the
reverse of the canvas: “JUSTICE AGAINST
EVILDOERS”
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Appearance of the Virgin of the
Pillar to St. James
Andrés de Riola, engraver (+1744)
Draftsman, Domingo de Andrade,
architect (1639-1712)
Inscription: " El Yllmo Sr. Dn Joseph
de Yermo Arbpo y Sr deSto côcede
80 dias de Yndulga a quien rezare
una Ave Mª delte deestaSª Ymagen
de NS del Pilar ". (The Most
Honourable Mr. José de Yermo,
Archbishop and Lord of Santiago,
grants 80 days of Indulgence to
whosoever prays an Ave Maria before
this Holy Statue of Our Lady of the
Pillar).
appears in the heavens among angels. They are holding a column on which,
according to tradition, the Virgin would place an illustration of herself on the
spot where a place of worship was to be raised in her honour.
Iconographic illustrations of the Virgin of the Pillar are common in Spain. In
the 18th century, the theme became even more tremendous according to
the description by Sister María de Ágreda in her Mystica Ciudad de Dios
(Mystical City of God) dated 1701, which became highly popular. This
illustration is a unique example of the new treatment given to the theme in
relation to Santiago.
St. James as protector and intercessor before
the Virgin
Anonymous. Spanish school
17th century
Oil on canvas
The association between James and the Virgin is very close and it occurs
earlier in time than in the case of any other apostle. Indeed, as early as the
time when St. James was evangelising in Hispania, the Virgin appeared to
him to comfort him on his difficult mission. A wealth of other Marian
traditions are found. This does not occur in the case of any other Apostle in
the West (appearances in Muxía and in Iria Flavia). The Marian tradition is
always present in the world of devotion to St. James, as compiled by
Gonzalo de Berceo (1198?-1264?) in Os Milagros da Nosa Señora (The
Miracles of Our Lady), by King Alfonso X the Wise (1252-1284) in Cantigas
(Canticles) and in Book II of the Calixtine Codex. Churches dedicated to the
different Marian advocations (Rocamador (Loving Rock), Virxe do Camiño
(Virgin of the Road), Pastoriza (Shepherdess), Peregrina (Pilgrim), etc.)
were also commonly found on the routes to Santiago.
This painting is divided into three horizontal registers. The lower
representing the earthly sphere, in the centre a dying man is shown,
attended by a priest and a sacristan. Interrelated with the wordly sphere,
the representatives of the infernal sphere are also here: demons and the
protectors of the heavenly sphere, Saint Michael and Saint James, the latter
bearing an inscription referring to his function: “PROTECTOR”. In the
intermediate register, the Virgin in Glory is depicted in Heaven, flanked by
angels and saints, particularly Saint Peter, Saint Paul, Saint Jerome, Saint
Peter Martyr and Saint Steven. The upper register depicts the Father
Almighty in the centre, with Christ to his right and the Holy Ghost to his
left, comprising the Trinity.
This scene is divided into two registers, the lower representing the earthly
domain where St. James appears with his disciples, clad as a pilgrim,
kneeling before the Virgin; in the background, a city, supposedly
Saragossa. The upper register is the heavenly domain, where the Virgin
In illustrations of a funerary nature, where the dying person has to “give
account” to the gods is a scene with a time-honoured tradition. For this
reason, the bed legs where he reposes stand for the cardinal virtues and
the pillows for the theological virtues as well as for good works, thoughts
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and sins. The illustration is moralist and didactic in intent, hence the
numerous inscriptions and lettering. It acts as a sort of reminder of life and
inevitable death, possibly entrusted by a devotee of Saint James.
The function of Saint James as intercessor before the Virgin is portrayed
here in a unique manner, following a tradition which survives from the first
instances of devotion to him, appearing at a later, in the 12th century, in
the miracles recorded in the Calixtine Codex. He was always an exceptional
intercessor, as he did not receive supplications for ills in particular, as was
the case with other saints. But he was, however, first and foremost able to
foresee death and eternal damnation, tearing the believer from the devil´s
grasp.
“Santiago entre cipreses” (St. James between the
cypress trees)
Leather seat backrest
Anonymous
Circa 1500
Wood, bas-relief
Depicting Saint James between two trees had already been seen in the
“Portada de Praterías” (Silversmith Square Porticle) of Santiago Cathedral
(circa 1111-1116). In The Liber Sancti Iacobi, these trees are identified as
cypresses, although they bear a greater resemblance to palm trees. Today,
isolated from their original context, this bas-relief was originally a part of an
overall illustration of the Transfiguration of Christ. There on Mount Tabor,
Jesus once again calls Saint Peter, Saint John and Saint James, and the
Father confirms his Son as the Messiah, announcing yhat he will die by the
hand of men and that he would rise from the dead. Many illustrations of the
Transfiguration of Christ often depict landscapes with palm and cypress
trees in reference to Palestine.
Unlike the image in Praterías, Saint James is shown in this work with all the
characteristic features of a pilgrim: a gourd, the leather purse, the hat and
the staff. And as always, he is holding the holy book. Fruit trees, difficult to
identify, stand on both sides of him.
In the tradition of the medieval imagery and literature, cypress and palm
trees held a sacred meaning. In a sermon recorded in the Calixtine Codex
itself, Saint James is compared to the palm tree. Since antiquity, this plant
has had a symbolic nature, evoking the rich, fertile lands of Mesopotamia.
Palm trees in the pagan world stood for life, fertility, immortality and
victory. This symbolic was assimilated assimilated by the Christian religion
as a representation of the martyr´s triumph over death, the resurrection of
Christ, the immortality of the soul, salvation and, above all, as a symbol of
Heavenly Paradise. On the other hand, the cypress tree, also an emblem of
immortality since classical times as it is an evergreen tree whose wood is
incorruptibility, was associated in the Christian iconography to resurrection
and heaven.
St. James “the Spaniard Slayer”
Workshops of Cuzco (Perú)
2nd third 19th century
Chiselled and engraved in silver
In the 15th century, immediately following the end of the confrontations
between the Christian kingdoms and the Muslims in the so-called
Reconquest, the Spaniards set out to discover and colonise the New World.
Saint James, the Apostle, high advocate and emblematic figure for the
Spanish armies, was called upon once more as helper in battle against the
Native Americans. In fact, legends began to circulate that tell of Saint
James, the Knight, appearing in some battles, particularly in the early
stages of the conquest and colonisation. But in America, the iconographic
type of Saint James Knight underwent a very complex transformation as a
result of the mixture of the Christian religion with the beliefs of the local
populations.
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For Spaniards, “Saint James, the Moor Slayer” became “Saint James, the
Indian Slayer”. But at the same time, the Indian peoples dominated by
great empires such as the Aztecs or the Incas, assimilated Saint James
Knight into their warmongering gods – by way of an example, in the
Andean region Saint James, the Apostle, was associated to the god Illapa,
Lightening, thus identifying the Apostle with the Son of Thunder from the
sacred writings. The popularity of the figure of Saint James was, therefore,
all the more intense among the indigenous population. As a result of this,
numerous churches were consecrated to the Apostle, and places were
named after him – Santiago de Querétaro, Santiago de Chile, Santiago de
Cuba, Santiago de Guayaquil…
From the 17th century onwards, once the American possessions had been
consolidated, “Saint James, the Indian Slayer” became again a “Moor
Slayer” so as avoid any iconography which could offend local people. Long
after, at the time of the pro-independence aspirations by the colonies in the
19th century, Saint James had become so deeply rooted in the folk culture
that he became “Saint James the Spaniard Slayer” or the “Illapa Liberator”.
Thus, he was held as a true protector of the Indians, and once again,
legends of his appearance as helper began to appear, on this occasion
defending the conquered against the conquerors.
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