VALUE ADDITION TO DECCAN
PLATEAU WOOL FOR DEVELOPING
HANDLOOM FABRICS
HAMEEDA ANJUM SANA
B.H.Sc. (Home Science)
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN HOME SCIENCE
(APPAREL AND TEXTILES)
2014
1
VALUE ADDITION TO DECCAN PLATEAU
WOOL FOR DEVELOPING HANDLOOM
FABRICS
BY
HAMEEDA ANJUM SANA
B.H.Sc. (Home Science)
THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE ACHARYA N. G. RANGA
AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN HOME SCIENCE
(TEXTILES AND APPAREL DESIGNING)
CHAIRPERSON: Dr. A. PADMA
DEPARTMENT OF APPAREL AND TEXTILES
COLLEGE OF HOME SCIENCE, SAIFABAD, HYDERABAD 500
004
ACHARYA N.G. RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
2014
2
DECLARATION
I, HAMEEDA ANJUM SANA, hereby declare that the thesis entitled “VALUE
ADDITION
TO
DECCAN
PLATEAU
WOOL
FOR
DEVELOPING
HANDLOOM FABRICS” submitted to the Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural
University for the degree of Master of Science in Home Science is the result of
original research work done by me. I also declare that no material contained in the
thesis has been published earlier in any manner.
Place:
(HAMEEDA ANJUM SANA)
Date:
HHM/2011-18
3
CERTIFICATE
Ms HAMEEDA ANJUM SANA has satisfactorily prosecuted the course of
research and that thesis entitled “VALUE ADDITION TO DECCAN PLATEAU
WOOL FOR DEVELOPING HANDLOOM FABRICS” submitted is the result of
original research work and is of sufficiently high standard to warrant its presentation to
the examination. I also certify that neither the thesis nor its part thereof has been
previously submitted by her for a degree of any university.
Date:
Chairperson
4
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “VALUE ADDITION TO DECCAN
PLATEAU WOOL FOR DEVELOPING HANDLOOM FABRICS” submitted in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of ‘Master of Science in Home
Science’ of the Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad is a record of
the bonafide original research work carried out by Ms HAMEEDA ANJUM SANA
under our guidance and supervision.
No part of the thesis has been submitted by the student for any other degree or
diploma. The published part and all assistance received during the course of the
investigations have been duly acknowledged by the author of the thesis.
Thesis approved by the Student Advisory Committee
Chairperson
Member
Member
Dr. A. Padma
Professor & University Head
AICRIP – Home science
PG & RC , ANGRAU, Rajendranagar
Hyderabad- 500 030
Signature
Dr. D. Anitha
Professor & Head
Department of Apparel and Textiles
College of Home Science, Saifabad
Hyderabad- 500 004
Signature
Dr. M. Sarada Devi
Professor
Dept of Human Development and
Family studies
College of Home Science, Saifabad
Hyderabad- 500 004
Signature
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praises be to “The Almighty Allah” the Lord of the entire world and peace
be upon His last Prophet Muhammed (SAWS). Through the grace of Almighty Allah, the
dream has come true and dissertation work has been accomplished successfully.
A brief mention of someone’s in the acknowledgement of thesis does anything
but justice to the enormous help they have provided in the completion of the thesis.
Therefore, it is a pleasant and cheerful moment that I have a chance to express my
sincere gratitude to all those people who encouraged, supported and contributed in the
completion of this dissertation work.
With proud privilege and deep sense of respect, I express my gratitude and
indebtedness to my major advisor Dr. (Mrs). A. Padma, Professor & University Head,
Department of Apparel ant Textiles, College of Home Science, Hyderabad. Her
meticulous help, constant encouragement, valuable guidance, kindness and constructive
suggestions helped me immensely in the successful completion of my research work.
My profound thanks are extended to my minor advisor Dr. (Mrs). D. Anitha,
Associate Professor & Head, Department of Apparel and Textiles, College of Home
Science, Hyderabad, for her useful suggestions and timely help throughout this study.
I would also express my thanks to Dr. (Mrs). A. M. Swarna Latha, Professor &
Head, Department of Home science extension and communication management of
College of Home Science, Hyderabad, for her valuable suggestions during my research
work.
My sincere thanks to Dr. (Mrs). A. Sharada Devi, Professor and Dean of Home
Science, Department of Apparel and Textiles, College of Home Science, Hyderabad,
providing me all the facilities and help in completion of my studies.
I deeply acknowledge the help of Mr. Reddy, weaver service centre, Nampally,
Hyderabad, for his prompt response to my request for weaving of fabrics.
I humbly express my deep sense of gratitude to the members of the Department
of Apparel and Textiles, for their concrete suggestions and timely help rendered
throughout the study.
My sincere thanks to Abdul Hakeem, Assistant Librarian and head and staff
members of library, College of Home Science, Hyderabad, for providing me needful
facilities and help in completion of my studies.
My sincere thanks to Mr. Nageshwar rao (Statistician) and Mrs. Shoba of
computer section, Rajendranagar, ANGRAU for their immediate response and in
carrying out the data analysis for my study.
It is blissful and cherished feeling and sensation for me to extend warm regards
and most important acknowledgement to my beloved parents Mrs. Mahboob Unisa
Begum and Mr. Mohammed Yousuf Uddin, beneath whose feet, lies my heaven. I
cannot recompense for sacrifices given by them to make me successful in my life and for
putting up so many days, evenings and nights with patience throughout the successful
completion of the entire under and post graduate study course.
6
To my sisters Nasreen Fatima, Parveen Sultana, Shameem sultana, Nikhat
Tasneem, Dr. Ghousia Tabassum and all my brother-in-laws for constant
encouragement, faith, moral support, unparalleled affection and blessings are an
esteemed asset throughout my life. I take a great pleasure to express my heartfelt sense
of love and honor to my beloved family and for their blessings, moral and financial
support, constant encouragement and dedicated effort to educate me to this level.
I have a great pleasure in expressing my sincere gratitude of sense and respect
to my brother-in-law S.K. Syed Hussain, Prof. Sultan-ul-uloom College of Pharmacy,
who encouraged me at every point and he has been very liberal in giving me his time
and attention throughout my research work.
I affectionately acknowledge my loving brother Mohammed Jahangir for being
very supportive and source of inspiration and joy in my life.
Special thanks to my fiancé Mohammed Abdul Muqtadir Adnan. Words cannot
describe how lucky I am to have him in my life.
I also would like to thanks all my sweet nephews and nieces for just being so
cute and delighting me with so many happy moments.
It is rather difficult to express in words my deep sense of gratitude towards my
seniors Ms. Mahesh and Aparna and I would heartily acknowledge the constant
encouragement, assistance and constructive suggestions given to me.
I extend my heartful thanks to Ms. Khateeja sultana shaik and Vani for their
cooperation and help rendered during the study and making it memorable one.
I wish to convey my heartfelt thanks to the non- teaching staff members of the
Department of Apparel and textiles, College of Home Science, ANGRAU, Hyderabad
for their timely and untiring help.
I would like to express my whole hearted thanks to Acharya N.G. Ranga
Agricultural University for providing the financial assistance to carry out my post
graduation.
It is not possible to acknowledge individually all of those who contributed and
supported me. I am grateful to all my friends and colleagues who helped in various
aspect of this study. Lastly I pray to The Almighty Allah to guide me towards the right
path, the path of those whom He has graced and not the paths of those who earn His
anger or those who go astray.
Hameeda Anjum Sana
7
LIST OF CONTENTS
Chapter
no.
Title
Page no.
I
INTRODUCTION
1-4
II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
5 - 40
III
MATERIAL AND METHODS
41 - 62
IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
63 - 101
V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
102 - 105
LITERATURE CITED
106 - 114
APPENDICES
115 - 125
8
LIST OF TABLES
S. No.
2.1
Physi
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.4a
4.5
4.5a
4.6
4.6a
4.7
4.7a
4.8
4.8a
4.9
4.9a
4.10
4.10a
4.11
4.11a
4.12
Title
World production of wool
State-wise sheep population
Sheep breeds in different agro-ecological regions in India and their
major products
Wool production and quality in different regions of India
Sheep breeds of Southern peninsular region
Social Security Scheme for Insurance
Non-Fiscal Measures
Indian sheep varieties & micron structure
Wool fibre characteristics
Utilities and value added products from wool
Bacterial origin enzymes
Fungal origin enzymes
Classification of enzymes based on their reaction
Parameters and operational ranges of enzymes
Preparation of citrate phosphate buffer
Preparation of Hcl-Kcl buffer
Loom particulars of deccani wool fabrics
Plain and twill weave design variations
Selection of fibre variety
Properties of enzyme treated fibres
Effect of yarn count for enzymes treated samples
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric count (plain weave)
F calculated values of fabric count (plain weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric count (twill weave)
F calculated values of fabric count (twill weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric weight (plain weave)
F calculated values of Fabric weight (plain weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric weight (twill weave)
F calculated values of fabric weight (twill weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric thickness (plain weave)
F calculated values of fabric thickness (plain weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric thickness (twill weave)
F calculated values of fabric thickness (twill weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric stiffness (plain weave)
F calculated values of fabric stiffness (plain weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric stiffness (twill weave)
F calculated values of fabric stiffness (twill weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric drape coefficient (plain
weave)
Page
No
8
9
10
11
12
13
15
16
16
23
30
30
33
47
48
48
50
52
64
64
68
69
71
69
71
72
74
72
74
75
76
75
76
77
80
78
80
81
9
4.12a
4.13
4.13a
4.14
4.14a
4.15
4.15a
4.16
4.16a
4.17
4.17a
4.18
4.18a
4.19
4.19a
4.20
4.21
4.22
4.22a
4.23
4.23a
4.24
4.25
4.26
4.27
4.28
4.29
4.30
4.31
F calculated values of fabric drape coefficient (plain weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric drape coefficient (twill
weave)
F calculated values of fabric drape coefficient (twill weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric air permeability (plain
weave)
F calculated values of fabric air permeability (plain weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric air permeability (twill
weave)
F calculated values of fabric air permeability (twill weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric thermal conductivity (plain
weave)
F calculated values of fabric thermal conductivity (plain weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric thermal conductivity (twill
weave)
F calculated values of fabric thermal conductivity (twill weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on tensile strength (plain weave)
F calculated values of tensile strength (plain weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on tensile strength (twill weave)
F calculated values of tensile strength (twill weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric pilling (plain weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on fabric pilling (twill weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on abrasion resistance (plain weave)
F calculated values of abrasion resistance (plain weave)
Effect of enzymatic treatment on abrasion resistance (twill weave)
F calculated values of abrasion resistance (twill weave)
Cost of finishing
Texture of the fabrics
Thickness of the fabrics
Stiffness of the fabrics
Drapability of the fabrics
Overall appearances
Preference in term of design
Suitability of the fabrics
83
81
83
84
86
84
86
87
89
87
89
90
92
90
92
93
93
94
96
94
96
97
98
98
99
99
100
100
101
10
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig No
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
3.1
3.2a
3.2b
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
4.21
Title
State-wise Deccani population in India
Sheep breeds of Southern peninsular region
Physical structure of a wool fibre
Three-dimensional crimp of the wool fibre
Microscopic structure of wool
Processing of wool fibre
Available varieties of deccani sheep in Andhra Pradesh
Traditional scissors
Shearing
Enzyme treated Deccani wool fibre
Carding of Deccani wool fibre
Hand spinning (takli)
Warp measuring and sizing
Denting & Warping
Winding of weft yarn using charka
Plain weave (repeat)
Twill weave 2/2 right hand (repeat)
Weaving process on handloom
Designed deccani wool fabrics
SEM analysis of Papain enzyme treated fibres
SEM analysis of Pepsin enzyme treated fibres
Comparison of yarn count
Fabric count (plain weave)
Fabric count (twill weave)
Fabric weight (plain weave)
Fabric weight (twill weave)
Fabric thickness (plain weave)
Fabric thickness (twill weave)
Fabric stiffness (plain weave)
Fabric stiffness (twill weave)
Fabric drape coefficient (plain weave)
Fabric drape coefficient (twill weave)
Air permeability (plain weave)
Air permeability (twill weave)
Thermal conductivity (plain weave)
Thermal conductivity (twill weave)
Tensile strength (plain weave)
Tensile strength (twill weave)
Abrasion resistance (plain weave)
Abrasion resistance (twill weave)
Page No
10
11
17
18
18
20
43
44
44
48
49
49
51
51
52
52
53
53
55
65
66
68
70
70
73
73
75
76
79
79
82
82
85
85
88
88
91
91
95
95
11
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
RH-Relative humidity
m kg- million kilogram
mg - milligram
Mm - millimeter
g- Gram
Kgf- kilogram force
N-Newton
N/m- Newton per meter
mm - micrometer
NEC - number in English count
WC - worsted count
% - Per cent
°C- Degree centigrade
PH- measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution
i.e. - that is
viz., - Namely
e.g. - for example
LR- Laboratory Reagents
M: L ratio - material liquor ratio
SEM - Scanning electron microscopy
Oz/sq.yd - ounces per square yard
CD (P=0.01%) - Critical difference at 1 per cent level
ANOVA - Analysis of variance
BIS - Bureau of Indian Standards
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
SWIS - Sheep & Wool Improvement Scheme
12
CWDB - Central Wool Development Board
PPP - Public Private Partnership
R&D - Research and Development
HRD - Human Resource Development
Sample –100%
Warp- 100% Deccani wool,
Weft - 100% Deccani wool (Plain weave)
Sample –50:50 / 100%
Warp- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool,
Weft- 100% Deccani wool (Plain weave)
Sample –50:50 / 50:50
Warp- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool,
Weft- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool (Plain weave)
Sample –100%
Warp- 100% Deccani wool,
Weft - 100% Deccani Wool (Twill weave)
Sample –50:50 / 100%
Warp- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool,
Weft- 100% Deccani wool (Twill weave)
Sample –50:50 / 50:50
Warp- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool,
Weft- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool (Twill weave)
Control
Enzyme - I
Enzyme -II
Untreated
Papain – 1 % concentration
Pepsin – 1 % concentration
13
Name of the Author
: Hameeda Anjum Sana
I.D. No.
: HHM/2011-018
Title of the Thesis
: Value addition to Deccan plateau wool
for developing handloom fabrics
Degree to which it is
submitted
Major Field
: Master of Science in Home Science
Faculty
: Home Science
Major Advisor
: Dr. (Mrs.) A. Padma
University
: Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University
Year of Submission
: 2014
: Department of Apparel and Textiles
ABSTRACT
The deccani sheep breed is a source for coarse wool-cum-meat. Gongali/
kambali is a traditional multi-purpose blanket with coarse deccani fibres. On an account
of declining institutional and government purchases, the market for the kambali has
collapsed. Thus, innovative approaches towards the use of deccani wool fibre will
improve value added products that have potential market, which not only helps to
provide livelihood security to the rural people but also improves export from the
country as well address the burning issues like increasing demand, restoration of
endangered sheep breed of the Deccan plateau, employment generation in rural and
semi urban areas and will open new avenues in the field of research.
Keeping in view the above advantages, coarser deccani wool fibres can be
softened with enzymes in order to attain pliable, smooth and good handle fabrics,
thereby improving its processing and utilization. Enzymes being natural products are
completely bio-degradable and require low activation energy to soften the fibres for
further usage with enhanced fibre properties. Therefore the present study was
undertaken to assess the performance characteristics of the enzymes treated (Papain and
Pepsin with 1 per cent concentration) deccani wool fibres. After enzymatic treatment
the deccani wool fibres were hand spun into yarn and along with cotton yarn, plain and
twill weave fabrics were developed. Developed fabrics were subjected to various
laboratory tests to evaluate the geometrical, handle, comfort and mechanical properties
with the standard BIS and ASTM procedures.
The tested results of the study were compiled, tabulated and statistically
analyzed using mean values, percentage and weighted mean score for objective and
subjective evaluations. End results were statistically analyzed for its correlation
between different parameters by using two way ANOVA (factorial CRD) test.
Yarn count and fabric count was increased due to the treatment. After the
treatment, handle and aesthetic properties of the fabric has resulted in positive changes.
The fabric weight, stiffness and thickness were decreased with enzyme treatment. The
drape coefficient of the fabric was decreased which implied that the drape of the fabric
was increased. Considerable changes were noticed in the comfort properties.
The mechanical properties of the fabric were decreased with an increase in
enzyme concentrations. The tensile strength was reduced for the enzymes treated
14
samples. The pilling was decreased enhancing the aesthetics and abrasion resistance
was improved after softening treatment.
Among two enzymes, Papain showed improved textile properties then Pepsin in
all treated samples of plain and twill weave fabrics, in which 50:50/50:50 sample
showed good results for both the weaves.
From subjective evaluation of treated fabrics received high ranking than the
untreated fabrics, thus improving its aesthetics. Enzyme-I 50:50/50:50 twill fabrics were
found to have better performance characteristics than enzyme-II treatment fabrics. The
cost of the wet processing was economically viable for adoption at the commercial
level.
On the whole enzyme treatment to deccani wool improves several important
fabric properties such as surface smoothness; handle properties; mechanical properties
necessary for enhancing their suitability to textiles.
15
INTRODUCTION
16
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
In India woolen textiles industry is relatively small compared to the cotton and
manmade textiles and clothing industry. However, the woolen sector is a rural based,
export oriented industry linking the rural economy with the manufacturing industry.
India serves as 3rd largest sheep population country in the world having 6.40 crores
sheep producing 43.30 million kg of raw wool. Out of this about 85% is carpet grade
wool, 5% apparel grade and remaining 10% coarser grade wool for making rough
kambals etc. Average annual yield per sheep in India is 0.9 Kg. against the world
average of 2.4 Kg. The domestic producer of wool is not adequate, therefore, the
industry is dependent on imported raw material and wool is the only natural fibre in
which the country is deficient.
Since the global supply of wool is decreasing, it will be difficult to meet the
requirement of woolen industry in years to come. China has visualized the situation and
focused on wool production. As a result its production has increased from 220 million
kg in 1992 to 337 m kg in 2008-09 with a growth of 7-8% per annum. Wool production
in India is almost stagnant at 45 m kg since last two decades. Looking into the demand
and availability of wool in domestic as well as International market, it is a great
challenge to meet the demand of wool in the country. The installed capacity of woolen
industry and consumption of woolen products in India is continuously increasing by 1%
per annum. To meet the increasing demand of apparel type, the country is importing 18
to 20 m kg of wool every year. This warrants an increase in the production of fine wool
as well as carpet wool from the indigenous sheep breed (Shinde et al, 2013).
India's vast genetic resources in sheep and goats are reflected by the availability
of 40 breeds of sheep and 20 breeds of goats. Among the Indian sheep breeds, the most
important in number and distribution are Marwari and Deccani. Sheep found to the
north of the Tungabhadra River are called “Deccani” (Acharya, 1982).
Andhra Pradesh has the largest sheep population in the country (213 lakhs as of
2003), of which approximately 40% are of the deccani breed. The deccani breed of
sheep is widely distributed in the Deccan plateau across the three states of Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka and is reared under migratory, semi migratory and
sedentary systems by shepherding communities such as the Golla, Kuruma, Kuruba and
Dhangar. Most animals of this breed are black, but some are grey or roan (with a mix of
17
white and coloured wool) and are shorn twice a year, usually before monsoon in June,
and after the rainy season in November (Anthra, 2007).
In Andhra Pradesh about 400 pastoralist/agro-pastoralist families spread across
24 villages in Hathnura, Jinnaram, Narasapur, Narayankhed and Shivampet mandals of
Medak district are involved in direct intensive community action on conservation of
deccani sheep breed. Hathnura, Jinnaram, Narasapur, Narayankhed and Shivampet
along with Veldurthy in Medak district are amongst the handful of remaining
geographic locations in the state which continue to have significant numbers of the total
sheep population of ‘pure deccani breed’.
The deccani sheep breed is valued for its coarse wool, meat and manure. It is
unique worldwide because of its wool, which comes in various shades of black. The
wool is important as it protects the animals from the weather patterns and extreme
temperatures that are typical of the semi-arid Deccan plateau. The deccani sheep wool is
the source of the gongali/gongadi/kambali (a local blanket) one of the most essential
and multi-purpose traditional apparels worn and used by the communities across the
Deccan, particularly the pastoral communities. The deccani breed is being rapidly outcrossed with other non-wool sheep breeds, primarily, to meet the meat demands. This
unique black wool breed of sheep is completely adapted to the local ecological
conditions in Telangana and other semi-arid parts of the Deccan and provides a
livelihood to a wide range of shepherds, crafts people and farmers.
A sheep produces about 250–500g of coarse, hairy wool .The shearing is done
by members of a group known as Katrigars. Women sort and grade the lamb wool and
adult wool into three colours and two grades. The average fibre diameter varies widely:
one fleece may average 35 μm, while another is much coarser up to 70 μm. The overall
average is 53 μm. About one-quarter of the fleece is fine, good quality wool, with fibres
around 24 μm in diameter. This fibre is suitable for spinning. Another quarter of the
fleece is very coarse and hairy, with fibre diameters around 58 μm. Though at the
cottage level, certain amount of this wool is being spun into yarn by hand spinning, it
suffers with many deficiencies in terms of yarn quality and heavy dropage of 60 to 70%
on the original wool reducing the yarn yield to 30 to 40%. This creates a high wastage
of the fibre which is not used and resulting in meeting the expenses of shearing cost
(Bardhan, 2011).
Therefore it is necessary to utilize this unusable coarse wool in a creative way to
produce value added products. For this reason, the need to develop effective methods
for utilizing this type of wool has become, technologically and ecologically important.
18
One of the most promising areas of application of these coarse fibres containing is the
possibility of using them as the textile materials. Therefore an attempt is made to
develop and evaluate the performance properties of deccani wool fibres for different
end in apparels and textiles.
In recent years on one hand, the woolen industry is fighting increased cost
pressures; on the other hand it is facing weakening in export demand on account of the
global slowdown, and is also facing severe competition from China. The industry is
using old/outdated machinery and technology in the processing segment. This results in
inadequate quality of finished products.
Marketing wool from an endangered sheep breed in the Deccan Plateau of India
has become difficult as the state animal husbandry has encouraged replacing their
deccani breed with heavier non-wool sheep breeds. The second biggest threat to the
breed today is rapidly diminishing grazing lands. Economic reforms in India, in the
early 1990s, resulted in coarse wool being suddenly out-priced from the market, which
was flooded with cheaper imported ‘shoddy’ wool products from Australia and other
countries. It also resulted in policy decisions that favored export of meat from India to
other countries. In the context of declining market for coarse wool and the steep
increase in the demand for mutton, shepherds began to opt for meat breeds rather than
wool breeds. The resulting mixed breeds began to lose their wool cover which increased
their vulnerability to the sweeping weather changes that are found in the Deccan. The
new breeds also required greater quantities of fodder and the combination of factors,
increased their susceptibility to diseases, forcing many shepherds to leave their
profession. Thus the conservation of the deccani breed was extremely important for
sustaining the livelihoods of the shepherds and also preserving the genetic pool and
biodiversity of sheep (Anthra, 2007).
The innovative approaches towards the use of deccani wool fiber will address
the burning issues like increasing demand, restoration of endangered sheep breed of the
Deccan plateau, employment generation on rural and semi urban areas and will open
new avenues in the field of research.
Owing to their coarse nature with fibre fineness mostly above 50 microns and
the brittleness of these fibres which make it prone to heavy breakages and loss during
processing. They are mainly used in floor and furniture covering or in felt manufacture.
However, considerable quantity of wool produced goes into the making of low end
clothing, tweeds, blankets, shawls and knitted garments. However, when wool is used in
such apparel items, there is resistance to the utilization of such items by consumer, since
19
these items are usually stiff, scratchy, droppings due to fiber breakages and are
susceptible to shrinkage, which draws attention to improve the processing and
utilization of this coarse deccani wool fiber for which the fibers are treated with
enzymes. Enzymes being natural products are completely bio-degradable and
accomplish their work quietly and efficiently without leaving any pollutant behind and
helps to soften the fiber for further usage.
A thorough review of literature indicated that very limited research has been
conducted on deccani wool fibre used in textiles. To revive traditional livelihood of
shepherd communities, therefore the present study was designed with the following
objectives for revitalizing wool-based livelihoods.
Objectives of investigation
 To collect the deccani wool from the most wildly grow sheep variety in Andhra
Pradesh.
 To standardize the softening treatment on deccani wool fibre with enzymes.
 To design and develop handloom deccani wool fabrics.
 To study the physical parameters of fabric in terms of suitability and end use.
 To estimate the cost of finished fabric and study the consumer acceptance.
20
REVIEW
OF
LITERATURE
21
Chapter II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
To present a suitable background for the present study, it is appropriate to report
the works done by former researchers on the various aspects of deccani wool fibres.
Possible approaches were made to understand and study different researches, to support
the present study through popular articles. Reviews were arranged under the following
headings:
2.1. History of wool fibre
2.2. Taxonomy of wool
2.2.1. Classification in accordance with wool quality
2.2.2. Classification in accordance with fleece
2.3. Production of wool fibre
2.3.1. World production of wool in top ten countries
2.3.2. Production of deccani wool fibre
2.4. Location of deccani sheep in India
2.4.1. State-wise sheep population
2.5. Sheep breeds classified on the basis of Agro Ecological Regions
2.6. Sheep breeds in the southern peninsular region
2.6.1. Schemes for shepherd benefits (Deccani)
2.7. Constrains faced by wool sector
2.8. National Fibre Policy for development of the Wool
2.9. Indian sheep varieties & micron structure
2.10. Wool fibre characteristics
2.11. Structure of wool fibre
2.12. Processing of wool fibre
2.13. Properties of wool
2.13.1 Physical properties
2.13.2. Chemical properties
2.14. Utilities and value added products from wool
2.15. Studies on wool fibre
2.16. Studies related to designing of wool fabrics
2.17. Studies on Deccani wool fibre
2.18. Enzymes
2.19. Role of Enzymes in textile processing
22
2.20. Enzymes in the processing of protein fibre
2.21. Uses of protease enzymes
2.22. Use of enzymes in textile processing
2.23. Sources of enzyme
2.23.1. Bacterial origin
2.23.2. Fungal origin
2.24. Classification of enzymes
2.25. Properties of enzymes
2.26. Studies related to enzyme treatment
2.1. History of wool fibre
The story of wool began long ago, before recorded history when primitive man
first clothed himself in the woolly skins of the wild sheep he killed for food. The wool
of the sheep was the first textile raw material used by humans for clothing purposes.
The development of clothing began when people first dressed themselves in the skins of
mammals. Felts which were easily shaped were produced later from hairs plucked or cut
from the animal. The first country to process and trade in wool was Babylon and hence
called the Land of Wool. The oldest known wool fabrics dating from the second half of
the millennium B.C. were found in Danish tree coffins.
Sheep rearing reached a high point in the Middle Ages and the renaissance. The
merino sheep, breed in Spain, produced wool of very fine quality and in the late 1700s
Saxon merinos were exported via England and South Africa to Australia, where the
climate proved to be very favorable for rearing this breed.
The art of spinning wool into yarn started about 4000 B.C. (Parker et al, 1986)
although sheep were domesticated nine to eleven thousand years ago, Archaeological
evidence from statuary found at sites in Iran suggests that selection for woolly sheep
may have begun around 6000 B.C with the earliest woven wool garments having only
been dated to two to three thousand years later (Sue, 2005).
Firstly the wool fiber trade among the nations began in the region of the
Mediterranean Sea, while the oldest fine woolen fabric dates to the fifth century BC and
was found in a Greek colony. The Romans established the first wool factory in England
in 50 A.D. in Winchester. In 1797, the British brought 13 Merino sheep to Australia and
started Merino sheep industry. There are 40 different breeds of sheep in the world
producing 200 types of wool in varying standards. The major wool producers in the
world are Australia, Argentina, china and South Africa.
23
2.2. Taxonomy of wool
The quality of wool fibers produced is based on the breeding conditions, the
weather, food, general care etc. The wool could be classified in two different ways:
2.2.1. Classification in accordance with wool quality
2.2.2. Classification in accordance with fleece
2.2.1. Classification in accordance with wool quality
2.2.1.1. Class-one wool: Merino sheep produces the best wool. It is found in Spain. The
staple is relatively short, ranging from 1 to 5 inches but the fiber is strong, fine and
elastic and has good working properties. It has greatest amount of crimp and has
maximum number of scales.
2.2.1.2. Class-two wool: In this variety, wool is not less than very good quality. The
fiber is 2 to 8 inches in length, has large number of scales per inch and has good crimp.
The fibers are strong, fine and elastic and have good working properties. It is found in
England, Scotland and Ireland.
2.2.1.3. Class-three wool: The fibers are 4 to 18 inches long; coarsened; have few
scales and less crimp than Merino and class-two wool. It is smoother; more lustrous;
good enough for clothing. It originated in the UK.
2.2.1.4. Class-four wool: This class refers to half-breeds. Fiber length ranges from 1 to
16 inches, coarse, hair like have relatively few scales and little crimp and is smooth and
lustrous. They are mainly used in making carpets, rugs and inexpensive low-grade
clothing.
(Arora, 2010)
2.2.2. Classification in accordance with fleece
Wool that is sheared from an animal is called “fleece” or “grease wool”, because
of the oil and lanolin in the wool. The quality of fleece depends on the age of the
animal.
2.2.2.1. Lamb’s wool: The first fleece sheared from a lamb about 6 to 8 months old is
known as lamb’s wool or first clip wool. This wool is of very-very fine quality. The
fibers are extremely soft.
2.2.2.2. Hogget wool: Wool sheered from 12 to 14 month old sheep for the first time is
Hogget wool. The fiber is fine, soft, resilient and mature. The wool has good strength
and is used for warps.
24
2.2.2.3. Wether wool: Wool is obtained from the sheep older than 14 months. It
contains soil and dust.
2.2.2.4. Pulled wool: Wool is obtained from slaughtered animal and is of inferior
quality. The roots of fibers are generally damaged.
2.2.2.5. Dead wool: Wool is obtained from dead animal and is inferior in grade.
2.2.2.6. Cotty wool: This wool obtained from animal whose pasturage is barren and
rocky. This is poor grade wool and is matted or felted.
2.2.2.7. Tag locks: The torn, ragged or discolored parts of a fleece are known as tag
locks.
2.2.2.8. New wool/Virgin wool: Wool that has not been previously used in
manufacturing is the new wool. Virgin wool may include pulled; dead or any other
variety of wool which may be inferior stock.
2.2.2.9. Reprocessed wool: The wool that is remanufactured from unused wool
materials.
2.2.2.10. Recycle wool: Old woolen stuff is broken to make wool fibers and converted
again into yarn.
(Arora, 2010)
2.3. Production of wool fibre
Wool is a freely traded international commodity, subject to global supply and
demand. While wool represents only three percent of world fiber production, it is
important to the economy and way of life in many countries. China is the largest
producer and buyer of wool. The United States accounts for less than one percent of the
world's wool production.
2.3.1. World production of wool in top ten countries
S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Table 2.1. World production of wool
Country
Metric tons
China
386,768
Australia
382,300
New Zealand
165,800
United Kingdom
67,000
Iran
67,000
Morocco
55,300
Sudan
55,000
Argentina
54,000
Russian Federation
53,280
India
43,000
World total (2009)
2,044,270
(FAO STAT United Nations, 2012)
25
2.3.2. Production of deccani wool fibre
As per economic survey (2007) Government of India, the country produces
about 45 million kg of raw wool. Out of the total production of raw wool about 10 per
cent was apparel grade, 70 per cent carpet grade and 20 per cent coarse grade. The
annual growth of wool production is marginal and wool production has remained static
for last 10 years.
2.4. Location of deccani sheep in India
Andhra Pradesh has the largest sheep population in the country, among which
approximately 40 percent of the deccani breed. The Deccani breed of sheep is widely
distributed in the Deccan plateau across the three states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It covers the major part of Maharashtra especially the Pune
division, parts of Kurnool, Mehboobnagar, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Anantpur, Warangal
and the entire districts of Medak and Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh and Bidar, Bijapur,
Gulbarga and Raichur districts in Karnataka.
2.4.1. State-wise sheep population
Table 2.2. State-wise sheep population
States
Population ('000 nos) Share (%)
Andhra Pradesh
21,376
34.8
Rajasthan
10,054
16.4
Karnataka
7,256
11.8
Tamil Nadu
5,593
9.1
Jammu & Kashmir 3,411
5.5
Others
13,779
22.4
Total
61,469
(Ministry of Textiles, XI Five Year plan)
26
Figure 2.1. State-wise deccani population in India (CSWRI, 2008)
2.5. Sheep breeds classified on the basis of Agro Ecological Regions
Sheep breeds can be classified on the basis of Agro Ecological Regions viz. a)
North temperate region, b) North Western arid and semi arid region c) Southern
peninsular region and d) Eastern region. The breeds of sheep of these regions are as
follows:
Table 2.3. Sheep breeds in different Agro-Ecological Regions in India and their
major products
North temperate
Bhakarwal (CW)
Changthangi
(CW)
Gaddi (CW)
Gurez (CW)
Karnah(AW)
Kashmir Merino(AW)
Poonchi (CW)
Rampur Bushair(CW)
North-western arid
and semi arid
Chokla (CW)
Hissardale (AW)
Jaisalmeri (MCW)
Jalauni (MCW)
Kheri (MCW)
Magra (CW)
Malpura (MCW)
Marwari (MCW)
Muzaffarnagari
(MCW)
Nali (CW)
Patanwadi (CW)
Pugal (MCW)
Sonadi (MCW)
Munjal(M)
Southern peninsular
Bellary (MCW)
Coimbatore (MCW)
Daccani (M)
Hassan (M)
Kanguri (M)
Kilakarsal (M)
Madras Red (M)
Mandya (M)
Mecheri (M)
Nellore (M)
Nilgiri (AW)
Rammand White (M)
Tiruchy Black (M)
Vembur (M)
Eastern
Balangir
(MCW)
Bonpala
(MCW)
Chottanagpuri
(MCW)
Ganjam (MCW)
Garole (M)
Tibetan (CW)
(CSWRI, 2008)
The major products of the breed are Apparel wool (AW), Carpet wool (CW),
Mutton & Carpet wool (MCW) and Mutton (M).
27
Table 2.4.Wool production and quality in different regions of India
Sr. Particulars
North
North
Southern
Eastern
No.
Western Temperature
Peninsular
1
Sheep population
20.36
3.45
19.80
4.6
(million)
2
Percent contribution
42.23
7.15
41.07
9.54
3
Wool production
25.11
4.03
7.68
1.57
(m.kg)
4
Percent contribution to 65.40
10.50
20.00
4.10
total
5
Per capita production
1.23
1.16
0.38
0.34
(kg)
6
Fineness (micron)
30.45
22.3
40.60
50-60
7
Medullation (%)
30.80
5.15
60.80
80-90
8
Burr content (%)
2-5
2-8
Below 5
1-3
9
Yield (washed) (%)
80-90
50-60
80-90
85-90
(except Nilgiri)
(CSWRI, 2008)
2.6. Sheep breeds in the southern peninsular region
Figure 2.2. Sheep breeds of Southern peninsular region (Acharya, 1982)
28
Table 2.5. Sheep breeds of Southern peninsular region
Breed
Location
Main uses
Bellary
Bellary, Davangere, Haveri and
Meat,
Chitradurga districts of
carpet wool
Karnataka
Coimbatore Coimbatore & Dindigul districts Meat,
of Tamil Nadu
carpet wool
Deccani
Semi arid areas of Maharashtra,
Meat
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Hassan
Hassan district of Karnataka
Meat
Kenguri
Raichur district of Karnataka
Meat
Kilakarsal
Virudunagar & Ramnathpuram
Meat
districts of Tamil Nadu
Madras red Chingalpet & Madras districts of Meat
Tamil Nadu
Mandya
Mandya and bordering Mysore
Meat
districts of Karnataka.
Mecheri
Salem, Erode & Namakkal
Meat
districts of Tamil Nadu
Nellore
Nellore, Prakashan districts of
Meat
A.P.
Nilgiri
Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu
Apparel wool
Ramnad
Ramnathpuram & Virdunagar
Meat
white
districts of Tamil Nadu
Tiruchi
Tiruchy, Perambalur,
Meat
black Nadu Tiruvannamalai, Salem &
Dharampuri districts of Tamil
nadu
Vembur
Tuticorin & Virudunagar districts Meat
of Tamil Nadu
(Bhatia et al., 2005)
2.6.1. Schemes for shepherd benefits (Deccani)
Sheep & Wool Improvement Scheme, (SWIS), Pashmina Wool development
schemes, Quality Processing of Wool & Woollen (CFC) Social Security Scheme and
HRD & Promotional Activity (R&D & Training etc.) for implementation during current
financial year 2013-14.
2.6.1.1. Sheep & Wool Improvement Scheme (SWIS)
CWDB explain that as per 12th Plan scheme approved by SFC, provision of Rs. 100
lakh has been made for Revolving Fund to strengthen existing State Govt. Wool Marketing
Fed./Boards for raw wool marketing and to provide remunerative returns to wool growers.
Under this component, the Board has received proposals as follows:
29
Andhra Pradesh Sheep & Goat Development Coop. Fed. Ltd., Govt. of Andhra
Pradesh, Hyderabad had demanded revolving fund of rupees 21 lakhs. The funds sectioned
under this scheme were rupees10 lakh for procurement of Deccani wool in the State.
(CWDB, 2013)
2.6.1.2. Social Security Scheme for Insurance
Table 2.6. Social Security Scheme for Insurance
Implementing
Agency
Project for
Financial
assistance
demanded
Andhra Pradesh
Sheep & Goat
Development
Coop. Fed. Ltd.,
Govt. of AP,
Hyderabad
To cover two
lakh
sheep
under Sheep
Insurance
Scheme
Rs. 113.22 lakh
(Contribution
of CWDB for
two lakh sheep)
Karnataka Sheep
& Wool
Development
Corporation,
Bangalore
(Karnataka)
To
cover
1.29
lakh
sheep under
Sheep
Insurance
Scheme (0.40
+ 1.60 lakh
sheep)
Rs. 20.64 lakh
(Contribution
of CWDB for
1.29 lakh sheep
i.e. Rs. 16 /sheep)
Remarks for
consideration of
proposal
Observation/reco
mmendation of
Project
Committee for
approval of
project
Help of 80% premium Recommended the
amount
financial assistance
to sheep breeders i.e. of Rs. 20 lakh.
Rs. 31.45
or Rs. 62.90/- sheep
out of total premium
amount of Rs. 39.32 or
Rs. 78.64/ sheep
Help of 80% premium Recommended the
amount
financial assistance
to sheep breeders i.e. of Rs. 20 lakh.
Rs. 16
per sheep out of total
premium
of Rs. 20/- sheep
(CWDB, 2013)
2.6.1.3. Improve the quality and quantity of wool

There should be increased thrust on cross-breeding programmes with an aim to
bring down the micron structure of the carpet grade wool, and also to improve
the quality of Deccani wool.

Efforts should be made for selective breeding and for cross breeding of imported
sheep breeds with inferior and widespread local breeds.

Efforts should be focused on implementing programmes for producing highland
wool in the hilly tracts of India.

Provision of adequate extension support for marketing of specialty fibres.
(National Fibre Policy, 2013)
30
2.7. Constrains faced by wool sector
2.7.1. Raw Wool Production

Low priority of State Governments in development of wool sector.

Lack of awareness, traditional management practices, and lack of education and
poor economic conditions of woolgrowers.

Shortage of pasture land which force breeders to migrate their flock from one
area to throughout the year.

Uneconomical return of the produces to sheep breeders i.e. sale of raw wool,
live sheep, manure, milk, mutton, skin etc.

Lack of motivation for adopting modern methods of sheep management,
machine shearing of sheep, washing & grading of raw wool etc.

Inadequate production and processing facilities of specialty fibres i.e. Pashmina
goat and Angora rabbit wool.
2.7.2. Marketing of Raw Wool

Inadequate marketing facilities and infrastructure.

Ineffective role of state wool marketing organizations in wool producing states.

Absence of organized marketing and minimum support price system for
ensuring remunerative return.

Minimum return earned from sale of wool by wool growers.
2.7.3. Processing of Wool
•
Inadequate quantity of quality raw wool.
•
Out dated and inadequate pre-loom & post-loom processing facilities.
•
Inadequate dyeing facilities in wool potential areas.
•
Need of designing & diversification of woolen handloom products.
•
Dearth of technicians & trained manpower.
•
Inadequate testing facilities and quality control measures.
•
Transfer of technology is inadequate.
•
Lack of operational and technical bench marks.
2.7.4. Education, Research & Development, Human Resource Development

No educational institute for wool technology resulting lack of expertise in wool
sector.
31

Inadequate database.

Need of R&D work on blending of raw wool with other fibres & diversification
of woollen products.

Lack of R&D work for value addition to Deccani wool produced in Southern
region.
2.8. National Fibre Policy for development of the Wool

To improve quality and quantity of wool (carpet grade, highland and Deccani
wool, apparel grade wool & specially wool fibres such as Angora & Pashmina)

Check sheep mortality rate; to bring down mortality rate from current 12-15% to
2-3%.

To undertake collaborative research projects with leading wool producing
countries in the world.

Database building.

Setting up Common Facility Centers (CFCs) for processing of wool and
woolens.

Introduction of grading system & marketing support.

Strengthening the Central Wool Development Board.
(XII Five Year Plan proposal by planning commission, 2011)
2.8.1. Non-fiscal measures under Twelfths five year plan (2012-2017)
Table 2.7. Non-Fiscal Measures
Approach
Recommended measures
Short term Rationalization of import duties
Support for setting up of processing facilities
Subsidy grants for supply of nutritious fodder
Awareness and training camps for sheep breeders
Medium
Grading system
term
Marketing support
Strengthening CWDB
Database building
Selective or cross breeding programme, in conjunction with state
Animal Husbandry Departments
Long term Agency on PPP model for procurement of wool in Country
Collaborative research projects Focus on high land wool, deccani wool
and speciality fibres
(XII Five Year Plan proposal by planning commission, 2011)
32
2.8.2. Future plans for Deccani wool
The Government, for the holistic growth and development of Wool Sector, is
making serious efforts to

Widen the uses of the coarse and colored Deccani wool (Southern region) by
product development and product diversification.

To benefit wool growers under Social Security Scheme of Govt. of India.

To strengthen State Wool Marketing Organizations for marketing facility for
raw wool and to ensure remunerative returns to wool growers.

Increase the demand for Indian wool in domestic and international market.
(Wool and Woollen Textiles Sector, 2013)
2.9. Indian sheep varieties & micron structure
Table 2.8. Indian sheep varieties & micron structure
Sheep breed
Category
Micron structure
(Average
diameter)
Hissardale crossbred wool, Kashmir Fine wools
Below 28 microns
Valley wool, Kashmir ValleyRussian Merino crossbred wool
Chokla, Rampur Bushir and Gaddi
Medium wools
28 - 34 microns
Marwari, Jaisalmeri, Magra and
Coarse medium wools 34 - 40 microns
Pugal
Malpura, Sonadi, Nali, Patanwadi
Coarse wools
40 - 50 microns
and Hassan
Mirzapur, Jalauni, Shahabadi and
Very coarse wools
50 - 80 microns
Deccani
Nellore and Ramnad
Hairy types
80 microns and
above
(Ministry of textiles, XI Five Year plan)
2.10. Wool fibre characteristics
Breed/species
Deccani sheep, India
Cashmere goat,
Kyrgyzstan
Bactrian camel,
Mongolia
Linca sheep, Argentina
Merino sheep, Australia
Table 2.9. Wool fibre characteristics
Fibre
Guard hair
diameter
Down
intermediate
µm
%
µm
%
µm
%
53
75
25
22
80
74
14
26
Staple Fleece
length weight
60
1.7
35
4.8
18
95.5
-
64
-
-
-
27
21
46
60
cm
5
5
g
250
120
3
3500
9
4000
5
4000
(FAOSTAT, 2010)
33
2.11. Structure of wool fibre
The fibre consists of three layers; an outer layer of scales cuticle, a middle layer
cortex and an inner core is the medulla (Joseph, 1986).
The wool fibre is a cylinder, tapered from root to tip and covered with scales (Ito
et al, 1994). The scales are irregular in shape and overlap each other towards the tip of
the fibre. These then have a directional effect that influences the frictional behaviour of
wool because of its resistance to deteriorating influences (Joseph, 1986; Hall, 1969).
These scales are responsible for wool textile’s tendency to undergo felting and
shrinking as a consequence of the difference of friction in the ‘with-scale’ and ‘against
scale’ directions (Cortez et al, 2004; Carla et al, 2006). Each cuticle cell contains an
inner region of low sulphur content, known as the endocuticle, plus a central sulphur
rich band, known as the exocuticle. Around the scales is a shield, a membrane called the
epicuticle (Maxwell and Hudson, 2005), which acts as a diffusive barrier and can also
affect the surface properties of the fibre. The epicuticle is present as an envelope that
bounds the entire inner surface of the cell (Swift and Smith, 2001). The sub-cuticle
membrane is a thin layer between the cuticle and the cortex (Morton and Hearle, 1975).
Figure 2.3. Physical structure of a wool fibre (Gohl and Vilensky, 1983)
The cortex is the bulk of the fibre and the hollow core at the centre is called the
medulla. The cortex consists of millions of long and narrow cells, held together by a
strong binding material. These cells consist of fibrils, which are constructed from small
units and lie parallel to the long axis of the long narrow cells. The wool fibre gets its
34
strength and elasticity from the arrangement of the material composing the cortex
(Collier, 1974). The medulla resembles a honeycomb, i.e. contains empty space that
increases the insulating power of the fibre (Hollen and Saddler, 1973).
Wool appears to be divided longitudinally into halves because of its bilateral
structure, with one side called the paracortex and the other the orthocortex. The
chemical composition of the cells of the ortho and paracortex is different, i.e. the
paracortex contains more cystine groups that cross-link the chain molecules and is
therefore more stable. This difference between the ortho and paracortex that brings
about the spiral form of the fibre and explains why the paracortex is always found on
the inside of the curve as the fibre spirals around in its crimped form. In addition, these
two parts react differently to changes in the environment, which leads to the
spontaneous curling and twisting of wool (Gohl and Vilensky, 1983).
Figure 2.4. Three-dimensional crimp of the wool fibre (Gohl and Vilensky, 1983)
The fibres have a natural crimp, i.e. a built in waviness, which increases the
elasticity and resiliency of the fibre. The spiral formed by the crimp is three
dimensional and does not only move above and below the central axis, but also to its
left and right (Joseph, 1986).
Figure 2.5. Microscopic structure of wool
The cross-section of the wool fibre is nearly circular and in some cases even
oval in shape (Joseph, 1986). The longitudinal view shows both the scale structure, plus
the striations on the epicuticle that can occur on the original undamaged fibres. These
arise from an interaction in the follicle with the cuticle of the inner root sheath. When
35
the fatty acids are stripped from the surface, the striations have been shown to reflect a
corresponding irregularity of the epicuticle surface (Swift and Smith, 2001).
Wool fibres vary in length between 2cm to 38cm, depending on various factors
such as the breed of the sheep and the part of the animal from where it was removed
(Smith and Block, 1982). The diameters of the wool also vary. Fine fibres have a
diameter of 15 to 17μm, medium fibres have a diameter 24 to 34μm and coarse wool
has a diameter of about 40μm (Joseph, 1986). Merino lamb’s wool average diameter is
15μm (Hollen and Saddler, 1973).
The colour of the natural wool depends on the breed of sheep, but most wool is
an ivory colour, although it can also be grey, black, and tan or brown (Joseph, 1986).
2.12. Processing of wool fibre
2.12.1. Sorting: In the process of sorting, the wool is broken up into sections of
different quality fibres. The best quality of wool comes from the shoulders and sides of
the sheep which is used for clothing.
2.12.2. Cleaning: Raw wool contains dirt, grease and sand. To remove these
contaminants, the wool is scoured in a series of alkaline baths containing soap, water
and soda ash.
2.12.3. Carding: In the process of wool carding the wool fibres are passed through a
series of metal teeth. Carding also removes residual dirt and other matter left in the
fibres. Carded wool intended for worsted yarn. Carded wool to be used for woollen yarn
is sent directly for spinning.
2.12.4. Spinning: Thread is formed by spinning in wool spinning process. The fibres
are spun together to form one strand yarn. Spinning for woollen yarn is typically done
on a mule spinning machine. When yarn is spun, it is wrapped around bobbins and
cones.
2.12.5. Weaving: The next step is wool weaving. In this process the wool yarn is
woven into fabric usually manufacturers use two basic weaves for weaving; the plain
weave and the twill. Plain weave used for the woollen yarns which are made into fabric.
Worsted yarn can create fine fabric with delicate patterns using a twill weave. So the
results are more smooth fabric and more tightly woven.
2.12.6. Finishing: After the process of weaving both worsted and woollens undergo a
series of finishing procedure such as fulling (immersing the fabric in water to make the
fibres interlock), crabbing (permanently setting the interlock), decating (shrinkproofing) and dyeing.
36
Figure 2.6. Processing of wool fibre
37
2.13. Properties of wool
2.13.1 Physical properties
2.13.1.1. Composition: The chief constituent of the fiber is a protein substance called
'Keratin'. (C72H112N18O12S). Keratin protein is composed of 18 different amino acids.
Wool fiber constitutes 99% of protein and 1% non-protein material. It is composed of
basic elements in these approximate proportions: Carbon 50%, Hydrogen 7%, Oxygen
22 - 25%, Nitrogen 16 - 17% and Sulphur 3 - 4%.
2.13.1.2. Appearance: The fibers have a white or light cream color and some breeds
have brown and black color.
2.13.1.3. Tenacity: Wool is the weakest of the natural fibers with tenacity of 1 to 1.8
gm/denier (Arora, 2010). It further loses its strength by 25% in wet conditions
(Corbman, 1983).
2.13.1.4. Elasticity: It has got good elastic capacity depending upon the quality of
wool. The fiber may be stretched from 25 to 30 per cent of its natural length before
breaking.
2.13.1.5. Resilience: Wool fiber has a high degree of resilience. The resilience of the
wool fibre also contributes to the fabrics loft, which can either produce open porous
fabrics with good covering power, or thick and warm fabrics that are also light in
weight (Joseph, 1986).
2.13.1.6. Heat conductivity: Wool fibers are non-conductors of heat, thus, excellent for
winter clothing.
2.13.1.7. Absorbency: Wool is most hydroscopic fiber. It can absorb moisture equal to
20% of its weight without feeling damp (Arora, 2010). Its moisture regain varies from
13-19% as per the atmospheric conditions.
2.13.1.8. Shrinkage: Shrinkage is greater in woolen fabrics (Hollen et. al, 1973)
2.13.1.9. Pilling: Woolen yarns have short protruding fibers on the surface. When
subjected to abrasion, these protruding fibers get knotted up and form small balls that
cling on the surface. These small balls are called as ‘pills’.
2.13.1.10. Felting: Small scales on the surface of wool fiber are responsible for its
felting. When wool is subjected to agitation and friction under heat, pressure and
moisture, the scale interlock with each other and felting occurs. Felting is irreversible
(Arora, 2010). Under controlled conditions felted wool is given a finish ‘fulling’ or
‘milling’ that gives a soft appearance to the fabric. If untreated, it becomes difficult to
wash felted fabrics.
38
2.13.1.11. Crimp: The natural waviness in wool fiber is called as crimp. Finer fibers
have more crimp. Crimps per inch may vary from 30 for finer wool to 1-2 for coarser
wool. Crimp is responsible for excellent pliability of wool fibers. It also provides loft,
warmth and resistance to abrasion.
2.13.1.12. Effect of heat: Wool decompose at 266 F (130C) and burns at 572 F
(300C) (Arora, 2010). During combustion it will give off a smell similar to burning
feathers. When removed from the flame each fibre will form a charred black knob
(Cook, 1984).
2.13.1.13. Effect of light: Prolonged exposure to sunlight weakens the fiber and may
cause discoloration also. The ultraviolet rays will cause the disulfide bonds of cystine to
break, which leads to photochemical oxidation. This will cause fibre degradation and
eventual destruction (Joseph, 1986).
2.13.1.14. Effect of moisture and friction: Wool is softened by moisture, shrinking
and felting occurs when the fabric is washed.
2.13.1.15. Biological resistance: Wool is vulnerable to the larvae of moths and carpet
beetles (Corbman, 1983), as they are attracted by the chemical structure of the cystine
cross-linkages in wool (Tortora, 1978). Raw wool may contain inactive spores, which
becomes active when wet. Mildew will develop when wool is left in a damp condition
for a long period (Labarthe, 1975).
2.13.1.16. Affinity for dyes: Wool fabrics dye well and evenly.
2.13.2. Chemical properties
2.13.2.1. Effect of acids: Wool is more resistant to acids as they hydrolyse the peptide
groups but leave the disulfide bonds intact, which cross-link the polymers. Acid
weakens the polymer system but doesn’t dissolve the fibre (Gohl and Vilensky, 1984).
Wool is only damaged by hot sulphuric acid (Corbman, 1983) and nitric acid (Joseph,
1986). Acids are used to activate the salt linkages in the wool fibre, making it available
to the dye (Hollen and Saddler, 1973).
2.13.2.2. Effect of alkalies: Alkaly will weaken wool as a result of hydrolysis of
peptide bonds and amide side chains (Maclaren and Milligan, 1981). Wool is quickly
damaged by strong alkalies.
2.13.2.3. Effect of bleaches: Bleaches that contain chlorine compounds will damage
wool. Various forms of chlorine are used to make ‘unshrinkable wool’, by destroying
the scales. This wool is weaker, less elastic and has no felting properties (Labarthe,
1975). Bleaches containing hydrogen peroxide, sodium perborate, sodium peroxide
39
(Corbman, 1983) and potassium permanganate do not harm wool and are safe to use for
stain removal. Wool is affected by bleaches; hence very little wool is bleached to pure
white (Arora, 2010).
2.13.2.4. Effect to perspiration: Perspiration in general will lead to discoloration
(Corbman, 1983).
2.14. Utilities and value added products from wool
Table 2.10. Utilities and value added products from wool
S.No
Sectors
Usage
Second skin injury prevention, medical
1
sheepskins, wound dressings, pressure bandages
Medical
and bandages.
Root insulation, upholstery, quilts, blankets,
2
Architecture
drapes, wall coverings and carpets.
Police uniforms, military uniforms, socks &
3
gloves, children’s nightwear, fire fighters
Protective Apparel
uniforms and infant apparel.
Interior trimmings, flight attendant apparel,
4
Aviation
aircraft interiors and interior sound proofing.
Air conditioning, sound & vibration control, heat
exchangers, wool filters for dust/chemical
5
Protection in Industry
odours, electrostatic filters and toxic chemical
filter.
Sheepskin boots & garments, pullovers, hats,
uniforms,
fashion
garments,
waterproof
6
garments,
machine
washable
suits,
non-woven
Apparel
garments, accessories, millinery, flannels,
thermal underwear and woven garments.
7
Smart Textiles
8
Sports
9
Manufacturing
Vital signs vest, molecular templating, intelligent
knee sleeve and inherently conductive polymers.
Ski wear, billiard cloths, thermal underwear,
baseball filling, olympic uniform, waterproof
fabricsa and sport wool clothing.
Piano felts, wool filters for dust / chemical
odours, gaskets & washers, buffering pads,
air/dust filters, absorbs toxic metals, baby
blankets and sheepskin seat covers.
(Ministry of textiles, XI Five Year plan)
2.15. Studies on wool fibre
Wortmann et al. (2000) studied mechanical profilometry of wool and mohir
fibers. The results show that subjectively observed differences in the roughness of the
two fiber types are reflected in roughness and frequency parameters obtained from their
mechanical profiles, enabling reliable discrimination between wool and mohair.
40
Takeichiro et al. (2001) conducted study on change in the covalently bound
surface lipid layer of damaged wool fibers and their effects on surface properties. The
study revealed that the effects of chemical and physical treatments decrease the
concentrations of fatty acids liberated by alkaline hydrolysis and also change the surface
characteristics of wool from hydrophobic to hydrophilic.
Xin et al. (2004) performed a study on evaluating the softness of animal fibers.
This paper examines a simple technique by pulling a bundle of parallel fiber through a
series of pins. It was reported that pulling force measurements can reflect differences in
fiber softness. Result showed that Alpaca fibers had a lower specific pulling force than
the wool fiber. Suggesting softer fibers with lower bending rigidities and smoother
surfaces should have lower pulling forces.
Shi et al. (2006) carried out a study on the development & performance of
bamboo/wool blended fabrics. In this study they developed different ratio of bamboo &
wool blended fabrics. The result indicated that the bamboo/wool blended fabrics
improved the shrink proof property, dimensional stability, hydral expansion, pleat
retention and anti bacterial performance etc.
Comparative study on the felting propensity of animal fibers was conducted by
Liu et al. (2007). The results show that the alpaca fibers felted to a higher degree than
wool fibers, and short and fine cashmere fibers had lower felting propensity than wool
fibers at a similar diameter range.
El-Shakankery (2008) conducted study on pilling resistance of blended
polyester/ wool fabrics. It was found that the pilling tendency increases with increasing
the polyester content. And results show that the plain-woven fabrics had fewer pills than
both twill and satin fabrics. The pilling resistance increases with increased in the heat
set and decreased with increase in singeing speed.
The effect of pH on wool fiber diameter and fabric dimensions were studied and
average diameters of Merino and Corriedale wool fibers were measured with an OFDA
2000 fiber diameter analyzer. Results showed that swelling was found to pass through a
minimum in the region of pH 5-7 and increased at lower and higher pH values. Plain
and twill weave wool fabric dimension were studied with FAST standard test method
41
and it was found that there was greater swelling of the fibers at pH 2.1 than at pH 7.2
(Qing et al. 2009).
2.16. Studies related to designing of wool fabrics
Yoon et al. (1996) performed study on mechanical and dyeing properties of
wool and cotton fabrics treated with low temperature plasma and enzymes. Cotton and
wool fabrics were treated with low temperature oxygen plasma or enzymes or both and
examined for their mechanical and dyeing properties. The study revealed that plasmatreated cotton showed reduced strength, while the rate of weight loss in subsequent
cellulase treatments decreased compared with untreated cotton. Plasma pretreatment of
wool caused an increase in strength and a higher rate of weight loss in the subsequent
protease treatment. And results shown that plasma attacks the surface of the fiber, and
the enzyme affects mainly the inner part of the fiber. This was confirmed by scanning
electron microscopy. The polymerization of enzyme with a water-soluble carbodiimide
did not show any strength retention effect in enzymatic treatment of cotton and wool.
Raja et al. (2010) performed a study on “Development of union short fine wool
yarn and cotton yarn”. Two types of wool-cotton union fabric was produced using two
different counts of wool yarns, spun from short fine wool as weft and cotton yarns as
warp. The performances of finished union fabrics were compared with the 100% wool
control fabric. It showed that there was 40% to 50% reduced felting shrinkage
compared to 100% wool control fabric.
Troynikov et al. (2011) conducted study on moisture management properties of
wool/polyester and wool/bamboo knitted fabrics for the sportswear base layer. Fabric
was assessed by moisture management tester. Blending wool with polyester or wool
with bamboo has improved moisture management properties of fabrics in comparison to
100% wool and 100% bamboo fabrics.
Salwa et al. (2013) studied on “Thermal comfort properties of wool and
polyester/wool woven fabrics dyed in black”. This paper investigated the thermal
comfort properties of plain-woven fabrics dyed in black and treated chemically to
reflect a proportion of sunlight's energy. The fabrics were made from 100% wool and
two polyester/wool blends. The testing results showed that the fabrics that had received
42
the reflective treatment possessed marginally improved thermal comfort properties as
compared to fabrics without the treatment.
2.17. Studies on Deccani wool fibre
Nimbalkar et al. (2005) studied genetic influence on wool characteristic of
deccani sheep. The clean wool yield, staple length, clean wool production and greasy
fleece weight of 124 deccani sheep raised in Maharashtra were determined during the
July 2004 shearing period. The phenotypic correlations between wool characteristics
were positive and highly significant with each other except between staple length and
clean wool percentage and between greasy fleece weight and clean wool percentage.
These results show that the investigated wool production parameters have improved.
Mandage et al. (2007) carried out a study on wool follicular characteristic and
S/P (Secondary/Primary) ratio in Deccani sheep with reference to age. The animals
were grouped into four as 0-3 months, 4-6 months, 7-9 months and 10-12 months age.
Crimp and kemp wool follicles were observed in all groups. Results showed medulla
presence in the kemp wool follicles and its absence in the crimp wool follicles. The S/P
ratio of kemp wool follicles to crimp wool follicles significantly increased with
advancement of age. Bardhan (2011) research and development initiatives and
developmental schemes of wool and woollens work on development of composites
from coarse Indian wool for better utilization. In this project deccani wool having
diameter of 48 micron was opened on the willowing machine and processed on wool
card to get the uniform web. Felt densities were between 0.1 to 0.5 g/cc. Results reveals
that different products were prepared using these felts such as rubber coating for
electrical insulation mats and vibration dumping mats, POP and gypsum mixing for
false ceiling, wool epoxy composites electrical boards and door panel.
Wool Research Association, research and development project on softening of
coarse Indian wools for better utilization in value added products with pliable feel &
handle. Wools from southern and eastern regions like Karnataka, Andhra, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar are very coarse, kempy and often short for any apparel or
carpet purpose. Different softening trials were used with proteolytic enzymes. It was
found that the critical buckling force and flexural rigidity decreases with increase in the
enzyme concentration. Fall in flexural rigidity indicates the ease in spinning. The
enzyme treated 50% deccani wool was blended with 50% bottle grade polyester fibres
43
and hand spinning was done and the result of this wool polyester blend is used for
making blanket, this blanket again treated with softener to render soft handle and feel.
Furnishing cloth is made using warp of fine wool/polyester blend and weft of
deccani/polyester blend. The furnishing cloth is again softened by the softener treatment
(Bardhan, 2011).
Geeta et al. (2012) conducted a study on “Utilization of deccani wool in
Karnataka”, where sheep rearing practice is more common in Lakkundi, Hirenarthi,
Neglur, Havnoor, Medleri, Kadoli, Hunnur and Narsapur villages. Researches designed
Asanas/mats, wool kambal/blankets, wool bags, hand bags, felt cap and covers for
musical drum, mobile purse, sling purse, which were developed by the local artisans.
The major problems were lack of financial assistance in making products, lack of
demand, transportation, marketing and high commission of middle men while selling
their products.
Thiagarajan (2013) studied the effect of crossbreeding on wool traits in deccani
sheep by using Rambouillet and Corriedale rams, it reared in breeding tract of deccani
sheep in two seasons and recorded wool parameters such as total greasy fleece yield,
staple length, number of crimps per inch, clean fleece weight, shrink percentage, mean
fiber diameter and medullation percentage of each breed group. Values recorded in
deccani breed group were significantly different from other crossbreed groups. It
concludes that cross breeding of sheep improved the wool quality of the native breeds.
2.18. Enzymes
The term "enzyme" is derived from the Greek word "enzymos" which means "in
the cell or ferments". The enzymes are large protein molecules made up of a long chain
of amino acids which are produced by living cells in plants, animals and microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Enzymes therefore possess the characteristic
properties of proteins; they are denatured by heat, precipitated by ethanol or high
concentrations of inorganic salts like ammonium sulfate, and do not dialyze (Sunder
et.al, 2007).
Enzymes are high molecular weight complex proteins, composed of chains of
amino acids linked together by peptide bonds, which are produced by all living cells.
These proteins accelerate specific chemical reactions without undergoing any alteration
44
themselves (act as biological catalysts). Although enzymes are formed in living cells,
they are not living materials (Ashok, 2003).
Many enzymes consist of a protein combined with a low molecular weight
organic molecule called a coenzyme. The protein portion in this instance is referred to
as the apoenzyme. When united, the two forms the complete enzyme is identified as the
holoenzyme (Sundar et.al, 2007).
With the increasingly important requirement for textile manufacturers to reduce
pollution in textile production, the use of enzymes in the chemical processing of fibres
and textiles is rapidly gaining wider recognition because of their non-toxic and ecofriendly characteristics. They can be safely used in a wide selection of textile processes
such as de-sizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing and finishing, as alternatives as against
present usage of very harsh chemicals whose disposal into the environment causes
many problems (Inderpal, 2004).
Enzymes are very effective tools in providing eco-friendly solution to the textile
industry right from pretreatment to finishing in order to produce good quality textiles,
matching the demands of the consumer by replacing the conventional process
(Mahapatra, 2010).
2.19. Role of Enzymes in textile processing
Enzymes are biological catalysts that mediate virtually all of the biochemical
reactions that constitute metabolism in living systems. They accelerate the rate of
chemical reaction without themselves undergoing any permanent chemical change. All
known enzymes are proteins. They, therefore, consist of one or more polypeptide chains
and display properties that are typical of proteins. Enzymes differ from chemical
catalysts in several important ways:
 Enzyme catalyzed reactions are at least several orders of magnitude faster than
chemically catalyzed reactions
 Enzymes typically enhance the reaction rates by 1 to 10 times
 Enzymes have far greater reaction specificity and they rarely form by-product
 Enzymes catalyze reactions under comparatively mild reaction conditions, such as
temperatures below 1000C, atmospheric pressure and pH.
45
2.20. Enzymes in the processing of protein fibre
Three types of enzymes have been identified in the treatment of wool and silk
materials.

Proteases break the polypeptide chain into amines and acids. Proteases are of
two types: peptidases and proteinases. Depending on the site of action
peptidases can be endopeptidases or exopeptidases.

Lipases which hydrolyze fats especially triglycerides and fatty acids.

Lipoprotein lipases which act on the lipoprotein bonds of lipoproteins.
(Sekar, 1999)
2.21. Uses of protease enzymes

Handle modification of protein fibres

Improvement of felting properties

Improvement of printability of wool

Soaking, unhairing, bating, degreasing and waste processing of leather industries

Depilatory agents made with Papain will make the leather more shiny

Degumming of silk

For the pretreatment of cellulosic fibres
(Petry, 2001)
2.22. Use of enzymes in textile processing
The use of enzymes in the textile processing is rapidly gaining wider recognition
because of their non-toxic and eco-friendly characteristic

Desizing

Scouring

Bleach clean up

Finishing

Silk degumming
(Mahapatra, 2007)
2.23. Sources of enzyme
Since all living cells produce enzymes, there are obtainable from the plant
tissues, animal tissues and microorganisms
2.23.1. Bacterial origin
2.23.2. Fungal origin
46
2.23.1. Bacterial origin
α - Amylase
β - Amylase
Protease
Catalase
Xylase
Table 2.11. Bacterial origin enzymes
Bacillus Subtilis, Licheniformis, Stearothermophilus
Bacillus Cereus
Bacillus Coagulans
Micrococcus lysodeicticus
Streptomyces Aebus
(Ashok, 2010)
2.23.2. Fungal origin
Amylase
Cellulose
Protease
Pectinase
Catalase
Table 2.12. Fungal origin enzymes
Aspergillus Niger, Oryzae, Rhizopus Oryzae
Aspergillus Niger, Oryzae, Pencillum Funiculosum,
Rhizopus, Trichoderma Longibrachiatum
Aspergillus Niger, Oryzae
Aspergillus Niger, Oryzae, Pencillium, Funiculosum,
Longibrachiatum
Aspergillus Niger
(Ashok, 2010)
2.24. Classification of enzymes
Enzymes are classified based on their action as follows:
2.24.1. Amylase
Amylases are widely used as desizing agents to remove starch from fabrics after
weaving. Starch is a polysaccharide composed of glucose units. Depending on the
number of branches, types of polymer, amylase and amylopectin are distinguished. The
advantage of these enzymes is that they are specific to starch, removing it without
damaging the support fabric such as cotton and its blends.
2.24.2. Cellulases
Cellulases are used to modify the surface and properties of cellulosic fibres and
fabrics in order to achieve a desired hand or surface effect. Cellulases are also used in
carbonization of wool, which is the process of removing vegetable contamination from
wool such as cellulose and lignin.
2.24.3. Pectinases
Pectin degrading enzymes have received much interest for their use in the
pretreatment of textile fabric prior to dyeing. The removal of pectin components from
the cotton cell wall is claimed to improve fibre hydrophilicity, to facilitate dye
47
penetration and to contribute to substantial water savings when compared to the
traditional alkaline scouring process.
2.24.4. Lipases
Lipases are used as scouring agent to remove wax, pectin’s and natural coloring
matter from cotton. Lipases are used in the textile industry to provide a fabric with
greater absorbency for improved level in dyeing.
2.24.5. Catalases
After the bleaching process, to remove residual hydrogen peroxide, a large
number of rinses or reducing agents are required. Instead of number of washing or
reducing agents, catalases used as oxygen killer, thereby saving water, time and energy.
2.24.6. Proteases
Proteolytic enzymes or proteases catalyse the hydrolysis of certain peptide
bonds in protein molecules. It is an alternative to chlorination and deprickling by
controlled enzyme treatments with proteolytic enzymes to improve softness and reduce
the subjectively perceived prickle of fabrics. Proteases are used in wool and silk
processing industries for processing such as shrink proofing and defuzzing of wool and
degumming of silk. Proteases are divided into four major groups according to the
character of their catalytic active site and conditions of action.
2.24.6.1. Serine proteases:
Serine proteases or serine endopeptidases are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in
proteins, in which serine serves as the nucleophilic amino acid at the (enzyme's) active
site. Enzymes viz. chymotrypsin, trypsin, elastase, thrombin, plasmin and subtilisin are
found ubiquitously in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the active centres of which
contain a serine residue that reacts uniquely with organophosphorous compounds.
2.24.6.2. Cystein proteases:
Cysteine proteases also known as thiol proteases. These proteases share a
common catalytic mechanism that involves a nucleophilic cysteine thiol in a catalytic
dyad. It is commonly encountered in fruits including the papaya, pineapple,
fig and kiwifruit. The proportion of protease tends to be higher when the fruit is unripe
viz. Papain, ficin, bromelain: some cathepsins may be admitted to this group.
48
Papain is a natural enzyme, a kind of endopeptidase enzyme containing
hydrosulfide group (-SH), and its molecular weight is 21000; it is composed by 212
amino acid. Papain is extracted from the milky juice of the unripe papaya by
biotechnological process. It has protease, esterase activity and broad specificity. It has
strong ability of hydrolyzing protein, polypeptide, ester, acid amide and strong synthetic
capacity which can combine protein hydrolyzate into protein substances.
2.24.6.3. Aspartate proteases:
Aspartic proteases are a family of protease enzymes that use an aspartate residue
for catalysis of their peptide substrates. In general, they have two highlyconserved aspartates in the active site and are optimally active at acidic pH. Nearly all
known aspartyl proteases are inhibited by pepstatin. e.g.: Pepsin and rennin are
distinguished by their low optimum pH, which may imply a common mechanism.
Pepsin is an enzyme whose zymogen (pepsinogen) is released by the chief
cells in the stomach and that degrades food proteins into peptides. It was discovered in
1836 by Theodor Schwann, who also coined its name from the Greek word pepsin
meaning digestion. It was the first enzyme to be discovered and it became one of the
first enzymes to be crystallized, by John H. Northrop in 1929. Pepsin is a digestive
protease, a member of the Aspartate protease family.
Pepsin is one of three principal protein-degrading, or proteolytic, enzymes in the
digestive system, the other two being chymotrypsin and trypsin. The three enzymes
were among the first to be isolated in crystalline form.
2.24.6.4. Metallo proteases:
Metalloproteinases or Metalloproteases are enzymes whose catalytic mechanism
involves a metal. e.g.: Carboxypeptidases, aminopeptidase and dipeptidases are
generally exopeptidases; collagenase may be a metal endopeptidase.
(Shukla, 2003)
49
Enzymes are classified based on their reaction are as follows:
Table 2.13. Classification of enzymes based on their reaction
Oxidoreductases Oxidation, reduction reaction
(E.g.: dehdrogenases, oxidases, oxygenases and peroxidases)
Transferases
Transfer of functional group
(E.g.: oxidoreductases and hydrolases)
Hydrolases
Hydrolysis reaction
(E.g.: esterases, glycosidases, lipases and proteases)
Lyases
Addition to double bond or its reverse (E.g.: aldolases,
decarboxylases, dehydratases and some pectinases)
Isomerases
Isomerisation
Ligases
Formation of bonds with ATP cleavages (adenosine tri
phosphate)
(Manickam, 2005)
2.25. Properties of enzymes

Enzymes accelerate reaction.

Enzymes works under optimum conditions.

Enzymes are active only in the limited pH range.

Enzymes have high molecular weight.

Enzymes acts only on specific substrate.

Enzyme action is easy to control.

Enzyme can replace harsh chemicals.

Enzyme is biodegradable and hence, eco-friendly in nature.
(Manickam, 2005)
2.26. Studies related to enzyme treatment
Karin et al. (2001) conducted a research on “Extremozymes for improving wool
properties”. The results showed that improvement of wool properties dyeability, handle,
felting behavior, degree of whiteness and colour fastness of wool fibre is decreased.
Kathiervelu (2002) in his paper on “Enzymatic preparatory processes” which
highlighted on the application of enzymes during different preparatory and finishing
processes. Enzymes were popularly used in the preparatory processes like desizing,
degumming, carbonizing of wool, bleaching and other complimentary process and cited
at the cautions to be taken with pH and temperature of the liquor and quality control of
the enzymatic activity during storage to obtain maximum enzyme efficiency.
50
“Enzymes in textile wet processing” by Verma (2002) provides preliminary
information on properties and uses of enzymes in wet processing of textiles. The paper
reviewed use of enzymes in textile wet processing, which includes desizing, biopolishing, scouring, denim washing, dyeing and so on. Chemically enzymes are protein
complex affected by factors like temperature, pH, activators like metallic cations,
inhibitors like some of the alkalies and antiseptics. Besides many known advantages;
enzymes are still in limited use, hopefully in future the use of enzymes may increase as
they minimize negative environmental effects.
Joao et al. (2004) carried out a research on “Application of transglutaminases in
the modification of wool textiles”. The results revealed significant increase in tensile
strength and reduction in fabric shrinkage.
A report made on “An overview of softening agents for textiles” by Malik et al.
(2004) highlighted the properties and types of softeners used at industrial level for
improving the desired handle and smoothness of synthetic fabrics, the textile softeners
should be non-toxic, sprayable, biodegradable and dermatologically safe. Amphoteric,
anionic, cationic and reactive softeners are popularly used as the softening agents in the
textile finishes. It is concluded that, textile-softening agents are of great importance in
textile finishing and processing to impart better hand and feel, further these softeners
are used to influence the functional properties viz., antistaticity, hydrophilicity,
elasticity, sewability and abrasion resistance.
Autex (2005) had worked on the effect of the enzyme treatment on pilling
behavior of knitted fabrics. The treatment improved the pilling behavior of knitted
fabrics.
Barkhuysen et al. (2005) conducted a study on “Effect of enzyme and oxidative
treatments on the properties of coarse wool and mohair”. The result showed that
enzyme treatment reduced the scale height of the fibers, hardness, feltability and
improved the handle properties of wool and mohair.
Carla et al. (2005) studied treatment of wool with subtilisin and subtilisin- PEG.
It was found that adsorption and diffusion of proteases into wool is dependent on the
size of the protease. The free enzyme penetrates into wool fibre cortex while the
modified bigger enzyme is retained only at the surface in the cuticle layer. The result
revealed that subtilisin-PEG hydrolyzed just the cuticle layer of wool and lowered the
51
release of amino acids into media showing higher tensile strength and lower felting of
the fibre.
Onar et al. (2005) conducted study on “Use of enzymes and chitosan
biopolymer in wool dyeing”. The study reported that Perizym AFW, Alcalase 2.5L,
Savinase 16L and Papain proteases were used to treat wool-woven fabric. The result
showed that proteolytic treatment in combination with chitosan increased loss of tensile
strength, weight loss, degree of whiteness and alkali solubility.
Xiao et.al (2005) “A biological treatment technique for wool textile” studied
about enzymes degradation coupled with H2O2 oxidation. The results demonstrated that
the technique had ideal effects on wool such as better softness, plump and less loss of
bursting stress. Work under in mild reaction conditions, less textile damage and less
textile environmental pollution.
Carla et.al (2006) conducted a study on “Immobilization of proteases with a
water soluble–insoluble reversible polymer for treatment of wool.” It was found that
using the immobilized protease in the enzymatic treatment of wool there was a
reduction of weight and fibre tensile strength loss because the proteolytic attack is not
only limited to the cuticle surfaces of wool fibres.
Jeanette et al. (2006) conducted study on activated peroxide for enzymatic
control of wool shrinkage. The study reported that activated dicyandiamide peroxide
pretreatment is essential to the agricultural research process for it provides a high level
of whiteness without loss in fabric properties and it prepares the wool fiber for
enzymatic treatment, modify wool scales to biopolish the fabric surface, it also provides
itch-free and machine washable wool.
Ramaswamy et al. (2006) conducted a study on “Enzyme treatment of wool and
specialty hair fibers”. This study evaluated the efficiency of enzymes (savinase,
xylanase, resinase and pectinase) on the physical, chemical and structural properties of
wool and specialty hair fibers were evaluated. The result concluded that xylanase and
pectinase were found to clean the fibers as efficiently as soap without causing any
physical damage to the fibers.
Bahi et al. (2007) conducted a study on surface characterization of chemically
modified wool. It was found that treatment of wool fiber with potassium permanganate
in salt solution was assessed using 3D-SEM and the results showed that progressive
52
reduction in the scale height and cuticle smoothing. The effect of a proteolytic
enzymatic treatment on the fiber surface was found to be less uniform with reduced
felting shrinkage and fabric strength.
Cardamone et al. (2007) conducted a study on enzyme (Transglutaminase)
mediated cross linking of wool. The result revealed that TG-treated fabrics remained
biopolished with no alteration in scale smoothing or removal and structure integrity of
the fibers remained inact. Fabric strength was regained with application of
Transglutaminase.
Cardamone et al. (2007) conducted a study on enzyme (Keratin and
Transglutaminase) mediated cross linking of wool. The advantage of using keratin in
TG system is to alleviate strength loss. It was found that SEM analysis showed that the
keratin material coated the fibers to smooth the fiber surface by filling in the scales
protruding above the fiber surface and optimum conditions shows minimized felting
shrinkage, strength loss and weight change.
Shen et al. (2007) studied on development and industrialization of enzymatic
shrink-resist process based on modified proteases for wool machine washability. It was
reported that the novel modification of the enzyme does controlled the reaction and less
degradation of the wool occurs with native Esperase. The results of modified protease
treatment showed that anti-felting effect has been achieved without any significant
weight loss.
Different proteolytic enzymes from Bacillus lentus and Bacillus subtilis in
native and PEG-modified forms and their influence on the modification of wool fibres
morphology surface, chemical structure, hydrolysis of wool proteins and physicomechanical properties work was investigated by Suzana et al. (2007). Results of SEM
images of wool fibres confirmed smoother and cleaner fibre surfaces without fibre
damages using PEG-modified proteases and found to be effective on the wool fibres
felting behaviours (14%) PEG-modified B. lentus. Fibre damage expressed by tensile
strength and weight loss of the fibre.
Amara et al. (2008) conducted a research on wool quality improvement using
thermophilic crude proteolytic microbial enzymes. The result of these proteases are
being used to decrease the felting tendency of wool and to improve the feel of the
fabrics by imparting soft and smooth handle. The scanning electron microscope
revealed the improving quality of the wool fiber surface.
53
El-Gabry et al. (2008) performed study on effect of mechanical and
enzymatic treatments on some properties of coarse wool. Wool fibers treated with
sodium sulfite and the proteolytic enzyme savinase 16L and type EX. Result revealed
that treated wool fibers have better dyeability with acid, reactive, and basic dyes than
the untreated wool fibers and felting resistance of wool has been enhanced to an
acceptable degree.
Gholamreza et al. (2008) conducted a research on “Comparison of surface
modification of wool fibres using pronase, trypsin, papain and pepsin”. The study
revealed that effectiveness of these enzymes on the surface of wool was studied by
scanning microscopy (SEM). Comparison of result micrographs showed that papain is
more proteolytically efficient for wool fiber morphology.
Kholiya et al. (2008) conducted a study on “optimization of process conditions
for cellulose enzyme treatment of woolen fabric.” It was found that cellulose enzyme
for wool finishing is more beneficial compared to conventional methods. Cellulose
enzymes are used for scouring of woollen fabric result in weight and tensile strength
loss.
Mishra et al. (2008) conducted a study on “Relationship between loss and
amino-acid released in protease treatment of wool-hair blended fabric.” The study was
carried out on merino:angora (65:35) blended fabric treated with three proteolytic
enzymes viz., trypsin, pepsin and papain at three concentrations. The result revealed a
significant relationship between weight loss and amino acids released for the fabrics
treated with protease enzymes. Trypsin and papain enzymes were more effective than
pepsin as they released more amino acids by dissolving protruding fibers.
Fengyan et al. (2009) performed a study on transglutaminase treatment for
improving wool fabric properties. Through transglutaminase treatment results shown
that yarn strength was improved about 22.2 per cent. The knitted wool fabrics treated
with transglutaminase after pretreatment of H2O2 and protease displayed 7.5 per cent of
area shrinkage and about 22.3 per cent recovery in tensile strength when compared with
those treated without transglutaminase. Also, transglutaminase treatment could
improve the wettability and dyeing properties of wool fabrics. With the increase of
transglutaminase concentration, the initial dye exhaustion increased significantly and
the time to reach the dyeing equilibrium was shortened.
54
Hossain et al. (2009) conducted a study on multifunctional modification of wool
using an enzymatic process in aqueous-organic media. The enzymatic coating of wool
with lauryl gallate provided a multifunctional textile material with antioxidant,
antibacterial and water repellent properties in a one-step process.
Muthukumar et al. (2009) provided the details about the enzymatic processing
of textiles. In textile processing the enzyme can be successfully used for preparatory
process like desizing, scouring and bleaching which reveal similar results as that of
conventional methods. This process can reduce the water consumption, power energy,
pollution, time and increasing quality.
Ping et al. (2009) studied on “Effects of cutinase on the enzymatic shrink-resist
finishing of wool fabrics.” It has been found that wettability of wool fabric was
improved after cutinase treatment compared with that of the sample pretreated with
hydrogen peroxide. The weight loss of the sample treated with cutinase was similar to
that of the fabric treated with hydrogen peroxide. The encouraging shrink-resistance and
weakened fiber damage were also achieved after the combination of cutinase and
protease treatments. Results showed that the combination of cutinase and protease
treatment improved the dyeability of the wool fabrics mainly due to the enhancement of
the wettability and the uniform removal of outer cuticle during the protease treatment.
Mahapatra (2010) discussed the use of enzymes in textile processing. Enzymes
are a very effective tool in providing eco- friendly solution to the textile industry. The
use of enzymes in the textile processing industry is rapidly gaining wider recognition
because of their non-toxic and eco-friendly characteristics and can be safely used in the
processing of fibre, tops, yarn, fabric and garments.
Raja et al. (2010) had done comparative study on the effect of acid and alkaline
protease enzyme treatments on wool for improving handle and shrink resistance. The
action of the enzymes on wool shrink resistance and handle of the treated fabrics is
characterized using SEM, FT‐IR and KES‐F method. Result reveal that acid protease
treated fabrics show 30% higher softness than alkaline protease treated fabrics with 72
and 62% lower weight and strength losses, respectively. The alkaline peroxide
bleaching prior to acid protease treatment provides 100 and 67% higher whiteness and
shrinkage resistance, respectively, to wool than the acid peroxide bleaching.
55
Yordanov et al. (2010) conducted a study on biotechnological treatment of
effluent from the combined enzymatic ultrasound scouring of raw wool. The results of
this study indicate that the purify protease-ultrasound raw wool washing waste water up
to 98 per cent of COD and BOD values after 72 hours of anaerobic treatment.
Betcheva et al. (2011) conducted a study on application of ultrasound at the
process of raw wool scouring and the influence of proteases on the felting properties of
wool. It was found that ultrasound environment applied does not impair the specific
activity of enzyme auxiliaries used and leads to increasing effect on the surface of wool
fibres. This study could be used for developing of a technology producing lower amount
and less polluted effluents.
Allam (2011) studied on improving functional characteristics of wool and some
synthetic fibres. Enzymes are used to overcome disadvantages properties such as
shrinkage, pilling, hydrophilic, etc. for wool and synthetic fibers. Sericin used for
effecting anti felting properties of wool. Moreover casein, a natural polymer was carried
and to improve the surface of acrylic fabrics. The application of cyclodextrins on wool,
acrylic, polyamide and polyester led to reduce shrinkage, felting and pilling. This
application led to antimicrobial, hydrophilic, soil-resistant, etc. These are non-toxic and
biodegradable, offering “green” solutions to enhance these important functionalities for
textile.
Ammayappan et al. (2011) conducted a study on the effect of enzymatic
pretreatment on physico-chemical and mechanical properties of woolen yarn. The
results showed that the protease enzyme pretreatment on woolen yarn enhances the
aesthetic properties like whiteness, moisture regain and dyeability with loss in weight
and tensile strength in a suitable limit.
Ammayappan et al. (2011) a comparative study on effect of alkaline and neutral
protease, enzyme pretreatment followed by finishing treatments on performance
properties of wool/cotton union fabric. Savinase pretreatment had an influencing effect
on handle and smoothness properties while papain pretreatment had improved comfort
and mechanical properties.
Ammayappan et al. (2011) studied the effect of protease/lipase enzyme pretreated by polysiloxane based combination finishing on handle properties of wool:
cotton union. Union fabric was pre-treated with savinase. The results inferred that both
56
the enzymes improve handle of the union fabric irrespective of their nature and
subsequent combination finishing improves the handle further.
Anna et al. (2011) conducted a research on the enzymatic treatment of wool
fibres and changes in selected properties of wool. In wool fibres, it is possible to
substitute conventional chlorine treatment by the enzymatic process, which enables to
receive a fabric of the same level of anti-shrinking and anti-felting properties. The
result showed that application of enzymes has an important influence on changes in the
surface structure, which are accompanied by changes in certain physic-chemical
properties of wool fibres and fabrics.
Amara et al. (2012) conducted a study on “Factors affecting the wool sensitivity
to enzymatic treatments”. This study concern with establishing simple process for wool
fiber improvements by technical enzymes particularly keratinases and protease used for
improving the wool fibers quality and investigated using scanning electron microscope.
Amara et al. (2012) conducted a study on “Back to natural fiber: wool color
influences its sensitivity to enzymatic treatment”. The results revealed that white wool
was more susceptible to the enzymatic treatment than blackish brown wool. This proves
that the enzymatic reaction is sensitive to the natural color differences between wool
fibers. Electron microscope has been used to evaluate the end result.
A research on the potential use of alkaline protease from streptomyces
albidoflavus as an eco-friendly wool modifier was studied. The result revealed that it
improved the extent of removal of the cuticle membrane, hydrophilicity of wool
surface, degree of whiteness as well as the extent of post acid dyeing (Ibrahim et al.,
2012).
57
MATERIAL
AND
METHOD
58
Chapter III
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This chapter deals with the selection methods of Deccani wool fibre to fabric
and evaluation of its performance properties. Deccani wool fibre was selected and the
fibre was softened with protease enzymes to improve its spinnability. The treated fibre
and untreated fibre was made into a continuous yarn with the help of weaver’s hand
spinning technique. The yarn was woven into fabric with weaving variations. The
properties of untreated Deccani wool fabrics and treated fabrics were evaluated by
following BIS procedures under standard atmospheric conditions. The selection of
materials and methods for this study consisted of the following sequence:
3.1. Selection of raw materials
3.1.1. Selection of fibre
3.1.2. Shearing method of Deccani wool fibre
3.1.3. Selection of enzymes
3.2. Experimental procedure
3.2.1. Optimization of enzyme concentration
3.2.2. Assessment of physical properties of enzyme treated deccani wool fibre
3.2.3. Enzyme treatment on fibre
3.3. Processing of fibre to yarn
3.3.1. Carding of deccani wool fibre
3.2.2. Spinning of fibre into yarn
3.4. Weaving of the fabric
3.4.1. Cotton yarn preparation
3.4.2. Warp preparation
3.4.3. Weft preparation
3.4.4. Plain and twill weave design variations
3.4.5. Selection of weaving center
3.5. Selection of test methods
3.5.1. Objective evaluation
3.5.2. Laboratory testing of fabrics
3.5.3. Atmospheric conditions
3.5.4. Preparation of test specimens
59
3.5.5. Geometrical properties
3.5.5.1. Fabric yarn count
3.5.5.2. Fabric count
3.5.5.3. Fabric weight
3.5.6. Handle properties
3.5.6.1. Fabric thickness
3.5.6.2. Stiffness
3.5.6.3. Drape co- efficient
3.5.7. Comfort properties
3.5.7.1. Air permeability
3.5.7.2. Thermal conductivity
3.5.8. Mechanical properties
3.5.8.1. Tensile strength
3.5.8.2. Pilling
3.5.8.3. Abrasion resistance
3.5.9. Estimation of finishing cost
3.5.10. Subjective evaluation
3.5.11. Statistical analysis
3.1. Selection of raw materials
3.1.1. Selection of fibre
Popular varieties of Deccan plateau wool in Andhra Pradesh namely, Nellore
mixed white, Deccani brown with black and Deccani black were selected for study, as
shown in figure 3.1.
Pilot study was conducted in order to assess the strength of the Deccan plateau
wool fibre varieties by tensile strength tester in the Department of Textile and
Engineering, DKTE (Dattajirao Kadam Technical Education) Society’s Institute Textile
and Engineering, Rajwada, Ichalkaranji, Kolhapur Dist, Maharashtra.
Based on the observation of the tested fibre varieties, deccani black variety was
selected for the study.
60
Nellore mixed white
Deccani brown with black
Deccani black
Figure 3.1. Available varieties of deccani sheep in Andhra Pradesh
Deccani black fibre utilized for the study was procured from Deccani Wool
Society that belongs to shepherd (kurba) community from Shankerpally village, Ranga
reddy district, Hyderabad. Fibres were randomly taken from different body parts of the
sheep. Therefore, fibre length varied from 2 to 6 inches.
3.1.2. Shearing method of Deccani wool fibre
3.1.2.1. Prewashing
Fleece is too dirty and it contained many impurities and vegetable matter. A day
before shearing, sheep was washed in ponds to remove the natural impurities, oils and
other dust present on the fibre. It was left one day for drying to remove the moisture
content in the fibres.
3.1.2.2. Shearing of deccani wool fibre
Sheep shearing is the process by which the woollen fleece of a sheep is cut off.
The person who removes the sheep's wool is called a ‘shearer’. Typically each adult
sheep is sheared twice a year. Shearing is done by Kurma community with the help of
traditional scissors.
61
Figure 3.2.(a). Traditional scissors
(b). Shearing
3.1.2.3. Scouring
Raw wool contains dirt, grease and sand. To remove contaminants, the wool is
scoured before enzyme treatment and subjected to washing under the following
conditions:
Flow chart:
Neutral soap or Non-ionic detergent (2gms per liters)
Material liquor ratio (1:50)
Dissolve soap in water
Scouring fibre at 50oC in the prepared soap solution for 45mins
Rinse under running water till it is free from soap
Dried in shade
3.1.3. Selection of enzyme
Enzymes are biocatalysts, without which no life in plant or animal kingdom can
be sustained. Enzymes are complex molecules and proteases are the main class of
enzyme used for modifying protein fibre surfaces. Utilization of protease enzymes can
improve some physical and mechanical properties of protein fibres such as smoothness,
drapability, water absorbency and dyeing affinity. Two laboratory grade protease
enzymes Papain and Pepsin (Rolex Chemical Industries, Mumbai) were selected for the
study.
62
3.2. Experimental Procedure
3.2.1. Optimization of enzyme concentration
To standardize the softening treatments on Deccani wool fibre, two varieties of
enzymes namely Papain and Pepsin with three different concentrations of 1, 2 and 3
percentages were selected for the study. 100 grams of fibre was weighed and used for
enzyme treatment. Based on the weight of fibre the enzyme requirement was calculated
for providing concentration of 1, 2 and 3 percentages with M: L ratio of 1:30. To attain
the stable pH 5 for proteolytic enzyme in the solution, buffer is needed. Fibre was
placed in the solution for 30 minutes under continuous rotation. Later it was rinsed and
dried in shade.
3.2.2. Assessment of physical properties of enzyme treated deccani wool fibre
The enzyme treated Deccani wool fibres were subjected to physical testing to
determine the quality parameters which play a major role in evaluation of the quality of
the fabric.
3.2.2.1. Determination of moisture
Moisture content is the weight of moisture in a material expressed as a
percentage of the total weight of the material and moisture regain is the weight of
moisture in a material expressed as a percentage of the oven dry weight of the material
(Angappan and Gopalakrishnan, 1997).
As per the test method IS 6637-1972, specimen of wool is weighed in its
original condition, immediately transferred to the sample container and sealed. Then
dried under standard conditions to get constant mass in an oven at 105±3°C and then
weight was calculated. The loss in mass of the specimen is taken as the loss of moisture
to calculate the moisture regain and moisture content.
M1 = Original weight of the sample
M2 = Oven dry weight of the sample
Weight of moisture = M1-M2
Moisture Content M =
Weight of moisture
x 100
Original weight of the sample
63
M1-M2
=
X 100
M1
Moisture Regain R =
Weight of moisture
x 100
Oven weight of the sample
M1-M2
=
X 100
M2
3.2.2.2. Linear density
IS 234-1973, test method was used to test fineness of the fibre. Tuft having
known number of fibres (at least 1000 fibers) were cut at the middle to a known length
with the help of two razor blades set parallel in a holder and under the minimum tension
necessary to remove crimp. The mass and total length of cut fibres was determined,
from which the linear density was calculated.
Linear density = Mass / Total length of cut fibers in each tuft
Then, the mean, linear density for all the tufts from the values obtained for each
tuft was determined.
3.2.2.3. Fibre tenacity (gms/tex)
The maximum load (force) suggested for test specimen in a tensile test was
carried out to rupture, is the breaking load or the tensile strength of the fibre. The
breaking strength of the fibre determined is usually taken as an index of fibre quality
and is expressed either in grams or pounds. The specimens were tested on Instron 5565
machine with the 10mm/min testing speed, CRE principle in the DKTC’S Institute of
Textile and Engineering, Rajwada, Ichalkaranji, Kolhapur Dist, Maharashtra.
Tenacity =
Breaking load in gm
Linear density
Nominal rupture energy = 0.5 x Tenacity x Breaking strain
Toughness (or) nominal rupture (work of rupture): it is defined as the energy required to
break a material or total work done to break that material.
Secant modulus =
Tenacity
Strain at break
64
3.2.2.4. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis
The dried wool samples were mounted over the stubs with double-sided carbon
conductivity tape subjected for vacuum desiccated for 2 hours and a thin layer of gold
coat over the samples were done by using an automated sputter coater (Model- JEOL
JFC- 1600) for 3 minutes and scanned under Scanning Electron Microscope (SEMModel: JOEL-JSM 5600) at required magnifications as per the standard procedures at
RUSKA lab, College of Veterinary Science, SVVU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.
3.2.3. Enzyme treatment on fibre
Based on the SEM analysis and properties of the tested samples, one per cent of
both enzymes were selected for the study. To optimize the enzyme treatment process
parameters such as temperature, pH, time and M:L ratios were maintained, as shown in
table 3.1.
Table: 3.1. Parameters and operational ranges of enzymes
Parameters
Operational range
Temperature
40o -60o C
pH
5
Time
30 minutes
Papain and Pepsin
Concentration
1, 2 & 3%
M: L ratio
1:30
3.2.3.1. Buffer:
Buffer is
an aqueous
solution that
has
a
highly
stable pH.
By
adding acid or base to a buffer solution, pH will not change significantly.
3.2.3.2. Preparation of buffers
Each of the enzymes acts/reacts in certain conditions, the buffer systems were
prepared for optimum pH. Citrate phosphate buffer was required for Papain, where as
pepsin required Hcl / Kcl buffer (Gholamreza et al., 2008).
3.2.3.2.1. Citrate phosphate buffer for papain
(a) 0.2 M Na2HPO4 : 35.6 g/l (dihydrate; M.W. 178.0) or
53.6 g/l (heptahydrate; M.W. 268.0)
(b) 0.1 M citric acid: 19.21 g/l (M.W.: 192.1)
65
Table 3.2. Preparation of citrate phosphate buffer
0.2 M Na2HPO4 (ml) 0.1M Citrate (ml)
25.7
pH
24.3
5
As shown in the table 3.2. stock solution of 0.2 M dibasic sodium phosphate and
0.1 M citric acid were mixed and the final volume was adjusted to 100 ml with
deionized water to get final pH, which was ensured by using sensitive pH meter
(Pearse,1980). For the present study 30lts of buffer was required, which was calculated
as below:
100ml buffer = 0.91g Na2HPO4, 0.46g citric acid
3.2.3.2.2. Hydrochloric Acid-Potassium Chloride Buffer (Hcl-Kcl) for pepsin
(a) 0.1 M Potassium chloride (Kcl): 7.45 g/l (M.W.: 74.5)
(b) 0.1 M Hydrochloric acid (Hcl)
Table 3.3. Preparation of Hcl-Kcl buffer
ml of Hcl
pH
ml of Kcl
50
1.2
5
As shown in the table 3.3. stock solution of 0.1 M potassium chloride and 0.1 M
hydrochloric acid were mixed and the final volume was adjusted to 100 ml with
deionized water to get final pH, which was ensured by using sensitive pH meter. For the
present study 30lts of buffer was required, which was calculated as below:
100ml buffer =0.37g Kcl, 1.2ml Hcl
Enzyme was added to the prepared buffer solution in which fibres was immersed
for 30 min. Later, the fibres were rinsed and dried in shade, as shown in figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3. Enzyme treated Deccani wool fibre
66
3.3. Processing of fibre to fabric
3.3.1. Carding of Deccani wool fibre
Carding is a mechanical process that disentangles, cleans and intermix fibers to
produce a continuous web or sliver suitable for subsequent processing. This is achieved
by passing the fibers between differentially moving surfaces covered with carding. It
breaks up locks and unorganized lumps of fibre and then aligns the individual fibres to
be parallel with each other as show in the figure 3.4. Wool weaver’s Industrial
Cooperative Society Ltd. was selected for carding in Chevella village of Ranga Reddy
district, Hyderabad.
Figure 3.4. Carding process of Deccani wool fibre
3.3.2. Spinning of fibre into yarn
The fibre was spun into yarn manually by takli. Spinning was done by twirling
the spindle with the other free hand, then with the same hand the fibre was drawn out
and released. The spindle was spun again and kept rotating. Yarn was prepared by
repeating this process to obtain uniform twist and fineness of yarn.
Figure 3.5. Hand spinning (takli)
67
Taklis are traditionally used spinning equipment, that is light weight and
portable, but is time consuming & high skill oriented process. Use of spinning wheel
can speedy the process, but all the craftsmen cannot perform in the same pace. It takes
20–30 hours to spin 1 kg of yarn as shown in figure 3.5.
3.4. Weaving of the fabric
Weaving is one of the processes of fabric manufacturing where two sets of yarns
i.e., warp and wefts are interlaced at right angles to each other. Weaves are categorized
as plain, twill & satin, depending on the interlacement of yarns. Three design variations
of plain & twill weaves were selected for the present study. 26s colored cotton yarn
(NeC) and 2-3s (WC) of hand spun deccani wool yarn was used for warp & weft
direction depending on design variations. Table 3.4. describes loom particulars.
Table 3.4. Loom particulars of Deccani wool fabrics
S. no
Particulars
Fabrics
1.
Type of loom
Handloom
2.
Reed count
20’s
3.
Reed width
60”
4.
Cloth width
40”
5.
Denting order
1 thread in each dent
6.
Selvedge denting order 2 threads in each dent
3.4.1. Cotton yarn preparation
As cotton yarn has good strength, comfort and appeal, it was selected in
weaving for design variation. Cotton yarn was dyed in pink and green colours using vat
dyes which have good fastness to light, wash, crocking and perspiration. Yarn was
measured according to required amount for warp and weft variation in spinning. Yarn
was dyed in two colours with 2 per cent vat dye, using caustic and hydrose, which was
dyed at Weaver Service Center Nampally, Hyderabad.
3.4.2. Warp preparation
Warp yarn on the loom should be knot free and uniform. Knots made after yarn
breakage should be of standard size, enabling them to pass easily through the heddles
and reeds of the loom. The warp should be uniformly sized and the amount of size
added must be sufficient to protect the yarn from abrasion at the heddles and reed so as
to prevent the formation of hairy surface on the warp threads, as shown in fig. 3.6. and
68
3.7. Warp must be parallel and each must be wound on to the loom beam at an even and
equal tension; so as to maintain its correct length without any breakage.
Figure 3.6. Warp measuring and sizing
Figure 3.7. Denting & Warping
Prepared warp was transferred from the warp beam to weaver’s beam, which was
placed behind a loom. A weaver’s beam usually contains several ends depending upon
the width of the fabric and reed count of loom.
3.4.3. Weft preparation
On conventional looms the weft yarn was inserted by means of shuttle carrying
a bobbin. This bobbin is tapered at the end so that the yarn may be pulled without
interruption through the eye of the shuttle as the shuttle travels from one side of the
loom to the other. Charkha is used for winding yarn on bobbin as shown in figure 3.8.
69
Figure 3.8. Winding of weft yarn using charka
3.4.4. Plain and twill weave design variations
In the present study, plain and twill woven variations were done for untreated
and treated are as follows:
Table: 3.5. Plain and twill weave design variations
Plain weave
Twill weave
Warp
Weft
Warp
Weft
100% - deccani
100% - deccani
100% - deccani
100% - deccani
wool
wool
wool
wool
50% cotton,
100% - deccani
50% cotton,
100% - deccani
50% deccani wool wool
50% deccani wool
wool
50% cotton,
50% cotton,
50% cotton,
50% cotton,
50% deccani wool 50% deccani wool 50% deccani wool
50% deccani wool
Plain and twill weave design variations made into total 18 samples, out of which
six control, six enzyme-I treated and six enzyme-II treated samples were prepared.
3.4.4.1. Plain weave
In plain weave, each weft yarn goes alternately over and under one warp yarn
and vice versa as shown in figure. 3.9. Since it has maximum number of binding points
with limited thread density gives fabric symmetrical structure with good stability and
reasonable porosity, hence termed as 1/1 weave.
Figure 3.9. Plain weave (repeat)
70
3.4.4.2. Twill weave
Twill weave is the second basic weave of fabric construction that forms a
diagonal line on fabric surface, which makes it strong and durable. The diagonal
interlacements provide greater pliability and resistance than the plain weave. Changes in
the direction and angle of wales produce variations in twill weave. Twill weave have
less binding points, more ends and picks per unit area than plain weave. 2/2 twill weave
was used for sample preparation.
Figure 3.10. 2/2 Right hand twill (repeat)
3.4.5. Selection of weaving center
Fabrication of samples was performed at ‘Weaver’s Service Center’, Nampally,
Hyderabad.
Figure 3.11. Weaving process on handloom.
71
Control (C) - Plain weave fabrics
Enzyme treated (E1) - Plain weave fabrics
Enzyme treated (E2) - Plain weave fabrics
72
Control (C) - Twill weave
fabrics
Enzyme treated (E1) - Twill weave fabrics
Enzyme treated (E2) - Twill weave fabrics
Figure 3.12. Designed deccani wool fabrics
73
3.5. Selection of test methods
3.5.1. Objective evaluation
The main focus of the study was to develop an eco- friendly process and asses
the performance characteristics of treated and untreated fabrics. To analyze these
characteristics the standard test procedures laid by Bureau of Indian Standards and
ASTM were followed.
3.5.2. Laboratory testing of fabric
The laboratory testing of the samples was carried in the testing laboratory at the
Department of Apparel & Textiles, College of Home science, Hyderabad under
standard conditions.
3.5.3. Atmospheric conditions for testing
For testing of textile materials in the laboratory standard atmosphere has to be
maintained. The testing samples were conditioned in an atmosphere with a relative
humidity of 65±2 percent and temperature of 20°±2°C prior to testing for 24 hrs as per
BIS standards.
3.5.4. Preparation of test specimens
The test specimens were prepared by cutting the samples as per the templates
and procedures laid by Bureau of Indian Standards, 1968. The test specimens were cut
from various portions of the fabric; both warp way and weft way directions, in order to
obtain a reliable and complete idea of the properties of the fabric.
3.5.5. Geometrical Properties
The geometrical properties of the conditioned fabric such as yarn count, fabric
count and fabric weight were investigated.
3.5.5.1. Yarn count
The count of the yarn is numerical expression, which defines its fineness.
Yarn count of fabrics was determined by the indirect method to know the fineness of
the wool yarn done on British worsted system (Booth, 1983). Worsted count or spinning
count is an indirect measure of the fineness of the fiber in a worsted wool yarn
expressed as the number of 560-yard length hanks of worsted yarn that a pound
453.6gms of wool yields. In the indirect system, yarn count number refers to the
74
number of length units in a given weight of yarn. The higher the yarn count number, the
finer or thinner the yarn.
N= L x w / I x W
Where,
N = count of yarn (linear density)
L = length of the sample taken.
W = weight of test sample
I = unit length of the sample (560 yards)
w = unit weight of the sample (1 pound = 453.6gms)
3.5.5.2. Fabric count
ISI 1963-1969 test method was used to count the number of threads per inch of
the fabric. It was determined using pick glass having a magnifying lens and a pointer,
which travelled along the graduated base. The counting glass with a pointer at zero was
placed on the specimen in such a way that the pointer was parallel to the set of threads
being counted. Fabric count was found by counting the number of threads per inch and
average fabric count from five places on the fabric, both warp way and weft way was
calculated separately.
3.5.5.3. Fabric weight (GSM)
Fabric weight is mass per unit area (ASTM 2007). The weight of a known size
of fabric specimen was measured using a sensitive balance as per IS NO: 1964-1970.
The fabric was gripped between cutter base and rubber pad. The cutter top was rotated
gently clockwise direction for accurate cutting of fabric. Accordingly circular
specimens of 11.2 cm diameter were cut rapidly and accurately. The cut fabric can be
weighed by using a sensitive balance capable of weighing to an accuracy of 0.0001mg.
Five test specimens were cut from each test fabric. The weight of each specimen was
determined accurately and average weight of all five test specimens of each fabric was
calculated and presented in GSM (g/m2).
GSM of the fabric = weight of the circular specimen x 100
75
3.5.6. Handle Properties
3.5.6.1. Fabric thickness
Thickness and surface thickness of the fabric are useful indicators of any change
or variation in the fabric handle and appearance (Booth, 1983). The fabric was kept
between the two parallel lines and a known arbitrary pressure was applied between the
plates and maintained throughout the test. Then the distance between plates was
measured by digital gauge. The test specimens were conditioned for 24 hrs prior to
testing. The testing was measured at least in 10 areas and the mean value was
calculated. Care was taken to raise the pressure foot very slowly maintaining the same
pressure.
3.5.6.2. Stiffness
Fabric stiffness is the key factor in the study of handle and drape (Booth, 1983).
Bending length was determined by Shirley fabric stiffness tester and flexural rigidity
was calculated from the bending length values. As per the test method IS 6490-1971,
five warp way and weft way specimens from each test fabric were cut using template.
The lengthwise direction of the warp specimen was parallel to the selvedge and
crosswise direction for weft way specimens was perpendicular to selvedge. The sample
was transferred to the platform along with the scale keeping the fabric underneath. The
zero of the scale was coincided with the leading edge of the specimen and pushed
forward until the tip of the specimen viewed in the mirror coincide both the index lines.
The bending length was read from the scale. Four readings from each specimen with
side up, first at one end then at the other end were noted. The mean bending length of
each specimen was calculated.
From this bending length the flexural rigidity was calculated using the formula.
A) Bending length : C = L/2 cm
L = the mean length of overhanging portion in centimeters
B) Flexural rigidity : G = W × (L/2)3 mg-cm
W = weight per unit area of the fabric in milligrams per square centimeter
C) Overall flexural rigidity : G0 : √Gw × Gf
Gw = warp way flexural rigidity
Gf = weft way flexural rigidity
76
3.5.6.3. Drape
Measurement of drape answers the ability of a fabric to assume a graceful
appearance in use (Booth, 1983). This was determined as per ISI 8357-1957 using
BTRA drape meter. A circular fabric specimen of 25 cm was cut using a circular
template. Five specimens from each fabric were tested both on the face and back of the
fabric. The specimen was placed between on two supporting discs of 12.5 cm diameter
on the instrument. Portions of the fabric specimen extending beyond the periphery of
the disc bent downwards and fell into folds. The projected area of the draped specimen
was considered as a measure of the extent of drape. A planner projection of the contour
of the draped specimen was recorded on a light sensitive paper after 5 minutes of
exposure. The paper was placed in a developing box with few milliliters of strong
ammonia solution. The developed pattern on the paper was cut along the outline and its
area was determined.
The draping coefficient percent was calculated using the formula;
Drape coefficient (F) = w/W-a×100
A-a
W – Mass per unit area of the paper
w- Mass of draped pattern
a – area of circle of 12.5 cm diameter = 122.8
A- Area of circle of 25cm diameter = 491.1cm2
3.5.7. Comfort Properties
3.5.7.1. Air permeability
This was conducted to test the property of the fabric for its relationship to air as
permeability is desirable in clothing (Booth, 1983). The air permeability of a fabric is
the volume of air measured in cubic centimeters passed per second through one square
cm of water. The test samples were cut from each fabric using template provided.
Fabric specimen was clamped between the upper clamping unit and the suction head.
The airflow regulating valve was closed completely and the level of liquid was adjusted
to ‘0’ by adjusting the zero knobs. The suction fan was started by switching on the
motor with regulating valve gradually open by turning the knob anticlockwise. One of
the suitable flow meters was selected by opening the corresponding on/off valve. When
the special pressure difference was shown on the pressure nanometer, corresponding air
volume passing through the flow meter tube was read off one hour through a 10 mm
77
water head. The reading of one hour was converted into air permeability unit as per BIS
standard which is given as follows;
Air permeability (cm3/cm2/s) = air volume passing through the specimen (1/hr)
× 1/36 (factor)
3.5.7.2. Thermal conductivity
Fabric’s thermal conductivity is one of the important factors that influence the
effectiveness of body comfort (Booth, 1983). This property was determined using
SASMIRA thermal conductivity apparatus following ASTM D-1518-64. Five samples
from each of the test fabrics were cut using the template. The guard box and heater box
were put on and set to heat up to 500C.when the indicator showed this temperature, the
hot plate heater was switched on. The sample was placed on the hot plate with another
disc on the top i.e., the fabric specimen was between the two hot plates. The
temperature of the hotplate was allowed to rise up to 500C and the time taken for
cooling from 50oC to 490C was recorded using a stop watch. Then the time taken to
cool the fabric for half degree centigrade was calculated. The average of the readings
was converted into CLO value using a graph.
3.5.8. Mechanical Properties
3.5.8.1. Tensile strength
The breaking strength is a measure of resistance of fabric to a tensile load or
stress in either warp or weft direction (Booth, 1983). The DAK Tensile Tester was used
to determine the tensile strength and elongation of the test fabrics by ravel strip method.
Five warp way and weft way specimens were cut to dimensions of 32.5×6cm and
material was raveled on either side to ½ cm. Raveled samples were inserted between the
clamps of the testing machine gripped securely along the full width following the test
method prescribed by IS 1969-1968. The clamps of the testing machine were set so that
the distance between them was 30 cm long. The jaws were aligned and made parallel so
that the load was applied uniformly across the full specimen width. Load of 500Kgs
was used. Before starting, the test speed required to operate the test was mentioned i.e
30mm/min was used. When the machine was operated the elongation and breaking load
were recorded in the computer system with strength in kilogram force (kgf) and
elongation of the specimen in centimeters. (Booth, 1983).
78
3.5.8.2. Pilling
Pilling affects adversely the handle of the fabric and consequently deteriorates
the comfort lending qualities of the fabric (Booth, 1983). To know the resistance of
fabric to forms pills on its surface when braided ICI pilling box tester was used. Five
specimens of size 5×5 inch from each test fabric were cut using the template. The edges
were sewed and placed firmly round a rubber tube measuring six inches long. The cut
ends of the fabric were covered with cellophane tape and placed in the box lined with
cork of 1/8 inch thick. The box was rotated at 60 revolutions per minute for five hours.
The specimens were later assessed visually by comparison with the arbitrary I, II and
III. [I- become hairy and does not pill, II- become hairy and pill slightly and III- become
hairy and pill more severely]
3.5.8.3 Abrasion resistance
The Martindale abrasion tester was used to determine the abrasion resistance of
the fabric. Five test specimens was cut using the template and weighed. The samples
were fixed in test sample holders and the counter was set to 2000 cycles. The degree of
wear was determined by loss of weight. The average loss of five specimens was noted
and converted to percentage of weight loss using the following formula.
Weight loss (%) = Original wt - Wt. after abrasion x 100
Original weight
3.5.9. Estimation of finishing cost
The cost of production of the fabric was calculated by taking in consideration
the cost of fibre, enzymes, buffer, carding, spinning and weaving charges of each fabric.
3.5.10. Subjective evaluation
Subjective evaluation was under taken to assess the consumer opinion and
preferences regarding the eco-friendly finishing of the fabric. A panel of 30 judges
comprising of staff, students of College of Home Science, Hyderabad and other
consumers were selected for evaluation. A schedule was developed and data was
collected on texture, thickness, stiffness, drape and overall appearance in comparison
with the control fabric to evaluate the developed fabrics. WMS- weighted mean scoring;
5 point scale was used. [4-Highly, 3-Moderate, 2-Fair, 1-Poor and 0-Very poor]
WMS =
Multiply frequency with weightage, sum up the figure
Total size of samples
79
3.5.11. Statistical Analysis
The data obtained from the laboratory test was compiled and the mean values
were calculated. Two way ANOVA (Factorial, CRD) test was adopted for analyzing the
efficiency of the enzyme on various fabrics.
80
RESULTS
AND
DISCUSSION
81
Chapter IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Deccani wool fibres are coarser variety of wool, mostly used for making
kambalis (blanket) available in Andhra Pradesh. To improvise their end usage and
revival of livelihood, an attempt was made to construct fabrics with proteolytic enzymes
treated fibres. Suitability of the fabric was assessed through subjective and objective
evaluation. The acquired data was analyzed statistically.
4.1. Selection of fibre variety
4.2. Properties of enzyme treated fibres
4.3. SEM analysis
4.4. Laboratory tests
4.4.1. Geometrical parameters
4.4.1.1. Yarn count
4.4.1.2. Fabric count
4.4.1.3. Fabric weight (GSM)
4.4.2. Handle properties
4.4.2.1. Fabric thickness
4.4.2.2. Fabric stiffness
4.4.2.3. Drape coefficient
4.4.3. Comfort properties
4.4.3.1. Air permeability
4.4.3.2. Thermal conductivity
4.4.4. Mechanical properties
4.4.4.1. Tensile strength
4.4.4.2. Pilling
4.4.4.3. Abrasion resistance
4.5. Cost estimation
4.6. Subjective evaluation
82
4.1. Selection of fibre variety
Table 4.1. Selection of fibre variety
Samples
Nellore mixed white
Deccani brown with black
Deccani black
Linear
density
(Tex)
25.3
26.0
27.0
Breaking
load (gms)
Tenacity
(gms/Tex)
Extension at
break (mm)
36.64
37.80
48.33
1.44
1.45
1.79
3.80
3.06
4.59
Secant
modulus
(gms/Tex)
0.38
0.47
0.39
Nominal
rupture energy
(gms/Tex)
27.36
22.28
41.09
Selected Deccan plateau wool fibres were tested for its tenacity, among which Deccani black fibres had more strength and also
required more energy to rupture the fibre compared to other fibres. Hence, Deccani black fibres were selected for further study.
4.2. Properties of enzyme treated fibres
Table 4.2. Properties of enzyme treated fibres
Samples
Control
1% Papain
2% Papain
3% Papain
1% Pepsin
2% Pepsin
3% Pepsin
Moisture Moisture Linear
content
regain
density
(%)
(%)
(Tex)
16.0
14.0
13.0
12.0
15.0
13.0
12.0
19.0
16.2
14.9
13.6
17.6
14.9
13.6
27.0
21.5
21.0
18.1
22.3
21.7
19.6
Breaking
load
(gms)
Tenacity
(gms/Tex)
48.33
30.43
28.31
20.77
32.78
28.36
24.38
1.79
1.41
1.34
1.14
1.46
1.30
1.24
Tensile Extension Relative
Secant
strain
at break extension modulus
(%)
(mm)
(%)
(g/Tex)
45.92
33.68
38.23
62.06
49.53
23.15
57.03
4.59
3.37
3.82
6.21
4.95
2.31
5.70
73.4
83.2
135.3
107.8
50.3
124.2
0.39
0.42
0.35
0.18
0.29
0.56
0.22
Nominal
rupture
energy
(g/Tex)
41.09
23.82
25.76
35.62
36.38
15.11
35.47
From the table 4.2. it was observed that tenacity of one per cent enzymes treated Deccani black are in par with control sample.
Therefore, one per cent enzymes treated Deccani black was taken for further study.
83
4.3. SEM analysis
Treated Deccani black wool fibres and control sample were subjected to SEM
analysis to determine the surface modification that occurred on the fibres.
4.3.1. SEM analysis of Papain enzyme treated wool fibre
From the figure 4.1. it was observed that 1 per cent Papain enzyme treated wool
fiber have shown flattened scales, where as scratchy and disappearance of scales was
noticed in 2 and 3 percentages respectively. 2 per cent treated fibers were not only
limited to primary layer scratching but also affected the second layer. With the
destruction of the scales, the 3 per cent enzyme treated fiber showed smooth surface,
which means cuticle layer was destroyed as well affecting the secondary layer.
Figure 4.1. SEM analysis of Papain enzyme treated fibres
(A) Untreated fibre, (B) 1%, (C) 2% and (D) 3%.
4.3.2. SEM analysis of Pepsin enzyme treated wool fibre
From the figure 4.2. SEM analysis showed that 1 per cent Pepsin treated wool
fibre has flattened scales which imparted softness to the fibres. In 2 per cent Pepsin
treated wool fibre there were reduced scales from the surface of the fibre and it
imparted softness to fibre. 3 per cent Pepsin treated wool fibres have shown rinse scales
from the surface of the fibre by softening the fibre. 3 per cent treatment has not only
showed scratches on primary layer but also destroyed secondary layer. However the
scales were not removed completely for 2 and 3 percentages.
84
Figure 4.2. SEM analysis of Pepsin enzyme treated fibres
(A)Untreated fibre, (B) 1%, (C) 2% and (D) 3%.
From the fig: 4.1 and 4.2 SEM analysis of enzyme treated deccani wool fibres,
one percent concentration was selected for the study and the results were correlating
with the findings of Gholamreza (2008) wherein he confirmed that the enzyme have
softened effect on wool fiber’s surface, which is mostly dependent on enzyme
concentration, pH and time. Obtained findings were corroborating with Nejad’s (2001)
research, where the structural damages of wool were found due to increased percentage
of enzyme. According to Molina (2002) SEM analysis of enzyme treated wool under
different conditions was not uniform. At lower concentration wool fibres can be
completely descaled and at higher concentrations effect is not limited to surface scales
and even liberates individual cortical cells.
85
4.4. Laboratory tests
Developed fabrics were subjected to laboratory testing to evaluate geometrical,
handle, comfort and mechanical properties. The data obtained was statistically
analyzed. For the purpose of convenience to understand the fabrics, they were labeled
as below:
Sample –100%
Warp- 100% Deccani wool,
Weft - 100% Deccani wool (Plain weave)
Sample –50:50 / 100%
Warp- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool,
Weft- 100% Deccani wool (Plain weave)
Sample –50:50 / 50:50
Warp- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool,
Weft- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool (Plain weave)
Sample –100%
Warp- 100% Deccani wool,
Weft - 100% Deccani Wool (Twill weave)
Sample –50:50 / 100%
Warp- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool,
Weft- 100% Deccani wool (Twill weave)
Sample –50:50 / 50:50
Warp- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool,
Weft- 50% cotton & 50% Deccani wool (Twill weave)
Control
Untreated
Enzyme - I
Papain – 1 % concentration
Enzyme -II
Pepsin – 1 % concentration
Different types of Deccani wool fabrics were constructed by incorporating
deccani wool yarn in different proportions with cotton yarn by using plain and twill
weaves as followed:
 100 per cent deccani wool fabric is produced by weaving the deccani
wool yarn on both warp and weft directions.
 50:50/100 deccani wool fabric is produced by using deccani and cotton
(50:50) in warp and 100 per cent deccani wool in weft direction.
 50:50/50:50 deccani wool fabric is produced by using deccani wool &
cotton in 50:50 proportions in both warp and weft directions.
86
4.4.1Geometrical properties
4.4.1.1 Yarn count
Linear density or yarn count is a numerical expression which defines its
fineness. Yarn count was measured in British worsted system for enzymes treated and
control yarn. The tested samples data was tabulated in Table 4.3. and represented in
Figure 4.3.
Table: 4.3. Effect of yarn count for enzymes treated samples
S.No. Sample
1.
2.
3.
Control
Enzyme – I
Enzyme- II
Yarn count (s)
2.39
2.58
2.44
Figure 4.3. Comparison of yarn count
From the above table it was inferred that after treatment with enzyme, there was
an increase in yarn count for both the treatments. It was concluded that enzyme-I had
good impact on yarn count than control and enzyme-II. Increased yarn count will result
in finer yarn.
Generally, yarn count is directly related to fabric weight, fabric thickness and
stiffness. Thermal conductivity of the fabric is influenced by yarn count and thickness
of the fabric to some extent (Angappan and Gopal Krishnan, 1997).
87
4.4.1.2. Fabric count
Fabric count is the number of ends and picks per unit area and is affected by the
yarn count and compactness of the weave. The fabric count of the test samples was
furnished in table 4.4., 4.5. and represented in figure 4.4. and 4.5. which indicates
increased number of yarns in both warp and weft ways for both type of weaves.
Table: 4.4. Effect of enzymes treatment on fabric count (plain weave)
Control
Enzyme - I
Enzyme- II
S.No
Sample
Warp Weft Warp Weft Warp Weft
11
11
11
11
Sample 100%
10
10
1.
(22.3) (10)
(22.3)
(10)
Sample –50:50 /
12
12
11
11
11
11
2.
100%
(9)
(9)
(0)
(0)
Sample –50:50 /
13
12
14
11
12
11
3.
50:50
(8.4)
(9)
(16.7)
(0)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Table: 4.5. Effect of enzymes treatment on fabric count (twill weave)
Control
Enzyme – I
Enzyme- II
S.No
Sample
Warp Weft Warp Weft Warp Weft
13
11
12
11
Sample 100%
11
11
1.
(18.2)
(0)
(9)
(0)
Sample –50:50 /
15
12
15
11
13
11
2.
100%
(36.4)
(9)
(36.4)
(0)
Sample –50:50 /
16
12
15
11
14
11
3.
50:50
(14.3)
(9)
(7.1)
(0)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Table 4.4. and 4.5. indicated that the fabric count of 50:50/100 and 50:50/50:50
percentages enzyme treated deccani wool fabrics have registered increased fabric count
over control fabrics. Highest count was observed in 50:50/50:50 twill weave fabrics
than plain weave fabrics, where enzyme-II treated 100 and 50:50/100 percentages of
plain weave samples have show similar results. However, 50:50/50:50 twill weave warp
way had shown immensely greater count than control and other samples. This,
increased fabric count for twill weave fabrics was due to compact structure than plain
weave fabrics. Not much difference was observed on the weft direction for the tested
samples. From the available data, it can be concluded that enzyme-I had good impact on
all the sample than enzyme-II treated samples.
88
Fabric count (Plain weave)
14
Ends per Inches
12
10
Control (warp)
8
Enzyme-I (warp)
6
Enzyme-II (warp)
4
Control (weft)
2
Enzyme-I (weft)
Enzyme-II (weft)
0
100%
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Samples
Figure 4.4. Fabric count (Plain weave)
Fabri count (Twill weave)
16
Ends per Inches
14
12
Control (warp)
10
Enzyme-I (warp)
8
Enzyme-II (warp)
6
Control (weft)
4
Enzyme-I (weft)
2
Enzyme-II (weft)
0
100%
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Samples
Figure 4.5. Fabric count (Twill weave)
89
Table 4.4a. F calculated values of fabric count (plain weave)
F calculated value
CD value
Sources
Warp
Weft
Warp
Weft
Samples
61.25***
6.87**
0.49370 0.42756
Treatments
20.00***
7.27**
0.49370
0.42756
Samples Vs Treatments
5.00**
1.87NS
0.855712
0.74056
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level, ** Significant difference at 1 percent level
and NS – non significant.
From statistical table 4.4a. it is apparent that there was a significant difference
between the samples and treatments, not between the samples Vs treatments in weft
direction. The fabric count had negative correlation with tensile strength (-0.249) in
plain weave warp direction and had positive correlation (0.502) in weft direction.
Table 4.5a. F calculated values of fabric count (twill weave)
F calculated value
CD value
Sources
Warp
Weft
Warp
Weft
Samples
0.39031***
2.00***
0.51188
82.05
Treatments
0.39031***
8.00***
0.51188
14.37
Samples Vs Treatments
0.67603NS
2.00***
0.88661
21.70
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level and NS – non significant.
Table 4.5a. shows that there was a significant difference between the samples,
treatments and whereas non significance was found between samples Vs treatment in
weft direction. The fabric count had positive correlation with tensile strength (0.054) in
warp direction and in weft direction had negative correlation with tensile strength
(-0.130).
4.4.1.3. Fabric weight
Fabric mass per unit area is expressed either as grams per square meter or grams
per linear meter. Some of the factors like type of fibre, yarn threads per unit area, type
of weave employed etc. contribute to greater extent in determining the weight of the
fabric. The data pertaining to fabric weight is given table 4.6., 4.7. and represented in
figure 4.6., 4.7.
90
Table 4.6. Effect of enzymes treatment on fabric weight (plain weave)
S.No
Sample
Control
Enzyme – I
Enzyme- II
2
2
g/m
g/m
g/m2
Sample 100%
471
478
1.
535
(-11.9)
(-10.6)
Sample –50:50 /
409
422
2.
422
100%
(-3)
(0)
Sample –50:50 /
396
430
3.
456
50:50
(-13.1)
(-5.7)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Table 4.7. Effect of enzymes treatment on fabric weight (twill weave)
S.No
Sample
Control
Enzyme – I
Enzyme- II
g/m2
g/m2
g/m2
Sample 100%
531
541
1.
548
(-3.1)
(-1.3)
Sample –50:50 /
462
467
2.
568
100%
(-18.7)
(-17.8)
Sample –50:50 /
504
513
3.
571
50:50
(-11.7)
(-10.2)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Table 4.6. and 4.7. indicates that among plain weave samples, 100 per cent
control sample was having greater mass per unit area. Whereas, 5050/50:50 of twill
weave sample has more weight than other twill samples. Reduction in the weights was
observed in all the enzymes treated samples. Enzyme-I treated 50:50/50:50 plain weave
sample and 50:50/100 per cent twill weave sample were noticed to have more weight
loss than their respective control samples.
Carla (2006) found that, using immobilized protease in the enzymatic wool
treatment has shown reduction of weight because of proteolytic attack, which was not
only limited to the surface cuticles of fibre but also damages internal structure of fibres.
The results obtained also confirms with the findings of Suzana (2007), who
explained that the effect of varying concentration of enzyme influences the loss in
weight and strength of fabric.
91
Fabric weight (Plain weave)
600
500
g/m2
400
300
Control
200
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
100
0
100%
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Samples
Figure 4.6. Fabric weight (Plain weave)
Fabric weight (Twill weave)
600
500
g/m2
400
300
Control
200
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
100
0
100%
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Samples
Figure 4.7. Fabric weight (Twill weave)
92
Table 4.6a. F calculated values of fabric weight (plain weave)
Sources
Samples
F calculated value
831.65***
CD value
4.17246
Treatments
247.83***
4.17246
Samples Vs Treatments
48.59***
7.22691
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level.
From statistical table 4.6a. presented above showed that there was significant
difference between the samples and treatments. It had positive correlation with fabric
thickness (0.865), fabric stiffness (0.701) warp, (0.754) weft, drape coefficient (0.886),
thermal conductivity (0.768), tensile strength (0.496) warp, abrasion resistance (0.035),
pilling (0.0341) and air permeability (0.785).
Table 4.7a. F calculated values of fabric weight (twill weave)
Sources
F calculated value
CD value
Samples
692.39***
2.31568
Treatments
1806.23***
2.31568
Samples Vs Treatments
360.92***
4.01088
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level.
From statistical table 4.7a. presented above it was clear that there was significant
difference between the samples and treatments. It had positive correlation with fabric
thickness (0.881), fabric stiffness (0.534) warp, (0.464) weft, drape coefficient (0.686),
thermal conductivity (0.217), tensile strength (0.605) warp, (0.482) weft fabric, pilling
(0.680) and air permeability (0.728). Generally, heavy fabrics are thicker, stiffer and
stronger (Booth, 1983).
4.4.2. Handle properties
4.4.2.1. Fabric thickness
The compression property of a fabric is one of the most important properties and
it is directly related to the handle measurement of the fabric. Data showing the thickness
of the fabric is given in the table 4.8., 4.9. and represented in figure 4.8., 4.9.
93
Table 4.8. Effect of enzymes treatment on fabric thickness (plain weave)
S.No
Sample
Control
Enzyme – I
Enzyme- II
mm
mm
mm
Sample
100%
2.14
2.34
1.
2.67
(-19.8)
(-12.3)
Sample –50:50 /
1.91
2.29
2.
2.07
100%
(-7.7)
(11.6)
Sample –50:50 /
3.
1.86
1.91
2.28
50:50
(-18.4)
(-16.3)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Table 4.9. Effect of enzymes treatment on fabric thickness (twill weave)
S.No
Sample
Control
Enzyme – I
Enzyme- II
mm
mm
mm
Sample 100%
2.51
2.53
1.
2.97
(-15.5)
(-14.8)
Sample –50:50 /
2.
2.32
2.31
2.87
100%
(-19.2)
(-19.5)
Sample –50:50 /
3.
2.38
2.56
2.94
50:50
(-19)
(-12.9)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
From the tables 4.8. and 4.9. it was evident that samples have shown reduction
in thickness after enzymes treatment for both plain and twill weave fabrics. As the
weight of the fabric reduces it affected thickness of the fabric. Carla et.al (2006)
experienced similar results. Among control fabrics 50:50/100 per cent showed less
thickness than the other samples in control fabrics. It was noticed that reduced weights
in the enzyme treated fabrics directly affect its thickness.
Figure 4.8. Fabric thickness (Plain weave)
94
Figure 4.9. Fabric thickness (Twill weave)
Table 4.8a. F calculated values of Fabric thickness (plain weave)
Sources
F calculated value
CD value
Samples
15.83***
0.14032
Treatments
14.63***
0.14032
Samples Vs Treatments
4.4**
0.24305
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level and ** Significant difference at 1
percent level.
The statistical analysis presented above showed that there was significant
difference between the samples and treatments. It had positive correlation with fabric
stiffness (0.868) warp, (0.823) weft, drape coefficient (0.817), thermal conductivity
(0.721), tensile strength (0.453) warp, abrasion resistance (0.366) and air permeability
(0.802) and negative correlation with tensile strength (-0.669) weft and pilling (-0.034).
Table 4.9a. F calculated values of Fabric thickness (twill weave)
Sources
Samples
F calculated value
1.51 NS
CD value
0.20383
Treatments
16.22***
0.20383
Samples Vs Treatments
0.25 NS
0.35305
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level and NS – non significant.
95
The statistical table 4.9a. presented above showed that there was significant
difference between the treatments. There is no significant difference was found between
the samples and samples Vs treatments. It had positive correlation with fabric stiffness
(0.628) warp, (0.397) weft, drape coefficient (0.865), thermal conductivity (0.221),
tensile strength (0.709) warp, (0.466) weft, pilling (0.625) and air permeability (0.732)
and negative correlation with abrasion resistance (-0.219).
4.4.2.2. Fabric stiffness
Stiffness is an important characteristic of a fabric. Stiffness is measured by
bending length of the fabric. Bending length is the length of fabric that will bend under
its own weight to a definite extent. Bending length determines the draping quality of a
fabric. The fabric stiffness data of the tested samples is furnished in table 4.10., 4.11.
and represented in figure 4.10., 4.11.
Table 4.10. Effect of enzymes treatment on fabric stiffness (plain weave)
S.No
Control
BL (cm)
Sample
1
Sample
100%
2
FR
FR
FR
(mgcm)
(mgcm)
(mgcm)
Warp
Weft
2.59
2.56
39.6
2.35
2.37
32.3
2.17
2.04
22.4
Sample
–50:50 /
100%
3
Sample
–50:50 /
Enzyme – II
BL (cm)
Enzyme - I
BL (cm)
50:50
Warp
Weft
1.98
2.15
(-23.6)
(-16)
1.60
1.58
(-31.2)
(-33.4)
1.42
1.62
(-34.6)
(-20.6)
18.2
9.3
8.2
Warp
Weft
2.10
2.15
(-18.9)
(-16)
2.22
2.06
(-5.5)
(-13)
1.69
1.71
(-22.2)
(-16.2)
20.2
22.7
11.4
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
BR- Bending length, FR- Flexural rigidity
96
Table 4.11. Effect of enzymes treatment on fabric stiffness (twill weave)
Control
BL (cm)
S.No
Sample
Warp
1
Sample
100%
FR
FR
FR
(mgcm)
(mgcm)
(mgcm)
Weft
2.58
2.48
34.1
2.28
2.22
28.2
2.13
2.04
22.1
Sample
2
–50:50 /
100%
Sample
3
–50:50 /
Enzyme – II
BL (cm)
Enzyme - I
BL (cm)
50:50
Warp
Weft
Warp
Weft
2.31
2.25
2.3
2.59
(-10.5)
(-9.3)
(-10.8)
(4.4)
2.05
1.99
2.02
2.05
(-10)
(-10.4)
(-11.4)
(-7.6)
1.68
1.81
1.98
1.83
(-21.2)
(-11.3)
(-7)
(-10.3)
25.7
19.6
12.2
31.3
20.4
16.3
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
BR- Bending length, FR- Flexural rigidity
It was observed from the above tables 4.10. and 4.11. that fabric stiffness
decreased in all the enzymes treatment samples for both plain and twill weave fabrics.
100 per cent plain and twill weave control samples showed higher bending length and
lower flexural rigidity. Decreased bending length with increased flexural rigidity
indicates that higher the concentration, lower the fabric stiffness, thereby; better handle.
Significant difference between treatment-I and II was observed in both plain and twill
weave fabrics. Sample of 50:50/100 per cent and 50:50/50:50 have registered higher
bending length with lower flexural rigidity for both enzyme-I and enzyme-II treated in
plain and twill weave samples. Twill weave samples had higher bending length and
lower flexural rigidity than plain weave samples due to its compact structure. Generally
higher flexural rigidity shows lower stiffness.
The results were in accordance with the findings of Bishop (1998) where it was
found that enzyme treatment affects the stiffness because of the surface smoothness of
the fibre. Study on wool fibre conducted by Nolte (1996) also found that lipolytic or
proteolytic enzyme treatment produce perceived softened effect, which is attributed to a
reduction in stiffness.
97
Figure 4.10. Fabric stiffness (Plain weave)
Figure 4.11. Fabric stiffness (Twill weave)
98
Table 4.10a. F calculated values of fabric stiffness (plain weave)
Sources
F calculated value
CD value
Warp
Weft
Warp
Weft
Samples
34.27***
45.38***
0.11399
0.10636
Treatments
78.46***
54.82***
0.11399
0.10636
Samples Vs Treatments
3.89 NS
4.63**
0.19744
0.18423
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level, ** Significant difference at 1 percent level
and NS – non significant.
Statistical analysis in table 4.10a. indicated that there is significant difference
between the samples, treatment and samples Vs treatments in weft directions but no
significant difference in samples Vs treatments in warp directions. Positive correlation
was observed with fabric weight (0.701), thickness (0.868), drape coefficient (0.817),
thermal conductivity (0.733) and abrasion resistance (0.571).
Table 4.11a. F calculated values of fabric stiffness (twill weave)
Sources
F calculated value
CD value
Warp
Weft
Warp
Weft
Samples
28.16***
53.41***
0.13061
0.10880
Treatments
12.04***
9.34***
0.13061
0.10880
Samples Vs
Treatments
1.58 NS
2.35 NS
0.22623
0.18844
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level and NS – non significant.
Statistical analysis in table 4.11a. indicated that there was a significant
difference between the samples and the treatment. Whereas no significant difference
was found between samples Vs treatments. Positive correlation was observed with
fabric weight (0.534), thickness (0.628), drape coefficient (0.863), thermal conductivity
(0.670) abrasion resistance (0.162), pilling (0.061) and air permeability (0.931). It is
apparent that coarseness of the yarns contributes to stiffness.
4.4.2.3. Fabric drape
Drape is the ability of the fabric to assume graceful appearance in use and is
expressed in terms of drape coefficient. It is an important property of textile materials,
which affects the aesthetics of fabrics. Drape of the fabric is generally referred to the
way in which a fabric hangs down in folds. The drapability of a fabric depends on many
99
factors such as weave, cover-factor, finish etc. The data regarding drape coefficient of
the tested samples is furnished in table 4.12., 4.13. and represented in figure 4.12., 4.13.
Table 4.12. Effect of enzymes treatment on drape coefficient (plain weave)
S. No
Sample
Sample 100%
1.
Control
%
Enzyme - I
%
Enzyme – II
%
60
50
(-16.7)
52
(-13.4)
51
43
(-15.7)
44
(-13.7)
46
41
(-10.8)
42
(-8.7)
Sample –50:50 /
2.
100%
Sample –50:50 /
3.
50:50
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Table 4.13. Effect of enzymes treatment on drape coefficient (twill weave)
S. No
1.
Sample
Sample 100%
Control
%
Enzyme - I
%
Enzyme – II
%
59
49
(-16.9)
43
(-27.2)
54
41
(-24)
45
(-16.7)
53
38
(-28.3)
41
(-22.6)
Sample –50:50 /
2.
100%
Sample –50:50 /
3.
50:50
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Results from table 4.12. and 4.13., showed that the fabrics are having good
drape for treated plain and twill samples than control samples. With the increased
drapability, decreased drape co-efficient was noticed in all the treated samples. As the
drapability of the untreated fabrics was poor, hence, its drape coefficient is high, which
was higher than treated samples. 50:50/50:50 samples of control, enzyme-I and
enzyme-II have shown good drapability than other samples in their respective column
of plain and twill variations.
Among all samples enzyme-I treated samples have showed good drapability
than enzyme-II treated samples. This could be attributed to the chemical nature and
enzyme concentrations on the fabrics. This treatment had softened the fibre and
improved fabric’s drapability.
100
These results were in correlation with the findings of Riva (2006), where he
confirmed that the protease enzyme applied on woolen fabrics will lead to improved
touch and drape of the fabric as well decreases its shrinkage and pilling propensity.
Figure 4.12. Fabric drape coefficient (Plain weave)
Figure 4.13. Fabric drape coefficient (Twill weave)
101
Table 4.12a. F calculated values of fabric drape coefficient (plain weave)
Sources
Samples
F calculated value
190.83***
CD value
1.20932
Treatments
100.21***
1.20932
Samples Vs Treatments
2.71 NS
2.09461
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level and NS – non significant.
The statistical analysis in table 4.12a. shows that there was a significant
difference between the samples and the treatment. Whereas no significant difference
between samples Vs treatments. Positive correlation was observed with fabric weight
(0.886), thickness (0.817), stiffness (0.817) warp, (0.909) weft, thermal conductivity
(0.891), tensile strength (0.440) warp, abrasion resistance (0.313), pilling (0.064) and
air permeability (0.900).
Table 4.13a. F calculated values of fabric drape coefficient (twill weave)
Sources
Samples
F calculated value
39.57***
CD value
1.44993
Treatments
203.91***
1.44993
Samples Vs Treatments
10.65***
2.51135
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level.
The results of the statistical analysis furnished in table 4.13a. indicated that there
was significant difference at 1 per cent level between the samples. Significant
difference was found between the samples and treatments. Positive correlation was
observed with fabric weight (0.686), thickness (0.865), stiffness (0.805) warp, (0.544)
weft, thermal conductivity (0.491), tensile strength (0.399) warp, (0.236) weft, pilling
(0.210) and air permeability (0.863).
4.4.3. Comfort properties
4.4.3.1. Air permeability
Air permeability is an important factor in the performance of textile materials
and it can also be used to provide an indication of the breathability. The amount of air
space compared to the amount of material in known area is the one that influences the
fabric characteristics and its end use (Booth, 1983). The data on air permeability of the
tested samples is furnished in table 4.14, 4.15 and represented in figure 4.14, 4.15.
102
Table 4.14. Effect of enzymes treatment on air permeability (plain weave)
Control
Enzyme - I
Enzyme- II
S. No
Sample
cm3/cm2/s
cm3/cm2/s
cm3/cm2/s
105.6
111.2
Sample 100%
121.1
1.
(-12.8)
(-8.2)
Sample –50:50 /
106.7
104.5
109.4
2.
(-2.5)
(-4.5)
100%
Sample –50:50 /
3.
50:50
103.4
91.2
(-11.7)
97.8
(-5.4)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Table 4.15. Effect of enzymes treatment on air permeability (twill weave)
Control
Enzyme - I
Enzyme- II
S. No
Sample
cm3/cm2/s
cm3/cm2/s
cm3/cm2/s
109.5
110.6
Sample 100%
121.7
1.
(-10)
(-9.1)
Sample –50:50 /
90
95
115
2.
(-21.7)
(-17.4)
100%
Sample –50:50 /
3.
50:50
102.8
87.3
(-15)
91.7
(-10.8)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
It is evident from the above tables 4.14. and 4.15. that the control samples have
considerably good air permeability than the treated samples. This is because of scaly
surface of woolen fibres, woven plain and twill control fabrics have open structure than
enzyme treated fabrics, which have compact structure due to their soften fibres.
Among the samples, 50:50/50:50 samples have shown least air permeability
than all the other samples, whereas 100 per cent control, enzyme-I and enzyme-II
samples have high air permeability. Results also showed that all enzyme-I treated
samples have less air permeability than enzyme-II treated samples, which was less than
control samples. The decreased air permeability might be due to shrinkage of fibres
during wet processing.
103
Figure 4.14. Air permeability (Plain weave)
Figure 4.15. Air permeability (Twill weave)
104
Table 4.14a. F calculated values of fabric air permeability (plain weave)
Sources
Samples
F calculated value
29.45***
CD value
4.05702
Treatments
13.47***
4.0570
Samples Vs Treatments
2.07 NS
7.02696
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level and NS – Non significant.
From statistical table 4.14a. it is apparent that there was a significant difference
between the samples, treatments and not between the samples Vs treatments. Positive
correlation was observed with fabric weight (0.785), thickness (0.802), stiffness (0.816)
warp, (0.802) weft, drape coefficient (0.900), thermal conductivity (0.758), tensile
strength (0.479) warp and abrasion resistance (0.541).
Table 4.15a. F calculated values of fabric air permeability (twill weave)
Sources
Samples
F calculated value
125.97***
CD value
2.63730
Treatments
103.99***
2.63730
Samples Vs Treatments
5.32**
4.56794
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level and ** Significant difference at 1
percent level.
The statistical table 4.15a. concluded that there was significant difference
between the samples, within the treatments and between samples Vs treatments.
Positive correlation was found with fabric weight (0.728), thickness (0.732), stiffness
(0.931) warp, (0.863) weft, drape coefficient (0.849), thermal conductivity (0.643),
tensile strength (0.088) warp, abrasion resistance (0.167) and pilling (0.272).
4.4.3.2. Thermal conductivity
Thermal insulation property of a textile fabric can be defined as the
effectiveness of fabric in maintaining the normal temperature of the human body under
equilibrium conditions. Thermal conductivity data of tested samples was tabulated in
table 4.16., 4.17. and represented in figure 4.16., 4.17.
105
Table 4.16. Effect of enzymes treatment on thermal conductivity (plain weave)
S. No
1.
Sample
Sample 100%
Control
CLO
Enzyme - I
CLO
1.8
(-28)
Enzyme- II
CLO
1.8
(-28)
2
1.6
(-20)
1.7
(-15)
1.7
1.7
(0)
1.7
(0)
2.5
Sample –50:50 /
2.
100%
Sample –50:50 /
3.
50:50
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Table 4.17. Effect of enzymes treatment on thermal conductivity (twill weave)
Control
Enzyme - I
Enzyme- II
S. No
Sample
CLO
CLO
CLO
2.1
2.4
Sample 100%
2.2
1.
(-4.5)
(9)
Sample –50:50 /
2.1
2.3
2.3
2.
(-8.7)
(0)
100%
Sample –50:50 /
3.
50:50
2.1
1.7
(-19)
1.7
(-19)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
From the above table 4.16. and 4.17. showed that thermal conductivity of a
fabric influences its comfort. The higher the value of CLO lesser is the conductivity
of the material. Among the control samples, 50:50/50:50 sample had lowest CLO
value in both plain and twill weave, which indicated good heat conductivity. After
treatment, decrease in the CLO values was observed for plain and twill weave
samples. Enzymes treated 50:50/50:50 samples of plain weave have shown no
difference in CLO values. This is because 50 per cent of the 50:50/50:50 samples
were having cotton yarns, there was not much difference of thermal conductivity was
observed for enzymes treated samples. It was evident from the above data that with
the decrease in the CLO values, there was an increase in thermal conductivity level
for enzymes treated samples.
106
Figure 4.16. Thermal conductivity (Plain weave)
Figure 4.17. Thermal conductivity (Twill weave)
107
Table 4.16a. F calculated values of fabric thermal conductivity (plain weave)
Sources
Samples
F calculated value
15.27***
CD value
0.13224
Treatments
19.03***
0.13224
Samples Vs Treatments
6.33***
0.22905
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level.
The results of the statistical analysis furnished in table 4.16a. indicated that there
was significant difference at 1% level between the samples. Significant difference was
found between the samples and treatments.
Positive correlation was observed with fabric weight (0.768), thickness (0.721),
stiffness (0.733) warp, (0.815) weft, drape coefficient (0.891), abrasion resistance
(0.425), pilling (0.064) and air permeability (0.643).
Table 4.17a. F calculated values of fabric thermal conductivity (twill weave)
Sources
Samples
F calculated value
45.86***
CD value
0.09400
Treatments
10.69***
0.09400
Samples Vs Treatments
9.66***
0.16281
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level.
The statistical analysis presented above showed table 4.17a. that there was
significant difference between the samples and treatments. It had positive correlation
with fabric weight (0.217), thickness (0.221), stiffness (0.670) warp, (0.784) weft, drape
coefficient (0.491), abrasion resistance (0.189) and air permeability (0.643).
4.4.4. Mechanical properties
4.4.4.1. Tensile strength
Tensile strength is the ability of the material to resist strain or rupture induced
by external force. Table 4.18. and 4.19. narrates about the tested samples of tensile
strength and represented in figure 4.18. and 4.19.
108
Table 4.18. Effect of enzymes treatment on tensile strength (plain weave)
Control
Enzyme – I
Enzyme- II
Kgf
Kgf
Kgf
S.No
Sample
Warp Weft Warp Weft Warp
Weft
7.90
8.34
9.14
7.16
Sample 100%
10.84
5.61
1.
(-27.1) (48.7) (15.7) (27.6)
Sample –50:50 /
9.42
8.52
8.28
8.47
9.18
12.67
2.
100%
(2.6) (-32.7) (-9.8) (-33.1)
Sample –50:50 /
8.78
12.70
9.39
10.58
10.15 11.76
3.
50:50
(-13.5) (7.8)
(-7.5)
(-10)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Table 4.19. Effect of enzymes treatment on tensile strength (twill weave)
Control
Enzyme – I
Enzyme- II
Kgf
Kgf
Kgf
S.No
Sample
Warp Weft Warp Weft Warp
Weft
7.55
8.14
8.16
7.79
Sample 100%
10.67
7.15
1.
(-29.2) (13.8) (-23.5)
(8.9)
Sample –50:50 /
7.98
8.44
8.55
8.28
11.69 10.72
2.
100%
(-31.7) (-21.3) (-26.8) (-19.4)
Sample –50:50 /
10.90
8.98
10.74
9.09
13.55 14.21
3.
50:50
(-19.6) (-36.8) (-20.7)
(-36)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Results from table 4.18. and 4.19. showed that the tensile strength was reduced
for the enzymes treated samples. Whereas weft ways of 100 per cent enzymes treated
plain and twill weave samples had registered increase in tensile strength over control
fabrics. It was noted that 50:50/50:50 enzyme-I and II treated samples have minimum
loss of strength in plain and twill weave fabrics. All the 100 per cent warp and weft
samples of plain and twill weaves have shown poor tensile strength in their respective
treatments. These results might be due to the weave variations in the fabrics.
The results are accordance with the findings of Molina (2002) and Cortez
(2004), who found that there is a decrease in the strength of the proteolytic treated
fibers. The results are also in par with Parvinzadeh (2009) research, where it was found
that tensile strength of the treated yarns was decreased due to the enzyme treatment and
it continues with an increase in the enzyme concentrations.
109
Tensile strength (Plain weave)
14
12
Kgf
10
Control (warp)
8
Enzyme-I (warp)
6
Eznyme-II (warp)
4
Control (weft)
2
Enzyme-I (weft)
Enzyme-II (weft)
0
100%
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Samples
Figure 4.18. Tensile strength (Plain weave)
Tensile strength (Twill weave)
16
14
12
Control (warp)
Kgf
10
Enzyme I (warp)
8
Enzyme-II (warp)
6
Control (weft)
4
Enzyme-I (weft)
2
Enzyme-II (weft)
0
100%
50:50/100% 50:50/50:50
Samples
Figure 4.19. Tensile strength (Twill weave)
110
Table 4.18a. F calculated values of tensile strength (plain weave)
Sources
F calculated value
CD value
Warp
Weft
Warp
Weft
Samples
0.47 NS 34.49***
1.03860
1.14281
Treatments
4.00 NS
3.03 NS
1.03860
1.14281
Samples Vs Treatments
1.83 NS
7.72 ***
1.79891
1.97940
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level and NS – non significant.
The statistical table 4.18a. showed that significant difference existed between
the tensile strength values of samples and also samples Vs treatments in weft directions.
Whereas no significant difference between samples and treatments in warp direction.
Positive correlation was observed with fabric weight (0.496), thickness (0.453),
stiffness (0.381) warp, (0.289) weft, drape coefficient (0.440), thermal conductivity
(0.567), abrasion resistance (0.193), pilling (0.579) and air permeability (0.479).
Negative correlation was observed with fabric count warp (-0.249) and weft (-0.435).
Table 4.19a. F calculated values of tensile strength (twill weave)
Sources
F calculated value
CD value
Warp
Weft
Warp
Weft
Samples
18.41***
5.52**
1.03616
1.87202
Treatments
22.85*** 3.94 NS
1.03616
1.87202
Samples Vs Treatments
0.35 NS
1.79468
3.24243
2.36 NS
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level, ** Significant difference at 1 percent
level and NS - non significant.
The statistical analysis from Table 4.19a. showed that there was significant
difference between the samples and the treatments in warp direction but no significant
difference between treatment in weft direction and samples Vs treatments.
Positive correlation was observed with fabric weight (0.605), thickness (0.709),
drape coefficient (0.399), pilling (0.721) and air permeability (0.088). Negative
correlation was observed with fabric count (-0.130) weft, stiffness (-0.093) warp,
(-0.27) weft, thermal conductivity (-0.269) and abrasion resistance (-0.214).
111
4.4.4.2. Fabric Pilling
Fabric pilling is defined as bunches of entangled fibres that are held on the
surface of the fabric. The data pertaining to pilling is given Table 4.20. and 4.21.
Table 4.20. Effect of enzymes treatment on fabric pilling (plain weave)
S. No
Sample
Control Enzyme - I Enzyme – II
1.
Sample 100%
II
I
I
2.
Sample –50:50 / 100%
II
I
I
3.
Sample –50:50 / 50:50
II
II
II
(Note: I- become hairy and does not pill, II- become hairy and pill slightly)
Table 4.21. Effect of enzymes treatment on fabric pilling (twill weave)
S. No
Sample
Control Enzyme - I Enzyme – II
1.
Sample 100%
II
I
II
2.
Sample –50:50 / 100%
II
I
I
3.
Sample –50:50 / 50:50
II
II
II
(Note: I- become hairy and does not pill, II- become hairy and pill slightly)
The table 4.20. and 4.21. depicts the pilling standards of all samples. All
control and 5050/50:50 enzymes treated samples of plain and twill weave became hairy
and pilled slightly which can be graded as standard II including 100 per cent enzyme-II
treated twill weave sample. All the treated samples except 50:50/50:50 samples of plain
and twill weave have shown no pilling, which was graded as standard-I. From this it can
be state that, enzymes treatment improves pilling resistance of the samples.
These results were in correlation with the findings of Mazzuchetti (2005),
who stated that an increased concentration of proteolytic enzyme improves the pilling
behaviour of the fabrics.
Positive correlation of plain weave fabric was observed with fabric count warp
(0.203), weight (0.034), stiffness warp (0.095), weft (0.117), drape coefficient (0.064 ),
thermal conductivity (0.375), tensile strength warp (0.579), weft (0.532) and negative
correlation was observed with abrasion resistance (-0.049), fabric count weft (-0.219)
and fabric thickness (-0.034).
Positive correlation of twill weave fabric was observed with weight (0.680),
fabric thickness (0.625), stiffness warp (0.061), weft (0.120), drape coefficient (0.210 ),
tensile strength warp (0.721), weft (0.321), abrasion resistance (0.171) and negative
112
correlation was observed with fabric count warp (-0.253) and weft (-0.188) and thermal
conductivity (-0.200).
4.4.4.3. Abrasion resistance
Abrasion resistance of a textile material is an important fabric property.
Abrasion is an aspect of wear. It is the rubbing away of the component fibres and yarns
of the fabric. The ability of a material to resist the action of abrasive forces is one of the
major criteria to take into account for assessing the durability. Abrasion resistance data
of tested samples is tabulated in table 4.22., 4.23. and represented in figure 4.20., 4.21.
Table 4.22. Effect of enzymes treatment on abrasion resistance (plain weave)
Control
Enzyme I
Enzyme II
S. No
Sample
%
%
%
Sample 100%
3.27
3.70
5.76
1.
(-43.3)
(-35.7)
Sample –50:50 /
5.17
6.25
6.06
2.
100%
(-14.7)
(3.1)
Sample –50:50 /
3.38
3.50
3.70
3.
50:50
(-8.6)
(-5.4)
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
Table 4.23. Effect of enzymes treatment abrasion on resistance (twill weave)
S. No
1.
Sample
Sample 100%
Control
%
6.15
Sample –50:50 /
4.00
100%
Sample –50:50 /
3.22
3.
50:50
(Values in parenthesis indicate percentages)
2.
Enzyme I
%
3.50
(-43)
3.84
(-4)
4.91
(52.3)
Enzyme II
%
5.45
(-11.3)
5.76
(44)
4.61
(43.2)
From the above table 4.22. and 4.23. it was observed that samples have good
resistance to abrasion after enzymes treatment. As there was not much difference was
observed in the weight loss for the samples, but control samples have lost more weight
than enzymes treated samples. Among control 50:50/100 percent sample of plain
weave and 100 per cent of twill weave have shown more weight loss, which was around
6 percentage, whereas 50:50/50:50 samples of plain and twill was noticed to have
around 3.5 per cent weight loss. It was observed that Pepsin treated 50:50/100 per cent
sample has more weight loss among all the tested samples. 100 per cent Papain treated
samples of plain and twill have shown minimal loss in the weight.
113
With the softened and reduced amount of hairy or scaly structure on the surface
of the enzymes treated fibers, their resistance towards abrasion was greater than control
samples. The obtained results are in par with Athanastos Peppas (1981) results, which
showed that the proteolytic enzyme treated samples have good resistance to abrasion.
Figure 4.20. Abrasion resistance (Plain weave)
Abrasion resistance (Twill weave)
7
6
gms
5
4
Control
3
Enzyme-I
2
Enzyme-II
1
0
100%
50:50 / 100%
50:50 / 50:50
Samples
Figure 4.21. Abrasion resistance (Twill weave)
114
Table 4.22a. F calculated values of abrasion resistance (plain weave)
Sources
Samples
F calculated value
185.65***
CD value
0.24753
Treatments
51.31***
0.24753
Samples Vs Treatments
21.92***
0.42874
*** - Highly significant difference at 1 percent level.
The statistical analysis in table 4.22a. shows that there was a significant
difference between the samples and the treatment. There was a positive impact between
the treatments.
Positive correlation was observed with fabric weight (0.035), thickness (0.366),
stiffness (0.571) warp, (0.439) weft, drape coefficient (0.313), thermal conductivity
(0.425), tensile strength (0.193) warp and air permeability (0.541). Negative correlation
was observed with fabric count (-0.563) warp, (-0.289) weft and tensile strength
(-0.222).
Table 4.23a. F calculated values of abrasion resistance (twill weave)
Sources
F calculated value
CD value
Samples
26.49***
0.22176
Treatments
62.07***
0.22176
Samples Vs Treatments
75.66***
0.38409
*** - Highly Significant difference at 1 percent level.
Statistical values from table 4.23a. indicated that there was a significant
difference between the sample and the treatment. Positive correlation was observed with
stiffness (0.162) warp, (0.349) weft, thermal conductivity (0.189), pilling (0.171) and
air permeability (0.167). Negative correlation was observed with fabric count (-0.264)
warp, (-0.125) weft, weight (-0.219), thickness (-0.096), drape coefficient (-0.001) and
tensile strength (-0.214) warp, (-0.656) weft.
115
4.5. Estimation of cost of finishing
Costing of finishing was done based on the weight of the fibre, enzymes, buffer,
spinning, weaving charges. The details of the costing are furnished in table 4.24 below:
Table 4.24 Cost of finishing
Sample –50:50 /
100%
Sample –100%
Sample –50:50 /
50:50
Papain
Pepsin
Papain
Pepsin
Papain
Pepsin
20
20
15
15
10
10
3
16
2.50
13
2
10
Cost of the buffer (Rs)
7
10
6
8.71
5.20
7.55
Cost of the cotton yarn
(Rs)
0
0
15
15
30
30
Spinning charges (Rs)
150
150
130
130
110
110
Weaving charges (Rs)
100
100
100
100
100
100
Approximate cost of
finishing
280
296
268.50
281.71
257.20
267.22
Cost of the deccani
wool fibre (Rs)
Cost of the enzyme
(Rs)
*Cost of the deccani wool fibre per kg: Rs 20
*Cost of the cotton yarn per kg: Rs 30
It was found that the use of enzyme treatment for deccani wool fabrics was not a
costly affair. The enzyme level is dependent on the weight of the fibre. The cost of the
finishing treatment for sample 100% was costly when compared to other fabrics. When
it is taken up commercially the process will become even cheaper. As the enzyme
improved the handle property of the fabrics, this eco- friendly process is viable and
hence can be adopted for deccani wool fabrics.
4.6. Subjective Evaluation
Subjective evaluation of the fabric was carried out to assess the acceptability of
the fabrics by the consumer. The evaluation was carried in terms of texture, stiffness,
thickness, drape, color and suitability of fabrics to their end uses.
116
Table 4.25. Texture of the fabrics
Acceptance of texture
Samples
100%
Plain
weave
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
100%
Twill
weave
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Source
High
4
Moderate
3
Fair
2
Poor
1
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
3
2
0
5
3
0
6
5
0
4
3
0
6
4
0
8
6
0
12
10
3
15
13
5
18
15
1
14
12
3
17
16
5
20
19
9
13
16
16
9
12
13
5
9
10
10
13
17
6
9
16
1
4
Very
poor
0
21
2
3
11
1
2
12
0
0
19
2
2
10
1
1
9
0
0
WMS
0.30
1.54
1.40
0.74
1.80
1.47
0.77
2.10
1.94
0.40
1.67
1.54
0.77
1.94
1.77
0.87
2.30
2.14
Majority of the respondents felt change in the fabric texture after treatment.
Enzyme I treated twill weave fabric 50:50/50:50 scored more than other treated
samples. As per fabrics, 100% samples majority of the respondents acceptance for
control was poor but after treated fabrics have good acceptance for both plain and twill
weave fabrics.
Table 4.26. Thickness of the fabrics
Acceptance of thickness
Samples
100%
Plain
weave
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
100%
Twill
weave
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Source
High
4
Moderate
3
Fair
2
Poor
1
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
3
3
0
7
5
0
2
2
0
3
2
0
5
4
17
24
21
20
27
24
23
23
22
16
22
21
18
26
24
21
24
22
13
4
7
10
0
3
7
0
4
14
6
7
12
1
4
9
1
4
Very
poor
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WMS
1.57
1.94
1.84
1.67
2.10
2.00
1.77
2.24
2.10
1.54
1.87
1.84
1.60
1.97
1.94
1.70
2.14
2.00
117
From the table 4.26. shown that 50:50/50:50 per cent plain and twill samples
were accepted by many respondents to their comfort in thickness. All the treated
samples were accepted moderately, among which plain weave samples has scored good
acceptance than twill weave samples. Control fabric was shown fair acceptance.
Table 4.27. Stiffness of the fabrics
Acceptance of stiffness
Samples
100%
Plain
weave
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
100%
Twill
weave
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Source
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
High
4
Moderate
3
Fair
2
Poor
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
3
2
1
5
3
0
2
1
0
2
2
0
3
2
6
17
17
10
19
18
13
21
20
5
15
12
8
17
15
11
19
18
23
11
10
20
8
10
17
4
7
24
13
17
22
11
13
19
8
10
Very
poor
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WMS
1.17
1.70
1.57
1.34
1.84
1.74
1.54
2.04
1.87
1.14
1.64
1.47
1.27
1.70
1.64
1.37
1.74
1.73
From the table 4.27. stiffness acceptance of 50:50/50:50 plain and twill samples
was good compared to the other treated and control samples. Enzyme-I samples were
accepted more ready than enzyme-II treated samples for its stiffness.
Table 4.28. Drapability of the fabrics
Acceptance of drape
Samples
100%
Plain
weave
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Source
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
High
4
Moderate
3
Fair
2
Poor
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
2
2
0
4
4
6
10
9
9
13
11
12
18
16
13
17
15
15
14
13
13
7
8
Very
poor
0
11
2
5
6
1
4
5
0
1
WMS
0.84
1.34
1.20
1.10
1.54
1.37
1.24
1.96
1.87
Table 4.28 (cont.).
118
Acceptance of drape
Samples
100%
Twill
weave
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Source
High
4
Moderate
3
Fair
2
Poor
1
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
2
1
0
3
3
5
10
8
7
8
7
11
17
16
11
15
16
13
17
18
15
9
10
Very
poor
0
14
4
5
10
3
4
4
0
0
WMS
0.70
1.26
1.17
0.90
1.30
1.17
1.24
1.87
1.83
According to respondents fall of 50:50/50:50 per cent plain and twill samples
was good than other treated samples. Enzyme-I samples were accepted more ready than
enzyme-II samples for its drape.
Table 4.29. Preferential ranking in term of overall appearance
Rank
Samples
1
%
2
%
3
%
4
Plain
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
Plain weave
0
0
4
13.33 6
20
20
with stripes
Plain weave
4
13.33 24 80
2
6.66
0
with checks
Twill
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Twill weave
0
0
5
16.66 22 73.33 3
with stripes
Twill weave
27 90
3
0
0
0
0
with checks
% - Percentage
%
6.66
5
5
%
16.66
6
23
%
76.66
66.66
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.33
25
83.33
4
13.33
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
The data on the overall appearance of all the fabrics were tabulates in 4.29.
majority of the people felt twill weave with checks rank first, whereas second, third,
fourth, fifth and sixth was scored by plain weave with checks, twill weave with stripes,
plain weave with stripes, twill weave and plain weave respectively.
Table 4.30. Preference in term of design
Sample
Plain
Twill
No. R - No. of respondents, % - Percentage
Rank
No. R
11
19
%
36.66
63.33
Table 4.30. shown the opinion of the respondents with regard to the preference
of fabrics in term of design. Majority of the respondents felt that twill weave fabric have
good appeal compare to the plain weave fabric.
119
Table 4.31. Suitability of the fabrics
Suitability of the fabric for end use
Apparel
Samples
100%
Plain
weave
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
100%
Twill
weave
50:50/100%
50:50/50:50
Source
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
Control
Enzyme-I
Enzyme-II
High
4
Moderate
3
Fair
2
Poor
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
4
4
0
7
5
0
2
2
0
5
4
0
8
6
Upholstery
Very
poor
0
0
28
29
0
26
26
0
23
25
0
28
28
0
25
26
0
22
24
WMS
High
4
Moderate
3
Fair
2
Poor
1
0.00
0.06
0.03
0.00
0.13
0.14
0.00
0.24
0.17
0.00
0.06
0.06
0.00
0.17
0.14
0.00
0.27
0.20
2
8
7
3
12
10
8
15
17
2
11
9
3
14
11
10
19
12
10
17
16
15
16
17
12
15
13
8
14
15
12
15
17
14
11
17
18
5
7
12
2
3
10
0
0
20
5
6
15
1
2
6
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Very
poor
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
WMS
2.34
3.17
3.00
2.70
3.34
3.24
2.94
3.50
3.56
3.07
3.20
3.10
3.10
3.43
3.30
3.34
3.63
3.44
From the suitability acceptance of the fabrics for different end uses, upholstery has ranked high. Majority of the people felt that enzyme-I
treated samples were better suitable for upholstery materials than enzyme-II treated samples. Twill weave 50:50/50:50 per cent sample was rated
high among the treated samples. Among plain weave 50:50/50:50 per cent sample was accepted by many because of its compactness, feel and
texture.
120
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUSION
121
CHAPTER-V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The utilization of enzymes in the textile industry has been known and applied
commercially for many years, principally in cellulosic fibres. However, for protein
fibres enzyme applications are limited, but there are possibilities to change the
characteristics of protein fibers through enzyme treatments, which include the use of
proteases for wool and silk processing. Accordingly treatment with two types of
enzymes was carried out on deccani wool black variety fibres, sourced from Andhra
Pradesh was used to standardize the softening treatment. Two laboratory grade protease
enzymes such as Papain and Pepsin (Rolex chemical industries, Mumbai) were
considered for the present study, which were selected based on the pilot study
conducted on enzyme concentrations (Papain and Pepsin – 1 per cent concentration).
The application of enzymes has an important influence on surface structure and other
properties of fibre.
The research was carried out on control and enzymes treated plain and twill
weave fabrics, were labeled as sample 100% (100% deccani wool), sample 50:50 /
100% (warp- 50% cotton & 50% deccani wool, weft- 100% deccani wool) and 50:50 /
50:50 (warp- 50% cotton & 50% deccani wool, weft- 50% cotton & 50% deccani wool)
fabrics which are referred as control and treated fabrics.
The fabrics were conditioned and exposed to laboratory tests; the BSI and
ASTM standard procedures were followed to analyze performance characteristics of
fabrics. The data obtained from the laboratory tests was compiled and tabulated and
statistically analyzed by two factorial CRD methods. Subjective evaluation on handle
and aesthetic properties was done on developed fabrics by 30 respondents comprising
experts of Apparel and Textiles from College of Home Science. The data obtained from
subjective evaluation was consolidated by WMS, frequencies and percentages.
Deccani black wool fibres were selected among the three fibre varieties; Nellore
mixed white, Deccani brown with black and Deccani black wool fibres. Based on
tensile strength, tenacity and break time of the fibres, the properties of Deccani black
wool fibre was found to be better.
122
The results of laboratory tests are summarized as below:
SEM analysis of the Papain and Pepsin enzyme treated fibres with 1, 2 and 3
percentage concentrations revealed that 1 per cent enzyme treated fibres were having
good pliability with strength compared to other per cent treatments.
 Increase in yarn count was observed for enzyme treated samples, among which
enzyme – I has higher yarn count number, which in turn results in the finer or
thinner the yarn.
 The fabric count of 50:50/100 per cent and 50:50/50:50 enzyme treated deccani
wool for warp and weft directions have registered increased fabric count over
control plain and twill fabrics. 50:50/50:50 twill weave warp sample have shown
immensely greater count than control and other samples.
 Reduction in the weights was observed in all the enzymes treated samples.
Enzyme-I treated 50:50/50:50 plain weave sample and 50:50/100 per cent twill
weave sample were noticed to have more weight loss than their respective
control samples.
 Sample of 50:50/100 per cent and 50:50/50:50 have registered higher bending
length with lower flexural rigidity for both enzyme-I and enzyme-II treated plain
and twill weave samples. Twill weave samples have higher bending length and
lower flexural rigidity than plain weave samples due to its compact structure.
 50:50/50:50 samples of control, enzyme-I and enzyme-II have shown good
drapability than other samples. All enzyme-I treated plain and twill weave
samples have showed good drapability than enzyme-II treated samples. This
could be attributed to the chemical nature and enzyme concentrations on fabrics.
 All enzyme-I treated samples have less air permeability than enzyme-II treated
samples, which was less than control samples. The decreased air permeability
might be due to shrinkage of fibres during wet processing.
123
 Test on thermal conductivity revealed that there was a decrease in CLO values
for enzyme treated plain and twill weave samples. This states that higher the
value of CLO lesser is the conductivity of the material. Enzymes treated
50:50/50:50 samples of plain weave have shown no difference in CLO values.
 From the tests, it was observed that 50:50/50:50 enzyme-I and II treated samples
have minimum loss of strength in plain and twill weave fabrics. Whereas weft
ways of 100 per cent enzymes treated plain and twill weave samples had
registered increase in tensile strength over control fabrics. These results might
be due to the weave variations in the fabrics.
 All the treated samples except 50:50/50:50 samples of plain and twill weave
have shown no pilling, which was graded as standard-I. From this it can be state
that, enzymes treatment improves pilling resistance of the samples.
 Among control 50:50/100 percent samples of plain weave and 100 per cent of
twill weave have shown more weight loss due to abrasion. It was observed that
Pepsin treated 50:50/100 per cent sample has more weight loss among all the
tested samples. 100 per cent Papain treated samples of plain and twill have
shown minimal loss in the weights.
 Subjective evaluation was done on aesthetic and handle of fabrics revealed that
treated deccani wool fabrics were better than the untreated fabrics.
 From this research, it can be concluded that enzymatic treatments to deccani
wool fabrics showed good pliability, thermal conductivity, pilling and abrasion
resistance. However there was a decrease in tensile strength. Generally to
improve a property in textiles there will be decrease in other properties. Among
two enzymes, Papain enzyme showed better improvement in textile properties
and followed by pepsin enzyme in all samples of plain and twill weaves.
124
IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
The results of the study indicated that developed deccani wool fabrics have
improved their pliability, which increases spinning and weaving capacity of the fabric.
This resulted in improved handle and aesthetic properties. Hence, the enzymatic process
of the study can be adopted by the upholstery textile units at both cottage and industrial
level.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY

The study can be extended to other Deccani wool fibre varieties.

The study can be further taken up by using other proteolytic enzymes with
change in concentrations.

Union fabrics with enzyme treated deccani wool can be developed.
125
LITERATURE
CITED
126
LITERATURE CITED
Acharya, R. M. 1982. Sheep and goat breeds of India. FAO animal production and
health paper 30. http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/x6532e/x6532e00.htm#TOC
Amara, A. A. 2012. Factors affect in the wool sensitivity to enzymatic treatments
International science and investigation Journal. www.isijournal.info
Amara, A. A. 2012. Back to natural fiber: wool color influences its sensitivity to
enzymatic treatment. The Scientific World Journal. Article ID: 356239.
Amara, A. Amro and Ehab A. Serour. 2008. Wool quality improvement using
thermophilic crude proteolytic microbial enzymes. American-Eurasian J.
Agric. & Environ. sci. 554-560.
Ammayappan, L. and Jeyakodi, M. J. 2011. Study on improvement in handle properties
of wool/cotton union fabric by enzyme treatment and subsequent polysiloxanebased combination finishing. Asian Journal of Textile. 1 (1): 1819-3358.
Ammayappan, L. Jeyakodi, M. J., Asok, S. K. and Jimmy, K. C. Lam. 2011. Effect of
alkaline and neutral protease enzyme pretreatment followed by finishing
treatments on performance properties of wool/cotton union fabric: A
comparative study. Journal of Natural Fibers. 8:272–288.
Ammayappan, L and Gupta, N. P. 2011. Study on enzymatic assisted coloring of cotton
fabrics, is focused to examine the performance of enzyme and its coloring
ability using reactive dyes. Man made textiles. 39 (7): 244-247.
Angappan, P. & Gopalakrishnan, R. 1997. Textile Testing. 4th edition. Tamil Nadu:
SSMITT.
Anna, K and Barbara, L.S. 2011. Research on the enzymatic treatment of wool fibres
and
changes in selected properties of wool. Fibres & textiles in Eastern
Europe. 19 (3): 88-93.
Anthra. 2007. Proceedings of the national seminar on the sustainable use and
conservation of the deccani sheep (meat and wool), held in Hyderabad on 20–
22
Feb,
2007.
Hyderabad,
India.
http://www.anthra.org/files/news/Summary%20of%20Deccani%20Seminar15.pdf
Allam, O. G. 2011. Improving functional characteristics of wool and some synthetic
fibres. Open Journal of Organic Polymer Materials. 3: 8-19.
http://www.SciRP.org/journal/ojopm
Arora, V. 2010. Textile chemistry, 1st edition. Abhishek Publications.
Ashok, G.S. and Vaishali.M.R. 2010. Enzyme: for today and tomorrow. Colourage.
Pg.no: 87-92.
127
Anthanastos Peppas. 1981. The effect of chemical treatments on the abrasion resistance
of wool fabrics. Thesis, the department of textile industries, the university of
leeds. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/2768/1/uk_bl_ethos_327779.pdf
Autex. 2005. Study of the enzyme treatments effect on the pilling behaviour of knitted
wool fabrics. Autex Research Journal 5 (1): 55-56
Azoulay, J. F. 2005. The natural brilliance of wool. AATCC Review. 5 (10): 24-
27.
Azoulay, J. F. 2006. Soft touch, strong sales. AATCC Review. 6 (2): 25-28.
Bahi, A. Jones, J.T., Carr, C.M., Ulijn, R.V. and Shao, J. 2007. Surface characterization
of chemically modified wool. Textile research Journal. 77 (12): 937-945.
Bardhan, M.K. 2011. Softening of coarse Indian wools for better utilization in value
added products with pliable feel & handle. Wool Research Association, Thane.
Bardhan, M.K. 2011. Development of composites from coarse Indian wool for better
utilization. Wool Research Association, Thane.
Barkhuysen, F. A., Chapple, S.A., Blunt, J. and Lemon, H. 2005. Effect of enzyme and
oxidative treatments on the properties of coarse wool and mohair, Fibres and
textiles, http://hdl.handle.net/10204/3164
Betcheva, R. Yordanov and D. Yotova, L. 2011. Enzyme assisted ultrasound scouring
of raw wool fibres. Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnolog. 2:65-70.
Bhatia S and Arora R. 2005. Biodiversity and conservation of Indian sheep genetic
resources an overview. Asian-Aust J Anim Sci.18:1387–1402.
Bhasin, N.R. and Desai, R.N. 1965. Studies on factors affecting the characters
concerning quality of wool fibre in a chokla flock of sheep. Indian Vet. J. 42
(10): 782-8.
Bishop, D. P., Shen, J., Heine E. and Hollfelde B. 1998. The use of proteolytic enzymes
to reduce wool-fibre stiffness and prickle. The Journal of the Textile Institute. 89
(3): 546-553.
Booth, J.E. 1983. Principles of Textile Testing- an introduction to physical methods of
testing textile fibres, yarns, and fabrics. Butter worth’s publications, London:
209.
Buck, G. S. and McCord, F. A. 1949. Crease resistance. Textile Research Journal. 19
(4): 216-247.
Carla J.S.M., Prabaharana, M., Gubitz, G. and Paulo, A.C. 2005. Treatment of wool
fibres with subtilisin and subtilisin-PEG. Enzyme and Microbial Technology.
36: 917–922.
Carla, J.S.M. S., Zhangb, Q., Shenb, J and Cavaco-Paulo, A. 2006, Immobilization of
proteases with a water soluble–insoluble reversible polymer for treatment of
wool. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 39: 634–640.
128
Cardamone, J. M., Yao, J and Phillips , J. G. 2005, Bleaching, shrinkage prevention and
biopolishing of wool fabrics, Textile Research Journal. 75(2): 169-174.
Cardamone, J. M. 2007. Enzyme-mediated cross-linking of wool. Part I:
Transglutaminase. Textile Research Journal. 77 (4): 214-221.
Cardamone, J. M. 2007. Enzyme-mediated crosslinking of wool. Part II: Keratin and
Transglutaminase. Textile Research Journal. 77 (5): 277-283.
Collier, A. M. 1974. A Handbook of Textiles. 2nd Edition. Oxford: Pergamon Press
Ltd.
Corbman, B. P. 1983. Textiles: Fibre to Fabric. 6th Edition. U.S.A: Mc Graw-Hill, Inc.
Cortez, J., Bonner, P. L. R. & Griffin, M. 2004. Application of transglutaminases in the
modification of wool textiles. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 34: 64- 72.
Cowan, M. L. and Jungerman, M. E. 1973. Introduction to textiles. USA:Meredith
Corporation.
Cook, J. G. 1984. Handbook of Textile Fibres. Ipswich: W. S. Cowell Ltd.
Cook, J. R. and Fleischfresser, B. E. 1990. Ultimate tensile properties of normal and
modified wool. Textile Research Journal. 60: 42-49.
CSWRI, 2008. State-wise deccani population
http://www.cswri.res.in/ articles/Deccani.htm
in
India.
Avikanagar.
CWDB, 2013. Minutes of 21th project committee meeting of the Central Wool
Development Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India held on 3rd June, 2013
at Jodhpur.
Demiruren, A. and Burns, R. H. 1955. Resilience of scoured wool. Textile Research
Journal. 25(8): 665-675.
Etters, J. N. 1999. New developments in high performance textiles. Textile Chemist and
Colorist & American Dyestuff Reporter. 1(2): 30-31.
El-Shakankery, M. 2008, Pilling resistance of blended polyester/wool fabrics. The
Indian Textile Journal. 8: 272–288.
El-Gabry, L., El-Nouby, G., Allam, O. G. and El-Sayed, H. 2008. Effect of mechanical
and enzymatic treatments on some properties of coarse wool. Journal of Natural
Fibers. 5 (4): 461-475.
FAO STAT. 2010. Adding value to livestock diversity – Marketing to promote local
breeds and improve livelihoods. FAO Animal production and health
paper. No.168. Rome.
FAO STAT-United Nations. 2012. http://www.sheep101.info/wool.html
129
Fengyan, G., Zaisheng, C., Huaying, Z. and Ruiping, Z. 2009. Transglutaminase
treatment for improving wool fabric properties. Fibers and Polymers.10 (6):
787-790.
Gaffar, H., Maria, D.G., Guillem, R.L and Tzanko,T. 2009. Multifunctional
modification of wool using an enzymatic process in aqueous–organic media.
Journal of Biotechnology. 141:58–63.
Geeta, M ., Rajashri, K. and Shameembanu, B. 2012. Utilization of Deccani wool in
Karnataka. Indian Journal of Small Ruminants. http://www.indianjournals.com
Gholamreza, G., Zargham, S., Mojtaba, T.Y. and Mostafa, J. 2008. Comparison of
surface modification of wool fibres using pronase, trypsin, papain and pepsin.
Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe. 16 (3): 68.
Gohl, E. P. G. and Vilensky, L. D. 1983. Textile Science: An explanation of fibre
properties. 2nd Edition. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire Pty. Ltd.
Gopi, K., Sheshagiri, P.R.R. and Kishore, K. 2010. Marketing wool from an endangered
sheep breed in the Deccan Plateau of India. Adding value to Livestock diversity.
http://www.cbd.int/iyb/doc/prints/iyb-fao-adding%20value-en.pdf
Hall, A. J. 1969. The Standard Handbook of Textiles. 7th Edition. London: Heywood
Books.
Hiraku, I., Osamu, Y and Takeaki, M. 2001, Changes in the covalently bound surface
lipid layer of damaged wool fibers and their effects on surface properties,
Textile Research Journal. 71(4): 308-312.
Hollen, N. & Saddler, J. 1973. Textiles. 4th Edition. New York: The Macmillan
Company.
Hopkins, G. E. 1950. Wool as an apparel fibre. Textile Research Journal. 20 (8): 592603.
Hossain, K.M.G., Gonzalez, M.D. Lozano, G.R. and Tzanov, T. 2009. Multifunctional
modification of wool using an enzymatic process in aqueous–organic media.
Journal of Biotechnology. 141: 58–63
Ibrahim, N.A., El-Shafei, H.A., Abdel-Aziz, M.S., Ghaly, M.F., Eid, B.M. and Hamed,
A.A. 2012. The potential use of alkaline protease from streptomyces
albidoflavus as an eco-friendly wool modifier. The Journal of the Textile
institute. 103 (5): 490-498.
Inderpal, R. 2004. Enzymes used in the textile industry. Colourage. 51: 27.
Ito, H., Muraoka, Y., Umehara, R., Shibata, Y. and Miyamoto, T. 1994. Shrink-resistant
properties and surface characteristics of wool fibres treated with multifunctional
epoxides. Textile Research Journal. 64 (8): 440-444.
Jeanette, M.C., Alberto, N., Richard, A. and Robert, D. 2006. Activated peroxide for
enzymatic control of wool shrinkage. Textile Research Journal. 76 (2): 99-108.
130
Joseph, M. L. 1986. Introductory textile science. 5th Edition. USA: CBS College
Publishing.
Joao, C., Phillip, L.R. B. and Martin, G. 2004. Application of transglutaminases in the
modification of wool textiles. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 34: 64– 72.
Kadolph, S. J and Langford, A. L. 2002. Textiles. 9th Edition. New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Karin, S., Elisabeth, H. and Hartwig, H. 2001. Extremozymes for improving wool
properties. Journal of Biotechnology. 89: 281–288.
Kathirvelu, S.S. 2002. Enzymatic preparatory processes. Textile Trends. 45 (9): 33- 36.
Kholiya, R., Khambra, K., Rose, N., and Sangwan, N. 2008. Optimization of process
conditions for cellulose enzyme treatment of woolen fabric. Colourage. 55 (1):
65.
Labarthe, J. 1975. Elements of Textiles. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.Inc.
Liu, X. and Wang, X. 2007. A comparative study on the felting propensity of animal
fibers. Textile Research Journal. 77 (12): 957-963.
Lenting, H. B. M., Schroeder, M., Guebitz, G. M., Cavaco-Paulo, A. and Shen, J. 2006.
New enzyme-based process direction to prevent wool shrinking without
substantial tensile strength loss. Biotechnology Letters. 28: 711-716.
Lyle, D. S. 1976. Modern Textiles. U.S.A: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Ma, B., Zheng, C and Sun, R. 2003. Physical properties of surface oxidized wool.
Textile Research Journal. 73:1100-1102.
Maclaren, J. A. and Milligan, B. 1981. Wool Science: The chemical reactivity of the
wool fibre. NSW: Science Press.
Mahapatra, N. N.2010. Use of enzymes in textile processing. Asian dyer. 7(3) 53- 56.
Mandage, S.T., Bhosle, N.S. and Kapadnis, P.J. 2007. Study on wool follicular
characteristic and
S/P ratio in deccani sheep with reference to age. Indian J.
Anim. Res. 41 (3): 188 – 191.
Manickam, M.M. and Ganesh, P.J. 2005. Application of biotechnology in textiles.
Colourage. 52 (10): 41-48
Mazzuchetti, G. and Vineis, C. 2005, Study of enzyme treatments effect on the pilling
behaviour of knitted wool fabrics. AUTEX Res. J. 5(1): 55-60.
http://www.bi.ismac.cnr.it/pub2005/3.html.
Maxwell, J. M and Hudson, M. G. 2005. Scanning probe microscopy examination of
the surface properties of keratin fibres. Micron. 36: 127-136.
131
Ministry
of
textiles,
XIth
Five Year
plan.
http://texmin.nic.in/policy/Fibre_Policy_Sub_%20Groups_Report_dir_mg_
d_20100608_5.pdf
Mishra, A. and Alka, G. 2008. Relationship between loss and amino-acid released in
protease treatment of wool-hair blended fabric. Colourage. 55 (10): 49-53.
Morton, W. E. & Hearle, J. W. S. 1975. Physical properties of textile fibres. London:
Butterworth & Co. Ltd.
Molina, R., Manich, A., Sauri, R., Julia, M, R and Erra, P. 2002. A comparative study
of two wool enzyme treatments. Indian Journal of fibre & textile research. 27:
408-416.
Muthukumar. M, Rathinamoorthy, Dr. Anbumani. 2009. Enzymatic processing of
textiles. The textile industry and trade Journal. 47(7): 13-17.
National Fibre Policy, 2013. Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India.
http://texmin.nic.in/policy/Fibre_Policy_Sub_%20Groups_Report_dir_mg_d_20
100608_es.pdf
Nimbalkar, S. B., Ali, S. Z., Kuralkar, S. V. 2005. Genetic influence on wool
characteristic of Deccani sheep. Indian Journal of Small Ruminants.11(1). 7274.
Nolte, H., Bishop, D. P. and Hocker. 1996. Effects of proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes
on untreated and shrink-resist-treated wool. Journal of the Textile Institute. 7(1):
212-226.
Nejad, N.H., Kordestani, S.S. and Vahabzadeh, F. 2001. Enzymatic Treatment of Wool
fabric : Effects of the surfactants. Iranian Polymer Journal. 10 (2): 125-132.
Onar, N. and Sarsik, M. 2005. Use of enzymes and chitosan biopolymer in wool
dyeing. Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe. 13(1): 49.
Parvinzadeh. M. 2009. Improving colorant absorption from pistachio hulls on wool
fiber using
protease enzyme, Prog. Color Colorants Coat. 2: 1-6.
www.pccc.icrc.ac.ir
Parker, R.O. and Ensminger, M.E. 1986. Sheep and Goat Science, Fifth Edition.
Danville.
Pearse.
1980.
Citrate
Phosphate
Buffer.
http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Dhn2KispfdQC&pg=PA681&dq=pearse+19
80+buffer&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8OB4U9G2OcKxlQWn2ICwBg&ved=0CC4Q6A
EwAA#v=onepage&q=pearse%201980%20buffer&f=false
Petry, G. 2001. Application of enzymes in textile industry. New cloth market. 23-28.
132
Ping, W., Qiang, W., Xuerong, F., Li, C., Jiugang, Y., Sheng, C. and Jing, W. 2009.
Effects of cutinase on the enzymatic shrink-resist finishing of wool fabrics.
Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 44 (5): 302–308.
Qing, L., Peter R. B. and Xungai, W. 2009, Effect of pH on wool fiber diameter and
fabric dimensions, Textile Research Journal. 79 (10): 953-957.
Raja, A. S. M and Thilagavathi, G. 2010. Development of union fabrics using short fine
wool yarn and cotton yarn. IE (I) Journal–TX, 90:32-36.
Raja, A.S.M. and Thilagavathi, G. 2010. Comparative study on the effect of acid and
alkaline protease enzyme treatments on wool for improving handle and shrink
resistance. Journal of the Textile Institute. 101(9): 823-834.
Ramaswamy, N.G. and Trina, D. 2006. Enzyme treatment of wool and specialty hair
fibers. Textile research Journal. 76 (2): 126-133.
Riva, A., Algaba, I. and Prieto, R. 2006. Enzymatic finishing of wool fabrics. Journal of
Natural fibers.3:209-227. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/241746349
Reis, P.J. 1992. Variations in the strength of wool fibres. Australian Journal of
Agricultural research. 43 (6): 1337-1351.
Salwa, T., Stanley M. F. Lijing, W. and Sinnappoo, K. 2013. Thermal comfort
properties of wool and polyester/wool woven fabrics dyed in black. Journal of
Fiber Bioengineering and Informatics. 6(3): 265-275.
Sekar, N. 1999. Biotechnology in textile processing an update. Colourage. 27-32.
Shi, L.M., Wang, Y.P. and Su, H.P. 2006. Study on the development and performance
of bamboo/wool blended fabrics. Wool Textile Journal. 2 (17-21).
Shinde, A.K., Sahoo, A., Rajeev, G., Shakyawar, D.B., Prince, L.L.L. and Davendra, K.
2013. Vision 2050, Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar,
www.cswri.res.in.
Shen, J., Rushforth, M., Cavaco-Paulo, A., Guebitz, G. and Lenting, H. 2007,
Development and industrialization of enzymatic shrink-resist process based on
modified proteases for wool machine washability. Enzyme and microbial
technology. 40: 1656- 1661.
Shukla, R.S., Jajpura, R.L. and Damle. J.A. 2003. Enzyme: The biocatalyst for textile
processes. Colourage. 41-46.
Smith, B. and Block, I. 1982. Textiles in perspective. USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Stout, E. E. 1970. Introduction to Textiles. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Sundar, S. P., Surjit K.B., Karthikeyan, N and Prabhu, K.H. 2007. Enzyme applications
in textiles. Textile Journal. (47):25-31.
133
Swift, J. A. and Smith, J. R. 2001. Microscopical investigations on the epicuticle of
mammalian keratin fibres. Journal of Microscopy. 204 (3):203-211.
Sue, w. 2005. Sheep: small-scale sheep keeping for pleasure and profit. 3 Burroughs
Irvine, CA 92618: Hobby farm Press, an imprint of Bowtie Press, a division of
Bowtie Inc. ISBN 1-931993-49-1.
Suzana, J., Marc, S., Georg, M. G., Elisabeth, H and Vanja, K. 2007. The influence of
enzymatic treatment on woolfibre properties using PEG-modified proteases.
Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 40 (7): 1705–1711.
Takeichiro, B. and Norio, N. 2001. Change in the covalently bound surface lipid layer
of damaged wool fibers and their effects on surface properties. Textile Research
Journal. 71 (4): 308-312.
Thiagarajan, R. 2013. Effect of crossbreeding on wool traits in deccani Sheep by using
rambouillet and corriedale rams. Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied
Life Sciences. 3 (1): 102-105.
Thiry, M. C. 2005. A Wooly conundrum: The limits of greatness for a traditional fibre
in the modern world. AATCC Review. 5(10): 19-23.
Tortora, D. H. 1978. Understanding textiles. New York: Macmillan publishers.
Troynikov, O. and Wardiningsih, W. 2011. Moisture management properties of
wool/polyester and wool/bamboo knitted fabrics for the sportswear base layer,
Textile Research Journal. 81 (6): 621-631.
Verma N., 2002, Enzymes in textile wet processing. Textile Trends. 45(5): 27-30.
Wang, X.C., Shi, L.M., Zhu, C and Sun, W.L. 2007. Study on dyeing property of
bamboo/wool blended fabric with anazol reactive dyestuffs. Wool Textile
Journal. 3 (19-23).
Wingate, B. and Mohler, J. F. 1984. Textile fabrics and their selection. 8th edition. New
Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Wortmann, F. J and Wortmann, G. 2000. Mechanical profilometry of wool and mohair
fibers. Textile Research Journal. 70:795-801.
Xin, L., Lijing, W and Xungai W. 2004, Evaluating the softness of animal fibers,
Textile Research Journal. 74 (6): 535-538.
Xin, L and Xungai, W. 2007, Comparative study on the felting propensity of animal
fibers. Textile Research Journal. 77 (12): 957-963.
Xiao, W. Y., Wen-Jun, G., Yong-Quan, L., Ting-Jing G and Ji-Dong, Z. 2005, A
biological
treatment technique for wool textile, Brazilian archives of
biology and technology – International Journal, 48(5) : 675-680.
XII Five Year Plan proposal by Planning Commission, Govt. of India, 2011.
http://planningcommission.gov.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/wg_jute1101.pdf
134
Yoon, N.S. Lim, Y.J. Tahara, M. and Takagishi, T. 1996. Mechanical and dyeing
properties of wool and cotton fabrics treated with low temperature plasma and
enzymes. Textile Research Journal. 66 (5): 329-336.
Yordanov, D., Betcheva, R. and Yotova, L. 2010. Biotechnological treatment of
effluent from the combined enzymatic ultrasound scouring of raw wool.
European Journal of Chemistry. 1 (1): 12‐14.
Wool
and
Woollen
Textiles
Sector,
http://texmin.nic.in/sector/Note_Woollen_Sector_wwt_skbabbar.pdf
2013.
135
APPENDICES
136
APPENDICES - A
Subjective evaluation sheet to assess the suitability of deccani wool fabrics
The objective of the study is to assess the suitability of deccani wool fabrics.
The fiber is treated with 1% enzyme concentration and made into fabric with required
variations in warp and weft (deccani wool and cotton). Kindly you are requested to fill
your responses in the questionnaire for the following parameters
Give your opinion for the following by (√) mark where ever necessary. For code details
please refer the table below.
PLAIN WEAVE ( P )
Control
(C)
I - 100% deccani wool
Enzyme -I (1%)
(
)
I - 100% deccani wool
Enzyme -II (1%)
( E2 )
I - 100% deccani wool
II - Warp- 50% cotton &
50% deccani wool, Weft100% deccani wool
II- Warp- 50% cotton &
50% deccani wool, Weft100% deccani wool
II - Warp- 50% cotton &
50% deccani wool, Weft100% deccani wool
III - Warp- 50% cotton &
50% deccani wool, Weft50% cotton & 50% deccani
wool
III - Warp- 50% cotton
& 50% deccani wool, Weft50% cotton & 50% deccani
wool
III - Warp- 50% cotton &
50% deccani wool, Weft- 50%
cotton & 50% deccani wool
TWILL WEAVE ( T )
Control
(C)
I - 100% deccani wool
II- Warp- 50% cotton &
50% deccani wool, Weft100% deccani wool
III - Warp- 50% cotton &
50% deccani wool, Weft50% cotton & 50% deccani
wool
Enzyme -I (1%)
( E1 )
I - 100% deccani wool
II- Warp- 50% cotton &
50% deccani wool, Weft100% deccani wool
III - Warp- 50% cotton
& 50% deccani wool, Weft50% cotton & 50% deccani
wool
Enzyme -II (1%)
( E2 )
I - 100% deccani wool
II - Warp- 50% cotton &
50% deccani wool, Weft100% deccani wool
III - Warp- 50% cotton &
50% deccani wool, Weft- 50%
cotton & 50% deccani wool
137
Name of the respondent:
Qualification:
1. Are you aware of the deccani wool fabric? Yes/No
2. Texture of the fabrics:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Samples
Acceptance of texture
Highly Moderate Fair
4
3
2
Poor
1
Very poor
0
PC I
PC II
PC III
TCI
TCII
TCIII
PE1 I
PE1 II
PE1 III
TE1 I
TE1 II
TE1 III
PE2I
PE2II
PE2III
TE2 I
TE2 II
TE2 III
3. Thickness of the fabrics:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Samples
Acceptance of thickness
Highly Moderate Fair
4
3
2
Poor
1
Very poor
0
PC I
PC II
PC III
TCI
TCII
TCIII
PE1 I
PE1 II
PE1 III
TE1 I
TE1 II
TE1 III
PE2I
PE2II
PE2III
TE2 I
TE2 II
TE2 III
138
4. Stiffness of the fabrics:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Samples
Acceptance of stiffness
Highly Moderate Fair
4
3
2
Poor
1
Very poor
0
Poor
1
Very poor
0
PC I
PC II
PC III
TCI
TCII
TCIII
PE1 I
PE1 II
PE1 III
TE1 I
TE1 II
TE1 III
PE2I
PE2II
PE2III
TE2 I
TE2 II
TE2 III
5. Drapability of the fabrics:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Samples
Acceptance of drape
Highly Moderate Fair
4
3
2
PC I
PC II
PC III
TCI
TCII
TCIII
PE1 I
PE1 II
PE1 III
TE1 I
TE1 II
TE1 III
PE2I
PE2II
PE2III
TE2 I
TE2 II
TE2 III
6. Give your preferential ranking in term of overall appearance:
Samples
Plain
Plain stripes
Plain checks
Twill
Twill stripes
Twill checks
Rank
139
7. Give your preference in term of design:
Sample
Plain
Twill
Rank
8. Suitability of the fabrics:
Suitability of the fabric for end use
Apparel
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Samples
Highly
4
Moderate
3
Fair
2
Upholstery
Poor
1
Very
poor
0
Highly
4
Moderate
3
Fair
2
Poor
1
Very
poor
0
PC I
PC II
PC III
TCI
TCII
TCIII
PE1 I
PE1 II
PE1 III
TE1 I
TE1 II
TE1 III
PE2I
PE2II
PE2III
TE2 I
TE2 II
TE2 III
140
APPENDICES - B
Correlation matrix of the plain weave samples
Fabric count
Fabric
count
Weight
Thickness
Drape
Thermal
coefficient conductivity
Stiffness
Abrasion
resistance
Tensile strength
1
Weight
-0.72258
-0.84973
Thickness
-0.84425
-0.84333 0.865266
1
Stiffness
-0.82606
-0.86898 0.701441
0.86839
-0.85443
-0.86036 0.754964
0.823162 0.951263
-0.87627
-0.80125 0.886203
0.817164
0.81752 0.909641
1
-0.75859
-0.78487 0.768106
0.721285 0.733405 0.815498
0.891461
1
-0.24914
-0.43568 0.496175
0.453233 0.381235 0.289823
0.44074
0.567464
1
-0.38985
-0.59199
-0.44576
-0.17059
1
0.647153 0.502874
Abrasion
resistance
Pilling
Air
permeability
Air
permeability
1
0.649227
Drape
coefficient
Thermal
conductivity
Tensile
strength
Pilling
1
-0.71355
-0.6694
1
-0.39917
1
-0.5638
-0.28911 0.035528
0.366582 0.571125 0.439542
0.313672
0.425052 0.193217
-0.22214
1
0.203564
-0.21926 0.034144
-0.03409
0.09595 0.117904
0.064336
0.375278 0.579932 0.532995
-0.0494
-0.8862
-0.71647 0.785624
0.802398 0.816567 0.802446
0.90063
0.758577 0.479715
-0.71714
1
0.541131 0.15224
1
141
Correlation matrix of the Twill weave samples
Fabric count
Fabric
count
Weight
Thickness
Thermal
conductivity
Abrasion
resistance
Tensile strength
Air
permeability
Pilling
1
0.594835
1
Weight
-0.63066 -0.56692
Thickness
-0.63907 -0.53773 0.881778
1
Stiffness
-0.95673 -0.62466 0.534127
0.628034
-0.93718 -0.50439
0.397473 0.863349
Drape
coefficient
Thermal
conductivity
Tensile
strength
Drape
coefficient
Stiffness
1
0.46406
1
0.80537
1
-0.73758 -0.59688 0.686337
0.865914
0.54441
1
-0.63967 -0.45356 0.217446
0.221025 0.670172 0.784006
0.491304
1
0.054631 -0.15019 0.605488
0.70983
-0.09376
-0.27045
0.399382
-0.26977
1
0.224787 -0.13058 0.482877
0.46612
-0.19402
-0.33192
0.236376
-0.08837
0.776186
1
-0.21419
-0.65634
1
0.721934 0.321978
0.171814
0.088072
0.167248 0.272887
Abrasion
resistance
-0.26494 -0.12533
-0.2197
-0.09654 0.162117 0.349414
-0.00152
0.189798
Pilling
-0.25384 -0.18898 0.680829
0.625602 0.061692 0.120474
0.210559
-0.2
Air
permeability
-0.95926 -0.64689 0.728309
0.732718 0.931382
0.849559
0.643089
0.86375
-0.08044
1
142
1
APPENDICES- C
Selection of deccani wool fibre varieties base on tensile properties
1. Nellore mixed white
2. Deccani brown with black
143
3. Deccani black
Assessment of Tensile properties on enzyme treated deccani wool fibre to choose the
suitable concentration for each enzyme
I.
Tensile strength of Papain enzyme samples
1) 1% Papain
144
2) 2% Papain
3) 3% Papain
145
I.
Tensile strength of Pepsin enzyme samples
1) 1% Pepsin
2) 2% Pepsin
146
2) 3% Pepsin
147