Citizen Engagement Programme
HOW ACTIVE CITIZENS CAN MAKE A
DIFFERENCE AND IMPROVE SERVICE
DELIVERY IN MOZAMBIQUE
JULY 2013
MAPUTO - MOZAMBIQUE
ADDRESS
CEP
Av. do Zimbabwe, 1374
PO BOX
2242
Maputo
Mozambique
TEL
+258 21 49 86 07
FAX
+258 21 49 86 08
MOBILE: +258
EMAIL:
PROJECT NO.
316-43A
DOCUMENT NO.
09
VERSION
1
DATE OF ISSUE
4.07.2013
PREPARED
AF + BTJ
CHECKED
FF
APPROVED
SARO
82 30 88 906
[email protected]
CONTENT
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................. iii
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 1
About CEP .............................................................................................................. 1
Why this assessment? ........................................................................................... 2
Objective of the assessment ................................................................................. 2
Structure of the report ........................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 1: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 3
1.1
Data collection and analysis ................................................................ 3
1.2
Limitations of the assessment ............................................................. 3
CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................. 4
2.1
What is citizens’ engagement? ............................................................ 4
2.2
How do citizens engage in public affairs? .......................................... 5
2.3
Does it make a difference? ................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 3: CITIZENS’ ENGAGEMENT: EXPERIENCES IN MOZAMBIQUE ....... 9
3.1
Types of mapped initiatives ................................................................. 9
3.2
Initiatives promoted by international cooperation agencies ........... 10
3.3
3.4
3.1.1
Strategies, Approaches, Tools ...................................................... 10
3.1.2
Changes ........................................................................................... 12
Initiatives implemented by key CSOs representing interest groups14
3.2.1
Strategies, Approaches, Tools ...................................................... 14
3.2.2
Changes ........................................................................................... 15
Initiatives implemented by local “hands on” CSOs.......................... 19
3.4.1
Strategies, Approaches and Tools ............................................... 19
3.4.2
Changes ........................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF THE MAPPED INITIATIVES .......................................... 24
4.1
Forms of participation ........................................................................ 24
4.2
Diversity of used strategies .............................................................. 24
i
4.2.1
Lessons Learned from initiatives promoted by international
agencies ........................................................................................... 25
4.2.3
Lessons Learned from “Hands-on” programmes ....................... 26
4.3
Importance and effectiveness of the social accountability
approach ............................................................................................. 27
4.5
Potential for replicating good practice .............................................. 29
4.6
Topics and issues that require more detailed and deep analysis ... 30
BOXES
Box 1: About MASC ............................................................................................... 12
Box 2: About AGIR ................................................................................................. 13
Box 3: About Coalition of CS on the Extractive Industry ......................................... 15
Box 4: About Education for All Movement: ............................................................. 16
Box 5: About N'weti-Comunication for Development .............................................. 17
Box 6: About Niassa Civil Society Association Forum (FORASC) ......................... 19
Box 7: About Mozambican Christian Council (CCM)............................................... 20
Box 8: About Akilizetho - Assocciation for Sustainable Developmemt .................... 22
Box 9: About Facilidade - Institute for Sustainable Development ............................ 22
ANNEXES
ANNEX 1: REFERENCES ................................................................................................. 32
ANNEX 2: MAPPING OF CITIZENS’ ENGAGEMENT PROJECTS ........................... 34
ii
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AGIR – Actions for Inclusive and Responsible Governance Programme
AMODE - Mozambican Association for Democracy Development
ANDA - National Association for the Self-Sustainable Development
CBO – Community Based Organization
CC – Consultative Council
CCM - Mozambique Christian Council
CDL - Local Development Committee
CEDAW – Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women
CEDE - Centre for Study of Democracy and Development
CEMO - Centre for Mozambican and International Studies
CEP – Citizen Engagement Programme
CESC – Civil Society Learning and Capacity Building Centre
CIP - Public Integrity Centre
CIVICUS – World Alliance for Citizen Participation
CP – Consortium Partner
CS – Civil Society
CSO – Civil Society Organisation
CTV – Association “Centro Terra Viva
DFID – UK - United Kingdom Department for International Development...
DIALOGO – The Democratic Governance Support Programme
DO – Development Observatory
DRC – Development Research Centre on Citizenship,
ETD - District Technical Teams
FDC – Foundation for Community Development
FDD - District Development Funds
FORASC – Cuamba Forum of Civil Society Organisations
FORCOM - National Community Radio Forum
GBV – Gender Based Violence
iii
HOPEM – Association “Men Network for Change”
IDS – Institute for Development Studies
IESE – The Institute for Economic and Social Studies
INGO – International Non-Governmental Organizations
IPCC – Institutions for Community Participation and Consultation
JA! – Association for Environmental Justice
LOLE - Law of the State Local Organs
MASC – Civil Society Support Mechanism Programme
MEPT - Movement Education for All
MINED – Ministry of Health
MULEIDE – Women, Law and Development Association,
NGO – Non Governmental Organisation
NPO – National Teachers' Organisation
OE – Association Electoral Observatory
OFB - Faith-based organizations
OIIL – Investment Budget for Local Initiatives
OPM – Oxford Policy Management
ORAM – Rural Association for Mutual Aid
PLWHA – People Living with HIV/AIDS
PNDH – National Pressure of Human Rights Association
PROGOAS – Governance and Water & Sanitation Programme
REDACABA - Rede Distrital de Cahora Bassa/ Cahora Bassa District Network
REGEB - Directive for General Basic Education
RUTH – Association Network for Social Advocacy and Lobby Uthende
SBCC – Social Behaviors’ Change Communication
SDEJT – Education, Youth and Technology District Services
UCODIN - Coordination Unit for Integrated Development of Nampula
UNAC – National Union of Peasants
Watsan – Support to Decentralization of Rural Water and Sanitation Programme
WLSA – Women and Law in Southern Africa Association
iv
INTRODUCTION
About CEP
The Citizen Engagement Programme (CEP) is an empowerment and accountability
programme whose intended impact is better quality of health and education services in
monitored public facilities. The programme's outcome is increased citizen influence on the
quality of health and education service delivery in four selected provinces: Gaza, Nampula,
Zambézia and Tete.
The main programme strategy to improve health and education quality service is to strengthen
the participation and engagement of citizens in monitoring these services, and use this
information for advocacy at local and national level. The programme addresses the
participation and engagement through social accountability mechanisms using two main tools:
community score cards and citizen report cards.
In approaching social accountability mechanisms the CEP expects to deliver five key outputs:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Service users in monitored facilities are aware of their entitlements to health and
education services.
Local Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) in project provinces run a monitoring
system for measuring performance of health and education service delivery.
Frontline staffs of service providers and service users agree actions to address
identified service issues in the health and education sector.
Locally identified performance issues in the health and education sector are
discussed with key stakeholders at provincial and national level.
Program learning and methodologies are shared and applied by other
development actors.
The CEP is implemented by a consortium of seven partners led by COWI an international
consulting company with an office in Mozambique. Each Consortium Partner (CP) brings
specific expertise and capabilities to the programme and CEP’s implementation strategy builds
on partners’ assets that best fit the overall programme purpose, planned outcome and outputs.
In addition to COWI, the consortium includes the Centre for Civil Society Capacity Building and
Learning (CESC), N’weti Communication for Health Association, and Save the Children
International (SCI), all based in Maputo, Mozambique; Kwantu, Lda and the Institute for
Development Studies (IDS), based outside the country and assisting specific areas; and the
Oxford Policy Management (OPM) as the external monitoring and evaluation partner.
1
Why this assessment?
Addressing the quality of services through social accountability mechanisms, such as the
monitoring of public services by citizens is a relatively new process in Mozambique. So far,
most of citizens' participation regarding service delivery is for consultation and communication
about government activities, through invited spaces such as Institutions for Community
Participation and Consultation (IPCC) and Development Observatories (DO). However, there
are initiatives led by CSOs that are being implemented using social accountability mechanisms
and other approaches to claim spaces for participation and accountability and address the
power gap between the three key actors: government institutions, public service providers and
citizens.
Information about the current and past initiatives on participatory basic service monitoring and
evaluation, and other citizens’ engagement approaches are scarce and scattered among the
various intervening actors. At the same time, there is limited analysis and evaluation of what
exists, how it works, and lessons learned. In this scenario, few experiences are scaled up and
there is insufficient learning among organisations. The present assessment covers some of
these gaps by compiling and analysing evidence on citizens’ engagement with public service
providers and by identifying good practices for replication, as well as issues for further study.
Objective of the assessment
The assessment builds upon the Phase 1 of this assignment during which current and recent
citizen engagement initiatives in the country were mapped. Reference is made to the Phase 1
Mapping report (February 2013). The assessment feeds into a more comprehensive analysis
carried out by the Institute for Development Studies (IDS) on experiences with citizen
engagement in monitoring of health and education services in Africa and elsewhere. Both
analyses will support the planned review of the CEP’s theory of change.
The objective of this assessment is three-fold: i) to analyse the strategies, approaches and
mechanisms used: what works or not, and in which context; ii) to examine potential for
replication; and iii) to identify areas that need further analysis.
Structure of the report
In addition to the Introduction, the report consists of four chapters: Chapter 1 Methodology
which describes the process of collecting and analysing data and presents some of the
limitations encountered. Chapter 2 Conceptual Framework introduces basic concepts and
outlines the scope of the assessment. Chapter 3 Citizens’ engagement describes strategies,
approaches and mechanisms used; and presents outcomes from selected initiatives. The final
chapter 4 Analysis of the outcomes and lessons learned presents the analysis of the initiatives
described in the previous section, discusses the potential for replication, and identifies areas
for further analysis.
2
CHAPTER 1: METHODOLOGY
1.1 Data collection and analysis
As indicated above, this assessment is integrated in an assignment that was carried out in two
phases:

First phase was dedicated to mapping programmes and projects that address
citizens’ participation and engagement in basic service provision, currently or
recently implemented in the country (Annex 1). For this purpose different
databases were used, several programmes and projects were consulted, and
websites were screened.

Second phase was dedicated to analysis of selected initiatives. The focus was on
how the identified initiatives and approaches on citizens’ participation and
engagement worked; which strategies, approaches, mechanisms and tools have
been used, and what outcomes have been achieved. Explorative interviews with
selected cases were used as the main source of information.
1.2 Limitations of the assessment
The applied methodology based on key informant interviews and programmes/projects
document review, took into account the available resources as well as the purpose of the
assessment itself. However, certain limitations influenced the results of the assessment,
namely:

The analysis is based on anecdotal evidence of projects and programmes and may
in some cases reflect the opinion of the informant rather than being the result of a
thorough and detailed analysis or long observation by the assessment team.

The sample size and methodology limit the validity of the assessment results, but
are useful to highlight lessons learned and identify areas that need deeper and
further analysis.
3
CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The CEP’s concept of citizens’ engagement is based on the conviction that citizens have the
right to be involved in decision-making processes that affect or could potentially affect them,
and to take initiatives to improve their own lives (COWI et al, 2012). This concept involves a
vision of citizenship centred on the notion of politically active citizens. However, in the
conceptual standpoint, citizens’ engagement is not a static concept and it has evolved
throughout history. Nor it is politically neutral, as its conceptualization and understanding is
differentiated by political-ideological visions (Gaventa, 2002).
This section discusses the concept of citizens’ engagement and identifies its main forms and
expressions. This conceptual framework was used first to map citizens’ engagement initiatives
currently and/or recently implemented in Mozambique and is also used to analyse their
outcomes and lessons learned in the following sections.
2.1 What is citizens’ engagement?
Citizens’ engagement is a concept still evolving in a constantly changing context. As such, the
lines separating participation, involvement and engagement are often faint and blurred
(Sheedy, 2008). Different conceptual frameworks have been developed with the aim of
differentiating various forms of public participation. For example, the International Association
for Public Participation developed the Public Participation Spectrum that distinguishes five
categories in the process of participation: information, consultation, involvement, collaboration
and empowerment. The first two categories are not considered as engagement per se because
they do not include an interactive information flow in both directions (Sheedy, 2008). In another
example, the Health Canada's Policy Framework for Public Involvement, which is used widely
in the field of health, considers five levels of citizens' involvement, namely communication,
hearing, consultation, engagement and partnership (Sheedy, 2008).
The debate on the concept and practice of citizens' engagement continues to evolve within
academia as well in the community of practices and in the political arena. In recent years, the
term citizen engagement has gained expression due to the growing crisis of legitimacy that
characterizes relations between citizens and the institutions that represent them, in both the
North and South (Gaventa, 2002).
Citizens have been showing strong disappointment over their governments based on concerns
about corruption, poor response to the needs of the poor and weak or no connection between
elected representatives and their constituents (Lartey and Sastry, 1999). The decision-making
model of representative democracy has often led to situations where decisions are made by a
4
small group of individuals" and, inadvertently, the interests of ethnic, racial and gender
minorities are underrepresented (Irvin, 2006).
In response to the rising tensions, dissatisfaction and discontent inherent to the representative
democratic system, the conviction of the need for direct forms of democratic decision-making
has been growing since the 1970s (when people began to feel that the existing democratic
forms did not always serve expressed public opinions and interests). These concerns have
clearly influenced the growing interest in and the use of the expression citizen engagement in
political decisions (Irvin, 2006).
Contemporary concepts of citizen engagement emphasize the sharing of power, information
and mutual respect between government and citizens. Ideally, the engagement of citizens
requires that governments involve citizens in all phases of policy development and
implementation, from the agenda construction and policy development to decision making. In
this process citizens represent themselves as individuals, instead of being represented by a
stakeholder group (Sheedy, 2008).
2.2 How do citizens engage in public affairs?
Much of the academic literature on citizen participation has focused on its political dimension,
i.e. people’s relationship with the state, whereby people are defined either as beneficiaries or
as voters. This means that ‘the state delivers’ and citizens are mere voters, and that
periodically ‘you exercise your vote and then forget about it until the next election’ (Tandon,
2002), or citizens are seen as receivers of public services.
Historically, citizen engagement has taken many forms, from individual volunteerism to
organizational involvement and electoral participation. It can include efforts to directly address
an issue, work with others in a community to solve a problem or interact with the institutions of
representative democracy (Tandon, 2002).
A study published by the Centre for Information & Research on Civic Learning & Engagement
at Tufts University, divided citizen engagement into three categories: civic, electoral, and
political voice (Keeter el al, 2002):

Civic engagement – includes community problem solving, regular volunteering for
a non-electoral organization, active membership in a group or association,
participation in fund-raising run/walk/ride, other fund-raising for charity, etc.

Electoral engagement – includes regular voting, persuading others to vote,
displaying buttons, signs, stickers, campaign contributions, volunteering for
candidate or political organizations, etc.
5

Political voice – includes contacting the print media, contacting officials,
contacting the broadcast media, protesting, email petitions, written petitions,
boycotting, canvassing, etc.
Given the crisis of legitimacy of the representative democracy’s decision-making mechanisms,
interest in the principles of participatory democracy has increased, tending to advocate for
more involved forms of citizen participation than traditional representative democracy (Keeter el
al, 2002).
Nowadays participatory democracy strives to create opportunities for all members of a
population to make meaningful contributions to decision-making, and seeks to broaden the
range of people who have access to such opportunities (Ross, 2011).
Some scholars argue for the need to refocus citizen engagement on community-based activity
within the domain of civil society, based on the belief that a strong non-governmental public
sphere is a precondition for the emergence of a strong liberal democracy (Chambers and
Kymlicka, 2002). These scholars tend to stress the value of separation between the realm of
civil society and the formal political realm (Seligman, 1992).
Certain forms of engagement such as voting, referendums, municipality or community
assembly, public presentations, public exhibitions and public discussions are called traditional
methods (Ploštajner and Mendes, no date). However, due to the change in circumstances,
these forms of participation are often not enough, as they offer limited possibilities for
expressing the interests and opinions of citizens and need to be supplemented by new forms
that have evolved in the last decade (Tandon, 2002).
New forms of citizens’ participation have arisen, which include:

Citizens claiming space by organizing themselves (breast cancer survivors,
environmentalists or similar) to lobby and influence public policy. Different citizens'
alliances are formed to initiate, propose or comment on the respective new
legislation.

Social networking media, such as facebook, twitter, internet, and mobile phones
has become a communication tool between citizens and different levels of
government, and / or serves as a meeting point for citizens to discuss different
issues. This increased access to information has a "democratizing effect" politicizing citizens and often mobilizing them into action (Ploštajner and Mendes,
no date) - which renders the relationship between government and citizens
increasingly complex and multifaceted. The development of information technology
is changing the context of governance. New communication technologies allow
citizens to overcome the barriers of physical distance and organize themselves
more quickly (Ploštajner and Mendes, no date)

Informal discussions in the communities are also becoming common. In order to
participate in the development of their communities, citizens and other
6
stakeholders create public spaces to discuss common projects (from the
conceptualization to the implementation).
2.3 Does it make a difference?
Worldwide there is increasing recognition that citizen involvement is critical for enhancing
democratic governance, improving service delivery and fostering empowerment. However,
there is little evidence of the results of this engagement, the context and conditions in which
they occur (Citizenship-DRC, 2010). To fill in this information gap, research on citizen
engagement initiatives has been undertaken by different institutions and individual researchers,
such as the Canadian Institute of Health Research, the Society for Participatory Research in
Asia (PRIA) and the Brazilian Centre for Analysis and Planning (CEBRAP), among others.
These studies have gathered evidence showing that - when organized and empowered citizens can make a difference and influence positive changes towards achieving development
goals, make states more democratic and responsive and promote the respect for human rights.
In 2010, the Development Research Centre on Citizenship, Participation and Accountability
(Citizenship DRC) published a compilation of findings from a decade of collaborative research
which pointed out a set of outcomes achieved by the action of citizens’ engagement:

The engagement of citizens in public affairs, by itself, develops the sense of
citizenship, increasing people’s knowledge and awareness of their rights.
The studies hold that citizens learn through action, through trial and error. During
this process they acquire skills and willingness to act. This process, however, takes
time, because the journey from silence to the sense of citizenship occurs through
several steps.

Citizens develop particular skills through engaging: they learn how to conduct
a legal action, how to arrange and conduct a meeting, how to attract the media,
how to build alliances and strengthen relationships. These skills have accumulated
benefits because they can be transferred to other areas of activity. Brazilian
experiences documented by the Citizenship DRC found that the participation of
citizens in protests also contributed to the predisposition to engage in
institutionalized processes of budgeting. In South Africa citizens who developed
citizenship skills and practices during the anti-apartheid movement were able to
use these in the mobilization for the rights of people living with HIV/AIDS and
treatment campaigns.

In the process of influencing service providers, citizens shift from simple
user to decision maker in what concerns the services provided to them. The
experience of Brazil shows that, in spite of an overall reduction of expenditures in
health in in rural areas, the expenditures in indigenous health grew five times in the
same period, as a result of the coordinated actions of the indigenous movement to
7
organize protest actions, participate in health services management and get
involved in discussions on national policies.

Changes in law or policies do not lead to reforms unless accompanied by a
new constituency to change the political environment. Beyond the production
of laws, campaigns can lead to changes in decision-making procedures, resulting
in more democratic decisions and / or improving the perception of service providers
and services that are geared to the users’ needs. The example of Mexico
demonstrates that the use of participatory approaches in health care led to the
creation of a network of community clinics and the development of new
approaches to deal with infectious diseases by the Ministry of Health.

Citizen engagement does not always generate positive responses from
services providers. This can happen to the most developed movement. South
Africa’s national programme of antiretroviral treatment increased the coverage and
the number of PLWHA receiving treatment as a result of advocacy campaigns and
actions from social movements; however the sustainability of the programme was
challenged by the lack of infrastructure.

In some cases, the State may feel compelled by international pressure to
become more transparent and accountable to citizens. However, experience
has shown that the impetus can also come from internal movements of citizens
and other groups advocating for changes in the law. In India the Right to
Information Act, one of the strongest movements in the world, began a movement
from bottom to top and then connected with champions of change within the
government in Delhi and resulted in positive changes.
One of the conclusions of the DRC research is that “more effective citizens are those more
versatile: those that cross borders, move to local, national and global level, employ a set of
techniques, act as allies and opponents of the State and use their skills to protest and partner
in key moments and different institutional points of entry” (Citizenship DRC, 2010).
8
CHAPTER 3: CITIZENS’ ENGAGEMENT: EXPERIENCES IN
MOZAMBIQUE
In this chapter, we present and discuss the types of citizens’ engagement initiatives mapped in
this assessment, describe their strategy, approaches and tools used, as well as the outcomes
achieved in selected initiatives. Lessons learned are compiled and presented in Chapter 4.
3.1 Types of mapped initiatives
The mapping exercise found three main types of initiatives (programmes and projects),
according to who has the lead in designing and promoting it, namely:
1.
Initiatives promoted by international cooperation agencies - designed as part of
development assistance, these initiatives are mainly focused on building the capacity of
CSOs and strengthening democratic values and practices, with the aim of increasing the
transparency and accountability of state institutions over resources, plans and services
provided to the citizens. In this way cooperation agencies strengthen the investments
made by the direct support to the Mozambican State.
A very small number of national local “hands on” CSOs have demonstrated capacity to
directly access these resources. However, national CSOs, mostly based in Maputo and
International Non-Governmental Organizations (INGO) are those that have capacity to
implement these initiatives. They target the sectors of local governance, health,
education, water and sanitation. Urban services and municipality management are
emerging areas of interest.
2.
Initiatives implemented by key CSOs representing interest groups - there is a small
number of key actors promoting social accountability mechanism to approach issues like
corruption, budget allocation and service delivery. Most of these organizations advocate
in defence of the rights of disadvantaged groups, e.g. women, children, People Living
with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), the elderly, while also defending particular fundamental
freedoms such as the right to information and right to justice. These initiatives tend to
focus their interventions on policies and strategies and less on the operationalization
such as on services quality at the delivery point.
3.
Initiatives implemented by local “hands on” CSOs – these are implemented by provincial
CSOs and small community-based organizations (CBOs). They have weak capacity to
mobilize resources and are often supported through sub-grants from national CSOs and
INGO. Notwithstanding, they represent an important resource for citizen engagement
9
action due to their constituency and are crucial in supporting and expanding the
outreach of more professional organizations.
3.2 Initiatives promoted by international cooperation agencies
During the last years, most aid agencies have made efforts to become more transparent and
accountable to governments, civil society and the general public as well as increase the
effectiveness of the aid development programmes. These changes have led to a more active
involvement of CSO and other non-state actors. The policy has evolved to focus on poverty
reduction through participatory approaches emphasizing accountability, transparency and good
governance. CSOs have become important for the operationalization of this development
strategy.
3.1.1 Strategies, Approaches, Tools
Two main strategies for increasing citizens’ participation and engagement in service delivery
were identified among the initiatives promoted by international cooperation agencies, namely:
(a)
Support to civil society
The first programme strategy aims at developing civil society capacity in addition to financing
operations. The purpose is to develop a strong and vibrant civil society that participate and
influence democratic processes, accountability, respect for human rights and gender equality.
The assumption is that these national CSOs will support empowering and representing the
interests of citizens and disadvantaged groups.
The approaches vary widely:
i.
ii.
Regarding the nature of CSO supported

Strengthening weak and relatively new organizations

Strengthening strong and well established organizations
Regarding the scope of support:

Support through projects with limited scope

Support the CSO’s Strategic Plan
iii. Regarding the relationship between funder and recipient:

Based on the rules and procedures of the recipient in light of the Paris
Declaration and the Accra Agenda in the context of aid effectiveness

Based on the rules and procedures of the funder
10
Approaches used within this strategy include:
i.
Funding to and capacity building of CSOs - increase financial sustainability,
develop systems, knowledge management practices and internal democratic
governance. The purpose is to enhance organisational and administrative
efficiency.
ii. Facilitating connections and sharing experiences among CSOs - increase
opportunities for connection and coalition’s establishment. The purpose is that
CSOs contribute to a stronger civil society.
iii. Promoting Good Donorship practices - facilitating coordination between donors
and promoting good practices relationship between donors and recipients, with
the purpose of improving the relationship between CSOs and donors.
(b)
Support through civil society
This second strategy focuses on supporting CSOs that provide civic education and facilitate
citizen engagement with service providers. This is the shortcut used to influence the demand
for accountability in public services provision.
The main difference between the two strategies is that the first focuses on capacity building of
CSOs and outcomes associated with this purpose. The second strategy focuses on the
implementation of social accountability mechanisms and its outcomes are associated with this.
The second strategy includes the following approaches:
i.
Mobilizing actors on a specific issue, for example the quality of health services.
ii. Promoting citizen engagement in monitoring services.
iii. Facilitating dialogue between citizens and service providers / local government.
iv. Bringing specific issues to the public and generate debate.
v. Mobilizing alliances and partnerships to influence needed changes.
vi. Enhancing advocacy and negotiation of changes.
The tools used include: i) Information, Education and Communication, ii) Operational
Research, iii) Training of local CSOs, iv) Discussion Forums and v) Knowledge Management
Infrastructure.
Some programmes promoted by international cooperation agencies combine the two strategies
("Civil Society Support" and "Support through Civil Society") to improve its effectiveness.
Evidence has demonstrated that combining the two strategies is the best option for
strengthening demand for accountability. Support to key civil society actors’ nationwide and
targeted advocacy for policy and strategy changes helps to strengthen the voice of citizens and
11
civil society towards negotiating with policy and decision makers. Consequently, the legal and
political environment for accountability is improved. On the other hand, strengthening the ability
of citizens to undertake monitoring of governance and advocacy is the shortest route to
increase the demand for accountability and give the necessary power to citizens. Seeking on
the ground evidence and direct citizens’ participation in governance of service delivery is also
necessary. Both strategies are complementary and mutually reinforcing.
3.1.2 Changes
The citizens’ engagement programmes promoted by international cooperation agencies have
achieved observable results using either of the approaches mentioned above. In this section,
we provide some examples.
Improved coordination and production of evidences - Experience from Civil Society
Support Mechanism (MASC)
Box 1: About MASC
The Civil Society Support Mechanism (MASC) is a project funded by the UK Department for
International Development (DFID), Ireland Cooperation (Irish Aid) and the U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID).

Objective: To strengthen and diversify civil society engagement in governance
monitoring and advocacy - providing grants, capacity development, and access to
information and networking

Geographic coverage: National coverage. Currently supporting 40 governance
monitoring & advocacy projects nationwide

Strategies:


Funding and technical support to civil society organisations for monitoring and
advocacy
Strengthening CSOs organisational capacity and their internal management
and governance
In Mozambique, some of the problems related to the citizens’ engagement effectiveness with
local government / service providers is poor coordination between citizen groups and CSOs,
and insufficient evidence to support the dialogue with the government (policy makers and
service providers).
In Nampula, MASC is supporting a Governance Civil Society Platform. A flexible civil society
coordination mechanism was developed under this support with no administrative identity and
rotating management among the members of CS. This platform has the mandate to facilitate
and promote the sharing of experiences and discussion of issues that concern local
communities, as well as coordinate positions, and produce evidences for dialogue with the
Provincial Government.
12
Through this initiative several changes have happened; a few are listed below:
i.
The Government recognized the Nampula Governance Civil Society Platform as
a representative of civil society in the dialogue on the implementation of the
provincial strategic plan.
ii. A coordination mechanism for dialogue between government and civil society
within the governmental structure was institutionalized, i.e. UCODIN Coordination Unit for Integrated Development of Nampula.
iii. Government explicitly recognized the importance to have a civil society platform
for the improvement of the dialogue between the parties and their contribution on
the quality of the governance.
iv. In Nampula, many local government decisions were made based on informed
dialogue with civil society represented by a CS platform, e.g. the revitalization of
the Local Advisory Councils constitution, review of the implementation of the law
on allocation of 20% of forest exploitation tax to communities.
This is an example where organised citizens have influenced changes in the quality of dialogue
with the government, reduced barriers between citizens and decision makers, and moved from
mere recipients of information and consultation by the government to become active agents
that interact collaboratively with the government.
Improved coordination on the dialogue with development partners - Experience from
Actions Inclusive and Responsible Governance Programme (AGIR)
Box 2: About AGIR
Action for a Responsible and Inclusive Governance (AGIR) is a programme funded by the
three embassies of Sweden, Denmark and the Netherlands.

Objective: To promote civil society engagement and influence for increased
governance accountability / deepen democracy, gender equality and human
rights

Geographic coverage: National coverage. Most grantees are CSOs with national
outreach; a few are province-based organisations. AGIR is currently supporting
about 50 CSOs, most of which are key CSO actors with national relevance

Strategies:



Funding and technical support for CSO monitoring and advocacy
Strengthening CSOs’ organisational capacity and their internal
management and governance
Promoting good donorship practices
13
Nowadays it is recognised that national policies are largely influenced by decisions and policies
taken at the global level. One of the weaknesses in the citizens’ participation and engagement
in Mozambique is their limited participation in the global level forums.
The AGIR programme has promoted the implementation of Paris Declaration and Accra Agenda
for Action on aid effectiveness. In this context, AGIR has supported its partners (national key
CSOs) to improve the dialogue with their donors and participate in the development of global
policies and strategies with influence in developing countries. Due to this support, changes have
happened; below are some examples:

In 2011, the CSOs have been concerting positions and had opportunities to consult
citizens about their expectations and issues as a preparation to participate in the 4th
High Level Forum on aid effectiveness that took place in Busan, South Korea, in
November 2011.

There is a widespread recognition among the Busan conference participants that
there was an improvement in the quality of civil society participation in this
international conference, especially bringing evidence and perceptions of citizens.
3.3 Initiatives implemented by key CSOs representing interest
groups
Almost all CSOs and networks nationwide that represent interest groups of citizens have
multiyear strategic plans that guide the implementation of their programmes and projects.
Below we summarise the content of these strategies and we describe some of the main
changes they have contributed to achieve.
3.2.1 Strategies, Approaches, Tools
The main strategies used by CSOs representing the interest of community groups to increase
participation of citizens have been based on monitoring of and advocacy public policies and
strategies of national interest. The approaches applied include:
i.
Monitoring the implementation of public policies and strategies and use of this evidence
for advocacy at the national level – using tools such as budget analysis, tracking
expenditure, research citizens’ perception on specific policy or strategy, etc.
ii. Engagement in policy formulation and strategic planning nationwide - through position
papers reflecting citizens’ feelings and opinions, impact analysis on typically
disadvantaged groups (children, elderly, women, PLWHA etc.).
iii. Participation in budget reviews in priority sectors
iv. Participation in conversations with bilateral and multilateral cooperation partners.
v. Monitoring the environment, natural and minerals resources and use this evidence for
advocacy.
14
Some of the most relevant policies which have attracted interest are those related to greater
regional equity in development, better distribution of wealth, corruption, economic and social
benefits from the extractive industry and gender equality. These programmes have focused on
strategies related to public sector reforms, such as decentralization, district development funds,
citizens' participation mechanisms in policy formulation and planning, election law etc.
3.2.2 Changes
Most initiatives in this category have evidence of results, especially related to the increased
citizens’ influence in the public governance and service delivery. Below are some examples:
Reform the tax regime in the extractive industry - Experience from CS coalition on the
Extractive Industry
Box 3: About Coalition of Civil Society on the Extractive Industry
This civil society coalition is a group of organizations that have come together to monitor and
advocate issues related to the mining industry. The coalition is not a legal entity and is not
considered a programme as such, but represents a claimed space by a number of engaged
CSOs

Objective: To monitor the development of the mining industry in Mozambique and
the Government's policies on this sector

Geographical coverage: National, focusing on Inhambane, Tete, Zambézia,
Nampula and Cabo Delgado

Strategies: Monitoring of and advocacy related to the exploration and use of
resources in the extractive industries
It is expected that in the next years Mozambique will be on the list of the ten largest coal
producers and the twenty largest natural gas producers in the world. With $ 2.7 billion invested
in mining and hydrocarbons in 2011 the country is experiencing a real frenzy of mineral
resources.
The Civil Society Coalition on the Extractive Industry is a group of Mozambican CSOs. It was
launched on November 28, 2008 in Maputo under the auspices of the G20 (Civil Society
Platform for the Development Observatory). The goal of this coalition is to monitor the
development of the mining industry in Mozambique and the Government's policies in this
sector.
The Coalition includes organizations using different approaches: research, advocacy,
monitoring of socio-economic development, environment and natural resources, budget,
transparency and anti-corruption. Almost all are based in Maputo and in the provinces where
operations / exploitation of natural resources are planned or already implemented (Inhambane,
Tete, Zambézia, Nampula and Cabo Delgado).
15
The coalition was established at a time when the government was carrying out actions to be
included in the Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative (EITI), an international programme
that aims at ensuring transparency in transactions between extractive industry enterprises and
the Government, in order to make visible what the industry pays to the government (in
royalties, taxes, and other fees), and what the government reports having received, and how
much is actually spent by the government in public services for national benefit.
In Mozambique, CSOs such as the Centre for Public Integrity (CIP), the Institute of Economic
and Social Studies (IESE) and the National Union of Farmers (UNAC) have undertaken
research and published a number of reports supporting the need to improve transparency,
change the tax system and make better use of the potential of the non-renewable resources.
Observable results of this effort have been achieved, such as:

The tax regime – until then undisclosed – is made available to the public as evidenced
by the CIP Newsletter nr 17 (editing Feb 2013).

A review of the tax regime for mining and oil explorations is on-going

The communities in the mining areas, e.g. Moma and Moatize will start receiving part of
the revenue from the mining taxes in 2013, as established by the Mining Law in 2007.
Enabling Voice for Social Accountability – Experience from MEPT
Box 4: About Education for All Movement:
Movement Education for All (MEPT) is a network for CSOs working in the education sector.

Objective: Contribute to improving access to quality and inclusive education with
special attention to girls, women and vulnerable children

Geographic coverage: National

Strategies: Networking for advocacy
The Education for All Movement (MEPT) is a network of CSOs operating in the education
sector at the national level. MEPT was created to address a gap in the coordination of
advocacy in education.
The education sector has established School Councils, through the Regulation of General of
Basic Education (REGEB) as a mechanism to improve the participation of parents in school
management. However, MEPT found that one of the barriers to the effectiveness of the School
Councils is that they rarely had opportunities to meet with the District Directorates / Services for
Education (SDEJT) on issues that cannot be answered at the school level. To facilitate this
dialogue, MEPT advocated for the creation of District School Councils Forums in Zambézia
16
and Gaza provinces which have allowed these councils access to the SDEJT on a regular
basis.
The initiative resulted in the following changes:

For years, CSOs have on an individual basis been calling attention to the
government on the problem of sexual harassment in schools. Earlier, the Ministry of
Education (MINED) and the National Teachers' Organisation (NPO) refused to pay
attention to these complaints arguing that they tainted the image of the teacher and
there were without proof. MEPT organized a campaign through the forums of School
Councils to collect evidence and obtain proper documentation through first-hand
testimonies. These campaigns were effective, leading to the MINED taking
leadership on k the initiative “zero tolerance for sexual abuse in schools” campaign.

MINED signed a memorandum of understanding with MEPT in recognition of its
positive contributions to the education sector. Within this memorandum, MINED has
created a space for regular dialogue between the parties.

Mozambique was the only country who received the total planned funds of the Global
Partnership for Education. One of the criteria that favoured this allocation was the
involvement of civil society represented by MEPT.

Many problems of school management have been discussed in the meetings
between representatives of School Councils Forums and District Education
Directorates / Services. A significant number of these problems have found solutions
in the local level, such as the construction of water sources, the absence and lack of
teachers, security problems in schools, etc.
Social and behaviour change communication to raise awareness of the citizen –
Experience from N’weti
Box 5: About N'weti-Comunication for Development
N’weti is a CSO working in communication for health

Objective: to provide communication materials for health and facilitate community
mobilization for the Mozambican communities to adopt informed and healthy
lifestyle choices.

Geographic coverage: Nationwide within the media and Nampula province by
interpersonal communication

Strategies: Multimedia, Advocacy and Social Mobilisation.
N’weti has adopted the approach of social and behaviour change communication (SBCC) by
using media, advocacy and social mobilisation to create social and behaviour change. The
focus of the change encouraged by the initiative is on the individual, which is slightly different
from the majority of social accountability mechanisms that address collective participation.
17
This program resulted in the following changes:

The evaluation results for one of the interventions called “African transformation”
implemented in Nampula Province showed positive outcomes in terms of changed
attitude amongst persons exposed to information and awareness activities, when
compared to persons not exposed. See Table 1 below.
Table1: Knowledge, attitude and behaviour survey on gender-based violence.
Unexposed
Exposed
Violence between men and women is a private affair (%Strongly
disagree/disagree)
79.5%
92.9%
People in community think that a woman should tolerate violence
for family (%Strongly disagree/disagree)
71.7%
86.1%
85.1%
91.51%
82.5%
69.2%
14.4%
25.39%
44.3%
57.0%*
74.7%
68.1%
82.0%
69.1%
19.4%
30.7%
DV is a serious problem in my community (%Strongly
disagree/disagree)
82.1%
66.9%
If a person forces a woman to have sex against her will, it is a
crime (%Strongly agree/agree)
People in community think that a woman should tolerate violence
for family (%Strongly disagree/disagree)
People in community believe bride price gives men the right to
beat (%Strongly disagree/disagree)
45.7%
54.6%
75.9%
60.4%
87.7%
78.8%
Exposure to Any Radio Show (versus none)
Exposure to Any Television (versus none)
People in community believe bride price gives men the right to
beat (%Strongly disagree/disagree)
Exposure to Any Print (versus none)
DV is a serious problem in my community (%Strongly
disagree/disagree)
People in my community are coming together to speak out
(%Strongly agree/agree)
If a person forces a woman to have sex against her will, it is a
crime (%Strongly agree/agree)
People in community think that a woman should tolerate violence
for family (%Strongly disagree/disagree)
People in community believe that sometimes a woman deserves
DV (%Strongly disagree/disagree)
Exposure to One Media Channel (versus none)
Leaders speak out against GBV (%Strongly agree/agree)
Source: N’weti African transformation project evaluation
18
3.4 Initiatives implemented by local “hands on” CSOs
3.4.1 Strategies, Approaches and Tools
These programmes have mostly a focus on operational components of service delivery and
local governance. The main strategies addresses the question of increasing citizens’ influence
on service delivery:
(a)
Community mobilization to participate in the services provision - such as the
construction of schools, hospitals, etc.
(b)
Supporting the strengthening of communities and citizens capacities to participate
in governance of service delivery - this includes the training members of health comanagement committees, school councils, water management committees, etc.
(c)
Monitoring and evaluation of basic services at the local level - such as Health,
Education, Water and Sanitation, etc.
The monitoring and evaluation strategy for use of basic services applies a social accountability
approach and corresponding tools such as: Community Score Card (CSC), Citizen Report
Card (CRC) and Social Audit (SA).
3.4.2 Changes
In this section we present some examples of changes resulting from the action of hands-on
programmes.
Support the revitalization of the Consultative Councils in Cuamba – Experience from
FORASC.
Box 6: About Niassa Civil Society Association Forum (FORASC)
FORASC is a Forum of Civil Society Associations of Cuamba district in the Niassa Province.

Objective: to monitor social public facilities at the municipal and district levels.

Geographic coverage: Cuamba Municipality, Niassa province

Strategies: Monitoring district budget
FORASC was established in 2010, motivated by the apparent non-compliance of the Law of
the Local State Organs (LOLE) regarding the constitution of Consultative Councils (CCs). The
dialogue that this organisation started with the district government aimed at promoting
19
democratic elections for membership of the Consultative Councils and at expanding the role of
these organs to discuss other relevant issues. As a result of this dialogue, FORASC was:


Entrusted the leadership of the CCs' revitalization process by the district government,
including the establishment of these organs at the level of Administrative Posts,
Localities and Villages in all district. This process led to a greater inclusiveness of
different interest groups at the community level. Nowadays, in Cuamba District there are
Local Councils in 32 villages; and they are also represented in the District Consultative
Council.
FORASC also assisted the CCs through training and technical assistance, in achieving
greater clarity of their role in the dialogue with the government.
The contribution of the Mozambican Christian Council (CCM): - in improving access to
water in Chibuto
Box 7: About Mozambican Christian Council (CCM)
The Mozambican Christian Council (CCM) is a network of Christian associations

Objective: To contribute to the improvement of public service provision through the
establishment of a platform that engages citizens (users) and public service
providers in identifying and responding to challenges

Geographic coverage: Chibuto Municipality, Gaza province

Strategies: Social audit
The municipal government refused to discuss water problems with the communities on the
basis that water was a highly sensitive problem. The local government’s attitude was changed
through the implementation of a baseline study and a subsequent presentation of the results to
the government authorities. The baseline study results were disseminated through radio
programmes; after persistent lobbying and advocacy actions involving the communities, the
owners of private water boreholes and the members of Parliament, and contributed to changes
in the district government’s attitude. The advocacy actions taken by the district platform of
Chibuto contributed to:

Bringing the water issue to the attention of all stakeholders (municipal government, local
communities and private sector), putting the water problem among the priorities of the
municipality which consequently led to the coordination of interventions aiming at solving
the problem. The municipal government then prioritized the water provision in the budget
allocation, which ultimately culminated with a specific allocation to that effect being
established by the central government.
20
The contribution of National Association for the Self-Sustainable Development (ANDA)
to improve the management of the District Development Fund
Box 8: About National Association for the Self-Sustainable Development (ANDA)
The National Association for the Self-Sustainable Development (ANDA ) is a local
association based in Manica province.

Objective: To contribute to sustainable development through improvement of
public service management

Geographic coverage: Manica province

Strategies: monitor the management of the District Development Fund (FDD)
ANDA is implementing a project that consists in monitoring the management of the District
Development Fund (FDD) in Manica. This initiative has resulted the district government
establishing and adopting approaches and procedures for the submission of projects and
criteria for evaluation, selection and approval:


Following the recommendations of the baseline study carried out under this project,
ANDA presented to the district government a new proposal of application forms for
projects, procedures, evaluation and selection criteria of the projects, which was
analysed and discussed by the government together with other CSOs operating in the
district.
Thereafter, the district planning team (ETD) submitted the agreed tools to the District
Consultative Council, which in its turn approved the package and recommended the
inclusion of the reimbursement charts to follow the debtors. One of the immediate
measures taken by the district administration towards ensuring transparency in the
allocation of the FDD was to prohibit allocation of FDD funds to the public servants and
members of the CCD. This was seen as having potential for conflict of interests and, to
some extent contributed to the low level of reimbursements record up to 2011.
21
Empowering community to participate in the service provision – Experience from
Akilizetho
Box 9: About Akilizetho - Assocciation for Sustainable Developmemt
Akilizetho - Association for Sustainable Development is a local CSO

Objective: To organize communities for participating effectively in participatory
mechanisms at the local level, ensuring effective representation of women

Geographic coverage: districts in Nampula Province: Moma, Angoche, Mogincual
and Mogovolas

Strategy: Promote community participation in service delivery at site level.
Akilizetho is a CSO based in and operating in Nampula province. The main approach used to
increase citizens’ influence in public service delivery is the establishment and training of Local
Development Committees forums (CDL). The organization has developed and implementing a
training package that includes issues of association, district budgets, gender, etc. The change
observed was:

A significant number of the trained forums have taken initiatives to build classrooms,
waiting houses for pregnant women, opening roads, among other initiatives.
The groups established are composed of women and men. Some women leaders have been
invited to perform tasks and more formal political roles, thereby increasing the political
participation of women.
Empowering marginalised communities to negotiate for better service delivery –
Experience from Facilidade
Box 10: About Facilidade - Institute for Sustainable Development
Facilidade – is an Institute for Sustainable Community Development

Objective: Strengthening community organizations and CSOs so that they work in
a democratic and transparent manner, exercising their economic, political and
social rights and fulfilling their duties in the community

Geographic Coverage: 5 districts in Nampula: Ribáue Murrupula, Monapo,
Mogincual and Mogovolas

Strategies: Budget tracking, Community Score Cards
Facilidade is implementing community score card mechanisms to monitor health, education
and water services in the districts of Mogovolas and Mogincual, in Nampula province.
22
The Community score card is a community-owned process through which communities
systematise their experience with public service delivery and present it to providers and
managers of the public system for feedback, review and planning. The following changes were
observed:



There have been changes in the range of services provided to women for ante-natal and
post natal services in monitored facilities.
Assessments have been showing that more mothers in monitored sites receive
counselling than in non-monitored villages.
Mothers from villages without community monitoring hardly received any pre natal care
or neo natal care services.
23
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF THE MAPPED INITIATIVES
This section examines the mapped initiatives with a focus on strategies, approaches and tools
used, results achieved and lessons learned. Finally, the potential for replicating these
experiences in other contexts is discussed and areas that require further analysis are identified.
4.1 Forms of participation
The public sector reform, which is embodied in the Decree 11/2005 on the Law of the Local
State Organs (LOLE), has gained expression since 2004. A number of invited spaces for
citizens’ consultation have been created. These mechanisms have been widely used by
citizens’ engagement programmes. However, currently the programmes and projects have
privileged participation strategies based on social accountability approaches.
In Mozambique, the main form of citizen participation is civic engagement, although Maputo
based
advocacy
organisations
are
increasingly
representing
political
voice.
The first multiparty general elections took place in 1994 in Mozambique. This opened new
space for electoral engagement. However, abstention has been growing over the four general
elections held in 1994, 1999, 2004 and 2009. This may indicate that citizens do not consider
the electoral engagement as a meaningful mechanism for citizens’ participation in decisionmaking. Recent on-going voter registration for the municipal elections in 2013 and for general
elections in 2014 is so far lower than expected according to information from the media.
4.2
Diversity of used strategies
The diversity of strategies, approaches and tools used by CSOs constitute a strength, which
enables the organizations to respond to problems in various ways and dimensions (individual,
collective, policies, strategies and service delivery).
The international cooperation programmes reinforce the capacities of national CSOs, and
these national actors are important agents in strengthening the voice of citizens especially at
the level of policy dialogue with decision makers. Local CSOs have been reasonably effective
in monitoring the delivery of services at the grassroots level (where communities are) and in
bringing evidences to the advocacy process.
This diversity of approaches and strategies allows for increasing citizens’ voice to demand
accountability, but also for reducing the power gap between service users and service
providers and as well as for opening new spaces for dialogue.
Below a presentation of specific lessons learned from different types of initiatives.
24
4.2.1 Lessons Learned from initiatives promoted by international agencies
The following are lessons learned from MASC and AGIR on building capacity of CSOs and
citizens to strengthen demand for accountability.

The coordination among CSOs in the production of evidences on the implementation
of government policies and strategies is a powerful tool to influence changes in
public policies, strategies and practices. However, these coordination activities are
often not included in the planning and budgeting of the individual CSO. It is
necessary to find mechanisms that reinforce the coordination and ensure funding for
those activities.

For CSOs to become more effective, it is important they develop their own policies
and practices that reinforce internal democracy and transparency. These practices
ensure internal cohesion and help to create a commitment for results in the entire
team.

It is possible to develop mutually beneficial collaborative relations between
government and civil society. The civil society platform in Nampula is an example of
this collaboration. But the success in this process depends largely on the willingness
and openness of the government and the skills and maturity of civil society
organisations.

The participation of citizens and civil society in the discussion of global issues,
especially those which have direct influence in developing countries is still weak. The
INGOs and cooperating partners have considerable potential to extend and improve
this participation. This must be one of the aspects to consider in the international
cooperation programmes aimed at strengthening citizen participation and civil
society.

The programmes promoted by international cooperation agencies are often anchored
in international organizations or management units without legal autonomy. This has
limited the possibilities of linking skills development with the active advocacy actions
due to possible conflicts on interference in national affairs. It is important that these
programmes enhance the capabilities of the national civil society networks and
organizations to fulfil the role of active advocacy.

The international cooperation programmes need to assume greater responsibility for
the capacity development actions, assuming the risks as well as the successes. The
process of capacity development actions requires training, regular monitoring and
assessment of the performance and challenges in the process of developing
capabilities. This requires a greater commitment on the part of the programmes that
support capacity development of these national actors.

There is no model of training that suits all CSOs, as each has specific needs defined
by the themes that they addresses and their internal and external context. In this
25
sense the development programmes need to design tailor made programmes that
suit each organisation.
4.2.2 Lessons learned from initiatives implemented by key CSOs

In Mozambique, government often sees the citizens’ evaluation of public services as
a political act and therefore often causes concern. However, the MEPT experience
from the education sector has allowed the development of a relationship based on
trust between the parties which has facilitated dialogue. The actions of MEPT are
seen as constructive and not threatening by MINED.

Often citizens are unaware of the fact that the institutions and resources of the state
belong to citizens and that they do not need to wait for an instruction or invitation to
monitor and contribute to these services. Informed citizens feel empowered and can
behave more pro-actively.

There are many cases where the education district offices (SDEJT) return money
allocated for improving infrastructure, because it has no ability to hire services in time
within the government rules and procedures. However, when encouraged by school
councils they tend to be faster and capable of spending the resources effectively.

The opening of budget implementation and service delivery to public scrutiny tends
to be more common at central level and tends to reduce as we move to the country
administration periphery. Decision making is still centralised and the global
accountability culture tends to influence faster the central level than the local level.
However, there are improvements, e.g. in terms of lifting certain centralised
procedures. Radio is a strategic media in Mozambique in view of its considerable
outreach. Evaluation results suggest that radio can increase exposure and stimulate
community based discussions around issues.

However, there are also evaluation studies indicating that print material had higher
outreach than radio and television among rural audiences. Print media was also
most effective in reaching young women aged 15-24.

The mass media campaign challenge people to think differently regarding their
attitudes and behaviours and to debate and discuss on different issues related to
social and cultural norms.

SBCC is an effective method to deconstruct negative attitudes, behaviours and
practices, and stimulate individual participation. However, there is limited use of this
approach in the accountability programmes.
4.2.3 Lessons Learned from “Hands-on” programmes
The “Hands-on” programmes present a wide range of lessons learned of which some are
presented below:
26

Social accountability tools can be used even in invited spaces such as the IPCC. The
implementation of these tools can help to bring evidence and improve the quality of
dialogue, as well as help turning the invited space into a claimed space.

Service providers and policy makers may feel threatened by the implementation of
social accountability mechanisms. Therefore it is important to engage them from the
very beginning and sensitizing them on the values and practical benefits to engage
people in service delivery assessment. It can be useful to invite service providers
and/or local officials to participate in training workshops and learning sessions on the
implementation of the social accountability tools.

Because the rules of the IPCC constitution, e.g. the requirement of participation of
some influential political people in the community, these fora sometimes tend to be
dominated by a community elite. Programmes therefore will need to consider
including disadvantaged groups when implementing social accountability
mechanisms within those fora.

Citizens as well as service providers must trust the process of social accountability;
otherwise it can become an opportunity for preparing a list of complaints or a
confrontation.

It is important to help community members develop an understanding of the
constraints faced by service providers, to avoid creating unrealistically high
expectations.

Orientation and capacity building of both parties is needed for successful
engagement.

The methodology to implement social accountability tools must be flexible to
incorporate new dynamics and provide response for issues that could not addressed
by local provider due to limits in their competencies.
4.3 Importance and effectiveness of the social accountability
approach
The experience of the civil society coalition on the extractive industry and the Education for All
Movement shows how well-organized civil society that produces evidence can influence
government policies and strategies. At the same time it is also an example of how an open
government can better respond to the wishes of their electorate.
The use of social accountability approaches has allowed citizens to claim new spaces for
participation and counteract the current relation of power between citizens and government.
Social accountability mechanisms, such as promoting participation in policy dialogue and
planning, monitoring service delivery, tracking resources allocated etc., have contributed to
27
remedying the slow pace of decentralization process in Mozambique, by including marginalized
groups in decision making process. Examples of hands-on programmes show how social
accountability approaches can operationalize and strengthen direct accountability relationships
between citizens (users of the services), policy-makers and service providers. They help
overcome significant challenges such as weak voice and citizen oversight, and lead to better
informed policy decisions, responsible management and leadership, and more efficient and
responsive investment decisions:

The example of the Mozambican Christian Council (CCM) clearly demonstrates how
social accountability mechanisms are useful to encourage public service providers to
change service delivery from the "business as usual" to accomplish goals that best meet
the communities’ needs for health and education.

The examples of Facilidade, FORASC and other “hands on” initiatives show how
strengthening the demand side of service delivery, such as increasing the voice of
service users, has been important strategies for improving access to better quality basic
service.
Participation of citizens and civil society in policy-making and planning is crucial for improving
access to quality service, especially in resource scarce environments. However lack of ability to
bring evidence and poor coordination among CSOs has limited the results of the citizens’
engagement actions. In this sense the international cooperation and development agencies
have played a crucial role in supporting CSOs to overcome these challenges by providing
different types of capacity development and funding of CSOs’ strategic plans and projects.
4.4 Barriers for the outcomes of participation and engagement
Some factors pose challenges for achieving the outcomes of participation and engagement.
Below some examples of inhibiting factors:

Poor access to information - Access to information is a precondition for citizens’
participation in services provision and local governance. However, the majority of
respondents and participants of the programmes have the perception that there is
insufficient culture of accountability in most public institutions, especially at local level,
and the provision of information about the services to the citizen is not prioritised. The
low level of education and high illiteracy rate also contributes negatively to access the
information, since the analysis of budgets, expenditure, service standards, etc., require
capacities (“for instances, budget literacy”), that the majority of the population do not
have.

Slow and gradual decentralization – The decentralization processes in Mozambique
aims at devolving power and decentralize decision-making to the district level. This
28
process has been slow and has different levels of implementation within the provinces
and districts. Despite significant administrative decentralization most of the political and
financial decisions are still centralised and constrains the real power of the local
government. This is one of the limitations for the outcomes of the social accountability
mechanism currently implemented at local level.

Insufficient technical skills of citizens - monitoring and advocacy actions require
advanced technical knowledge and skills, such as budget analysis or tracking
expenditure, political analysis and clout, as well as campaigning skills. The majority of
local CSO in Mozambique do not possess these competencies. Investment in citizens’
budget literacy and participatory expenditure analysis can help address this challenge.

Weak link between the social movements and media - the grassroots social movements
have few skills to attract the media to warn off an issue and advocate for social change.
It is important to empower local media and strengthen links between social movements
and the media.

Power relations – at the local level power relations are very unfavourable to citizen
(especially vulnerable groups, such as poor woman, elderly, children), and social
structures are dominated by local elite, mostly related to the government political party.
Ordinary citizens hardly have the courage to question a teacher or health professional
because they do not feel they have sufficient knowledge or ability to do so.

Gender inequalities – women's low incomes, high rate of illiteracy and less school
enrolment rates compared to men are barriers to the outcomes of social accountability.
Women are largely excluded from government institutions at all levels, have less access
to information about government and public affairs, and have less contact with traditional
and political authorities.
4.5 Potential for replicating good practice
In each of the three categories of citizens’ engagement programmes - international cooperation
initiatives promoted by development agencies, initiatives implemented by key national CSOs
representing interest groups, and local initiatives implemented by "hands on" CSOs - there is a
wide range of good practices that can be replicated in other programmes to expand the results:
Initiatives promoted by the International Cooperation agencies:

The AGIR model to implement good donorship practices as a strategy to reinforce the
capabilities of CSO is an experience that deserves attention from other programmes.
This has the potential to be further developed as an alternative for implementation of
the international aid effectiveness agenda.
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
The MASC model of promoting coalitions to strengthen coordination mechanisms of
civil society organisation is a promising experience with the potential to be replicated in
other contexts.

Both MASC and AGIR combine funding with tailor-made training and capacity building,
which has proven effective.
Initiatives Implemented by key CSOs representing interest groups:




The coalition of civil society organisations on the Extractive Industry experience is an
example that can be further explored to understand why it works well. Especially
because the traditional models of civil society networks have proven ineffective and
have very fragile institutional arrangement, in terms of effectiveness
The MEPT initiative has been built on trust which has led to more efficient use of
district funds. The approach of a dialogue-based collaboration with government
institutions is worth applying in other sectors
Collaboration with media has proven effective and should be part of any citizens’
engagement initiative
SBCC has proven positive results in terms of breaking negative norms and practices
and encouraging individual participation
Local Initiatives Implemented by "hands on" CSOs

The experiences of applying social accountability tools such as community score card,
citizen report card, social audit, etc. can be explored further and replicated to other
organizations in the country

New social media and other information and communication technology is on the rise
and should in future be included in social accountability programmes to ensure
outreach and amplification of citizens’ voice
4.6 Topics and issues that require more detailed and deep analysis
In addition to the topics mentioned in the section above on issues with potential to replicate,
the following topics need a deepened analysis:
Individual motivations for engagement – it has been observed in some cases that even in
contexts where there are apparently sufficient incentives for participation, individuals may not
engage. Many people who have the resources to participate do not do it; others are motivated,
but do not act; and many others are invited to engage, but refuse to do so. Moreover, citizens
simply may not have time to give feedback on service delivery by filing a complaint or attending
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a school meeting. What are the drivers and barriers for individual engagement, especially in the
Mozambican context?
Operational sustainability - Information interventions such as score cards and report cards
often tend to be one-time exercises, financed by donor projects that are typically not repeated.
Follow-up processes and oversight are important to ensure that the action items defined during
a scorecard exercise is actually implemented in practice and that plans are in place to repeat
the process to track progress over time. How can service provides and citizens ensure the
institutionalisation of these monitoring and feedback mechanisms?
Political sustainability - Government may view as threatening the implementation of social
accountability tools such as score card or social audit. Approach to improve the acceptance
and for the government to see and feel the importance of these instruments need to be further
explored.
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ANNEXES
ANNEX 1: REFERENCES

Seligman, B. A. (1992). The Idea of Civil Society. New Jersey: Princeton University
Press

AfriMAP & Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa (2009). Mozambique: Democracy
and Political Participation. Johannesburg: compress

Sheedy, A. (2008). Handbook on Citizen Engagement: Beyond Consultation. Ottawa:
Canadian Policy Research Networks

Turner, B. S. & Hamilton, P. (1994). Citizenship: Critical Concepts. New York: Bryan
Turner and Peter Hamilton editors

Civicus (2012). State of Civil Society in 2011. Johannesburg: CIVICUS- World Alliance
for Citizen Participation

De Greiff, P. (2000). Deliberative democracy and group representation. Social Theory
and Practice. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press

Development Research Centre (2010). Blurring the boundaries: Citizen Action Across
States and Societies. Brighton: The Institute of Development Studies

Gaventa J & Barrett G. (2010). So What Difference Does it Make? Mapping the
Outcomes of Citizen Engagement. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies

Korten (1998). Globalizing Civil Society: Reclaiming Our Right to Power. New York:
Open Media

Kostakopoulou, D. (1994). The Future Governance of Citizenship. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press

Irvin, L. (2006). Challenges and Strategies for Democratic Participation. University of
Colorado, Boulder. Posted: July 2006 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/biessay/democratic-participation

Oldfield, A. (1994). Citizenship: Critical Concepts. New York: Bryan Turner and Peter
Hamilton editors

Tandon, R. (2009). Linking Citizenship, Participation and Accountability: A Perspective
from PRIA. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies

Smith, R. M. (1994). Modern Citizenship. New York: Bryan Turner and Peter Hamilton
editors

Ronald (1995). Theorizing Citizenship. New York: SUNY Press
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
Sal e Caldeira (2010). Constitutional Developments in the Republic of Mozambique

Coelho, V.S., Andrade, I. A., Montoya, M. C. (2009). Deliberative Forum and the
Democratisation of Social Policies in Brazil. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies

Leary, V. (2000). "Citizenship. Human Rights and Diversity". New York: McGill Queen
University Press

Yvonne M. (2002). Citizenship in Transformation in Canada. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press
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ANNEX 2: MAPPING OF CITIZENS’ ENGAGEMENT PROJECTS
(Part 1 of the study: the map of the 59 initiatives – to be added in the final version)
34