1
2
PAPER TWO- SECTION A
Weimar: Pages 3– 8
(contents p. 4)
4 Mark Question
‘Inference’.
Pick out two points from the source
and expand!
PAPER TWOSECTION B & C
Nazi: Pages 9– 18
(contents p. 9)
Vietnam: Pages 19– 29
(contents p. 19)
8 Mark Question
Explain 3 different points
about the topic.
Remember to use specialist vocabulary and
understanding of chronology if possible!
6 Mark Question
12 Mark Question
‘Explain 3’.
‘Do you agree?’
3 paragraphs.
Use the 5 paragraph structure.
Explain three causes, three ways or
three consequences.
10 Mark Question
‘How useful?’- Show BALANCE, and use
your own knowledge and the source!
CONTENT– What does it show you?
ACCURACY– Use own knowledge to explain what bits of the source are accurate, and which bits may be missing.
Yes –
Point
using
Point
using
One – Explain this
evidence
Two – Explain this
evidence
No –
Point One – Explain this
using evidence
Point Two – Explain this
PROVENANCE– Use the nature, origin
using evidence
and purpose of the source and contextual knowledge to explain how it is
Conclusion – Make a judgement
more and less useful.
READ THE FULL QUESTION– MAKE SURE
OVERALL– Decide how, why and to who
YOU HAVE UNDERSTOOD WHAT IT IS
this source could be useful/ not so
ASKING OF YOU
useful. LINK back to question!
BEFORE YOU BEGIN TO WRITE!
9 OUT OF THE 69 MARKS FOR THIS PAPER ARE
FOR YOUR USE OF SPAG, so don’t forget
capital letters, the structure of your
answers or key term spellings!
3
Wilderness
Years
Reorganisation,
Persuasion, not
force,
Formation of the
SS/ Reduction of
the SA,
Hitler Youth,
Merge with other
right wing parties,
Goebbels in
charge of propaganda,
Gain support of
wealthy businessmen
Golden
Years
Extent of recovery under
Stresemann:
Economy, Politics, Culture
and Foreign
Policy
1924–
1929
Enter the
Nazis
Propaganda
and promises,
Violence,
Hitler’s
leadership,
Nazi
organisation
Votes for
extremist,
nondemocratic/
antirepublic
parties
Disillusionment
with
Democracy
Distrust of
Weimar
Politicians,
Failure to work
together to
solve problems
of Depression,
Fear of Communism,
Democracy
already failed–
Hindenburg
using Article
48
1929–
1933
Political Deal- Hitler made Chancellor, 1933
Hitler becomes Fuhrer, 1934
Use of:
TerrorSS
Concentration
Camps
Gestapo
Judges and the
Courts
Control of the
Church
Propaganda/
censorshipControl of the
media,
Film,
Radio,
Rallies,
Culture,
Newspapers,
Berlin
Olympics,
EducationIndoctrination
‘Good news’Economic
policies,
Foreign policy
(destroying
TOV)
The White Rose
Movement
The Edelweiss
Pirates
The Kreisau
Circle, 1939–
1944
The Stauffenberg bomb
plot, 1944
1934– 1945
Economic policy
Increased
employment
through public
works programmes,
rearmament and
conscription
Self-sufficiency
Social policy:
Standards of
living; promises
to the German
people
Effects of Nazi
policy on the
lives of Women
Effects on
culture
Effect on youths/
children
Racial persecution:
The Jews and
other groups,
e.g. gypsies
The Final
Solution
The effect of the
war on the
civilian
population
Defeat, hardship/
rationing,
propaganda/
bombing
Maintaining Opposition Life in Nazi
Germany
dictatorto the
ship
Regime
Paper 2 Germany context matrix!
Chancellor–
Dictator
Reichstag Fire,
Law for the Protection of the
People and the
State,
March 1933 election,
Enabling Act,
Banning of trade
unions,
Banning of other
political parties,
The Law against
the Formation of
New Parties,
Moving Nazis into
civil service
positions and
only allowing
Nazi sympathiser
judges,
Night of the Long
Knives,
Hindenburg’s
Death,
Oath of Loyalty
from the Army
1933–
1934
End of the War/ End of Nazi Germany
Early
Years of
the Nazi
Party
Propaganda,
25 Point
Programme,
Challenging
Drexler for
leadership,
Going national,
Formation
of the SA,
Symbol
Birth of
Weimar
Constitution,
Threats
from the
Left/
Threats
from the
Right,
Impact of
the T.o.V.,
Invasion of
the Ruhr
1919–
1923
Munich Putsch, 1923
Hyperinflation, 1923
The Wall Street Crash, 1929
4
Weimar Germany, 1919– 1929
Key issue
Topic
How far do the
early problems of
the Weimar Republic suggest it
was doomed from
the start?
The Armistice
The origins
of the Weimar The effects of the Treaty of
Versailles
Republic
Political
problems
(1919- 1923)
Challenges to
Weimar, 1919–
1923
Economic
problems
How far did the
Weimar Republic
recover under
Stresemann?
(1919- 1929)
KEY TERMS
Page
5
German reaction
The constitution strengths and
weaknesses
Proportional Representation
and Article 48
Political instability
The Spartacists
Eisner Revolt
The Freikorps
Kapp Putsch
Munich Putsch
Assassinations of Weimar
Politicians
The invasion of the Ruhr
Hyperinflation
The role of
Stresemann,
as Chancellor
and then Foreign Minister
The recovery of the economy:
new currency; the Dawes and
Young Plans
Developments in international
relations: Locarno Pact,
League of Nations, KelloggBriand Pact
The extent of recovery – politically, economically and
culturally
Impact of the Wall Street
Crash
6
1919- 1923
Early career of Hitler; German
Workers’ Party under Drexler;
early development of the Nazi
Party
The Munich Putsch and its
consequences; Mein Kampf
7
(1924- 1929)
How far did the
Nazi party develop its ideas and
organisation up
to 1929?
Coverage
1923
1924- 1929
Decline in support in the
Stresemann years
Consolidation of Nazi
organisation in the later
1920s
Change in approach to gaining
power.
8
Weimar Germany– How do the early problems of the Weimar Republic suggest it
5
was doomed from the start?
Dates: 1919– 1923
ORIGINS OF WEIMAR
End of the
War
At the end of October 1918, the German navy mutinied. Rebellion spread throughout the country. In November Germany was forced to drop out of the First World War. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and fled the country.
The Armistice was signed with the Allies on the 11th November, 1918. Right Wingers called the politicians who
signed the Armistice the ‘November Criminals’. Germany also faced economic and social problems following the
devastation of WWI.
Origins of
Weimar
A new Republic was declared. In January 1919, elections were held for a new Reichstag and in February 1919, in
the town of Weimar, a new government was agreed. Freidrich Ebert was elected President of the new Republic.
Before1914, the government of Germany was almost a military autocracy; after 1919, it was a parliamentary democracy.
TOV
The Allies drew up peace terms at the Paris Peace Conference. The Germans were forced to sign the Treaty of
Versailles, and this was then known as the ‘Diktat’. The politicians who signed the Treaty were hated by elements of
society in Germany. They were supposed to have ‘Stabbed Germany in the back’. The terms of the Treaty were
seen as very harsh (BRAT).
POLITICAL PROBLEMS
The
Weimar
President– elected every 7 years (First president is Ebert). He controls the army and appoints a...
Chancellor– Supported by cabinet of ministers. Day to day running of Germany. Selected from the...
Reichstag and Reichsrat– Lower and upper house of parliament, voted for by the...
Electorate– German people, who vote for the members of the Reichstag and the President using...
Proportional Representation– proportion of votes gained nationally= proportion of seats. They also had a...
Bill of Rights– Guaranteeing freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and equality before the law. All Germans
(both men and women) above 20 could vote in elections.
Article 48– A safety valve which allows the president to rule by himself in an emergency.
Constitution
How the
Republic was
structured
Political
instability
Political
Parties of
Weimar
Article 48 could be abused. Gave too much power to one person (president)- used often during the years as coalitions in the government often led to slow and inefficient law making.
Proportional Representation, although fair, did mean it was very hard to gain a majority in the election, which led to
parties having to form coalition governments which were weaker as the parties often had conflicted ideals. It also
allowed extremist political parties to have more of a say in the Reichstag.
The system of proportional voting led to 28 parties. This made it virtually impossible to establish a majority in the
Reichstag, and led to frequent changes in the government. During 1919-33, there were twenty separate coalition
governments and the longest government lasted only two years. This political chaos caused many to lose faith in the
new democratic system.
Spectrum: Far Left= KPD, Centre Left= SPD, Centre= DDP/ Zentrum, Centre Right= DVP, Far Right= Nazis
CHALLENGES TO WEIMAR 1919–23
Threats of
the Left
The Communist KPD hated the new government– They wanted a Russian style Communist Revolution with Soviet
workers’ councils.
In Jan 1919, 50,000 Spartacists rebelled in Berlin, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Leibknecht. Centre Left President Ebert (SPD) used the Freikorps to put down the rebellion. The leaders were brutally murdered.
In 1919, Communist Workers’ Councils seized power all over Germany, and a Communist ‘People’s Government’
took power in Bavaria. In 1920, after the failure of the Kapp Putsch, a paramilitary group called the Red Army rebelled in the Ruhr.
Threats from
the Right
The Right Wing hated the new democratic government, and wanted a return to a strong ruler who they thought could
bring prosperity again. Freikorps and the Kapp Putsch– led by Wolfgang Kapp. Rebels took over Berlin and tried to
bring back the Kaiser. Army refused to attack the rebels. Kapp Putsch was defeated by general strike by the workers
in 1920– brought the city to a standstill. Ebert clings on. Right Wing groups supported by many ex soldiers and ex
officers, but also by the police and the judges.
356 politicians assassinated by Nationalists 1919-23: Erzberger who signed the armistice, Rathenau who made a
treaty with Russia. 1923– Munich Putsch (See Early Development of Nazi Party).
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
Invasion of
the Ruhr
In January 1923, Germany failed to make a reparation payment, and France invaded the Ruhr. Without a military to
defend themselves, the government ordered the workers in the Ruhr to go on passive resistance so the French and
Belgians could not take any goods. Because of this, at the same time, industrial production for Germany ground to a
halt. The French reacted harshly to the strike, killing over 100 people, including a 7 year old boy and expelling
150,000 people from the region. To pay the workers, they printed more money, although this had no real value and
this led to Hyperinflation.
Hyperinflation
Hyperinflation probably happened because the Weimar government printed banknotes to pay reparations and - after the 1923
French invasion - the Ruhr strikers. Because these banknotes were not matched by Germany's production, their value fell. Prices spiralled out of control and people with savings and fixed incomes lost everything. Some people didn’t do too badly out of the
crisis: those on variable wages had to carry home their wages in wheelbarrows; those in debt could pay off loans easily. However,
most people suffered badly: Pensioners lost life savings and could not afford to eat or heat their homes, as was the case for people
on fixed wages. Middle class people also lost their savings. Anger at foreigners, and at the rich profiteers who made their fortunes
from the hyperinflation, added to the support of extreme political parties such as the fascists and the communists.
Weimar Germany– How far did the Weimar Republic Recover under Stresemann?
Dates: 1924– 1929
EXTENT OF RECOVERY?
Political
The most important thing he did in 1923 was to organise the Great Coalition of moderate, pro-democracy
parties in the Reichstag. United together, they were able to resist the criticism from smaller extremist
parties, and in this way, he overcame the effects of proportional representation - the government had
enough members of the Reichstag supporting it to pass the laws it needed. Hitler’s Nazis gained less
than 3% of the vote in the 1928 election. Stresemann introduced reforms to make life better for the working classes - Labour Exchanges (1927) and unemployment pay. Also, 3 million new houses were built.
Even during these more stable years, there were four different Chancellors and around 30% of votes
went to parties opposed to the Republic. Von Hindenburg, a veteran of WWI and a staunch right winger was still voted in as president in 1926. He even wrote to the Kaiser in exile to seek his permission before accepting the position of President. The Nazis and the Communists used this time to build up their
party organisations.
Economical
Dawes Plan (1924)- reparation payments agreed to be spread over a longer period. 800 million marks
poured into German industry from USA loans. By 1928, Germany achieved same levels of production as
before the war. Main economic winners were big businesses (such as steel and chemical industries),
landowners (values of land rose by 700% in Berlin) and workers in big industries.
Rest of Europe improving- coming out of post war depression. Based heavily on US loans– recovery
precarious. Main economic winners were big businesses and land owners. Value of land in Berlin rose
by 700%. Main losers were peasant farmers and sections of the middle class. The middle class who had
lost their savings to Hyperinflation would never get it back. Many small business owners saw their businesses threatened by large department stores (many of which were owned by Jews). University lecturer
in 1913 earned ten times as much as a coal miner. In the 1920s he only earned twice as much. These
people began to feel that the Weimar government offered them little.
Foreign
relations
Stresemann’s greatest triumphs, begin to be accepted into international community, 1925- Locarno
Treaties, agreeing to borders, accepted into LON. In return, began working on reversing some of the
terms of the TOV, particularly concerning the reparation and Eastern territorial changes. Young Plan,
1929- lightened reparations and led to the removal of British, French and Belgian troops from the Rhineland.
Nationalists attacked Stresemann for joining the LON and signing the Locarno Pact- seeing it as accepting the TOV. Communists also attacked Locarno, seeing it as a plot against the Communist government
of the USSR.
Culture
Writers and poets flourished, Bauhaus style of architecture flourished, Golden Age for cinema, daring and
liberal nightlife- Caberet! Colourful and exciting to many.
Germany’s villages and towns saw this cultural boom as a decline in moral values and overly decadent,
made worse by American immigrants and Jewish artists and musicians. Movements such as the Wandervogel were a reaction to Weimar culture- wanted a return to simple German values, more help for the
countryside and less decadence in towns. Extremist parties (Nazis) were able to harness these feelings later on!
Impact of
the
Gustav Stresemann died in 1929. Within months, the Wall Street Crashed. America went bankrupt and
called in their loans as quickly as they could. Without American finance, Germany could not survive and
went into a Depression. The worldwide Depression was felt most keenly in Germany because of how
heavily their recovery depended on US loans.
DANCING ON
THE ROLES OF STRESEMANN
Chancellor
and
Foreign
Minister
Depression
Stresemann was born in Berlin. In 1906, at the age of 28, he became a Reichstag deputy and he was
elected the leader of the National Liberal Party in 1917. He later re-named this party the Peoples’ Party in
1919. During World War One, Stresemann, like the vast majority of Germans, had been a strong nationalist. However, after the end of the war he moderated his views. Though it may have gone his own political
instinct, he felt that the only way Germany could make progress in Europe was to accept the terms of the
Versailles Treaty. By doing this, Stresemann believed that Weimar Germany had a better chance of being
accepted back into the European community which would give her access to desperately needed economic markets. Stresemann was appointed Chancellor of Weimar on the death of Ebert and served in
this position between August 1923 to November 1923. After this date, he was to remain as Weimar’s Foreign Minister until his death.
6
Weimar Germany– How far did the Nazi Party develop its aims and organisation
up until 1929?
Dates: 1919– 1929
The German Workers’ Party, led by Anton Drexler, was formed in 1919. Hitler joined and soon became Head
of Propaganda. He showed great oratory skills, and his speeches gave people scapegoats to blame for Germany’s problems: The Allies; The Versailles Treaty and the ‘November Criminals’; The Communists; The Jews.
In 1920, the party renamed itself the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis), with a new and announced its Twenty-Five Point Programme the early Nazi manifesto). To begin with, the aims of the party
were both nationalist and socialist. Some of the key points of this were: to destroy the ToV; to have a strong
central government in Germany; to nationalise big industries; for workers to have a share in profits; generous old
age pensions and gifted children to be educated at the state’s expense. It also detailed Hitler’s anti– Semitic
policies. Jews were to be excluded from Germany.
In 1921, he felt powerful enough to challenge Drexler for leadership. He also set up the SA (Stormtroopers/
Brownshirts), who were made up of ex– soldiers and the Freikorps. They were led by Ernst Rohm, and were
hired thugs to protect Hitler’s meetings and also disrupt the meetings of other parties.
Hitler’s aim was to take the Nazi party from a small fringe party in Munich, to the national stage. He set up local
MUNICH PUTSCH, 1923
Causes
The Weimar politicians were hated for signing the Treaty of Versailles- right wingers referred to them as the
‘November Criminals’ and saw them as having ‘stabbed Germany in the back’. The Treaty of Versailles was
known as a ‘Diktat’ (dictated peace). Hitler hoped to take over Munich in a Revolution. With the confidence
that he had the SA to support him, he planned to overthrow the Bavarian government and then go to Berlin and
take control of Germany. 1923 had been a bad year for the Weimar government- the Invasion of the Ruhr and
Hyperinflation had fuelled mistrust and anger. Hitler saw this as a good opportunity to exploit the German peoples’ anger and take Germany by force. Hitler had been plotting with two nationalist politicians, von Kahr and
Lossow to take over Munich in a Putsch in the months leading up to the rebellion, but on the 4th October, they
Events
On the 8th November, 1923, Hitler stormed a meeting of the Bavarian government led by Gustav von Kahr.
Hitler tried to get von Kahr to join him, but he refused. Instead the Nazis locked him in a room. At some point in
the night, von Kahr managed to escape. Hitler tried again to overthrow the government the following day with
some 3000 supporters, but Kahr had sent out armed police to break up the march. Hitler fled, but was arrested
two days later and put on trial.
Consequences
Hitler overestimated the support he would get and the police were able to successfully break up the march of
Hitler’s supporters and the SA. Sixteen marchers were killed. Hitler was sentenced to 5 years in prison.
In comparison with how the Communist agitators had been dealt with, this was seen as an overly lenient sentence, of which he only ended up serving 9 months in relative luxury in Landsberg Prison. The judges were
clearly sympathetic to Hitler’s cause. Hitler also used his trial for promotion and showed great oratory skills
and political talent. Hitler was not well known before 1923, now everybody had heard of him (household
name). While in prison, he was able to develop his ideas and wrote Mein Kampf (My struggle) detailing his key
aims for Germany. This is where he developed the idea of National Socialism and the Fuhrerprinzip. Most
importantly, Hitler realised he needed to use persuasion rather than force- the Nazis would have to ‘enter the
Activities
After the failure of the Munich Putsch, Hitler decided that he would have to get power by being elected, rather
than by rebellion. However, he was banned from speaking until 1928. The prosperity of the Stresemann
years, also, meant that the Nazi’s message became less appealing and the party lost support.
In this period, however, Hitler set about reorganising the Party. He put in place many of the things which helped
it take power after 1928: He reduced the number of Stormtroopers (SA) and set up the SS, a personal bodyguard fanatically loyal to himself; He set up a network of local parties. He merged with other right-wing parties, then took them over; He set up the Hitler Youth, which attracted young people to the party; He put Josef
Goebbels in charge of propaganda. Goebbels and Hitler believed that the best way to get the support of the
masses was by appealing to their feelings rather than by argument. They waged a propaganda campaign using
posters, leaflets, radio and film, and organised rallies; He cultivated the support of wealthy businessmen
promising them that, if he came to power, he would destroy Communism and the Trade Unions. This gave him
the finance to run his campaigns.
He also set about appealing to those elements of society which felt alienated by the Weimar Golden Years,
WILDERNESS YEARS, 1923– 1929
EARLY YEARS 1919– 1923
Hitler
joins
the
Nazi
Party,
1919
during
the
Golden
Age of
Weimar
7
8
KEY TERMS AND SPELLINGS
‘Dancing on a
volcano’
Locarno Treaties
Anton Drexler
Munich/ Beer Hall Putsch
Armistice
November Criminals
‘Stab in the Back’ theory
Article 48
NSDAP- Nationalist Socialist Workers Party- Nazi
Bill of Rights
President
Chancellor
propaganda
coalition
proportional representation
Constitution
Reichstag
Dawes Plan
Rentenmark
democratic
reparations
Diktat
Republic
Ebert
Spartacist
economic policy
Weimar
First Past the Post
Wolfgang Kapp
foreign policy
Young Plan
Freikorps
League of Nations
Gustavs Stresemann
Kellogg- Briand Pact
Hyperinflation
Invasion/ Occupation of the Ruhr
Hitler’s Germany, 1929– 1945
9
Key issue
Topic
Coverage
Page
How and why
was Hitler
able to become Chancellor in January, 1933?
The impact of the
Wall Street Crash
and Depression in
Germany
Impact on Germany
Nazi reaction: propaganda,
promises
Growth in support for the Nazis
and other extremist parties
The elections of 1930 and 1932
Invitation to lead a coalition
government, 1933
Reactions among German people
10
How did Hitler change
Germany from
a democracy
to a Nazi
dictatorship,
1933- 1934,
and then reinforce this?
The Weimar system
of government and
the failure of
democracy
Evaluation of the
key factors that led
to Hitler being made
Chancellor
Hitler’s actions or helped into
power?
From Chancellor
to Dictator
The Reichstag Fire
The election of March 1933
The Enabling Act
The elimination of political
opposition: political parties,
trade unions
The Night of the Long Knives
The death of Hindenburg
Hitler becomes Führer
Terror: SS and Gestapo
Concentration camps
Propaganda; censorship
The media; culture
Control of education
Youth movements
Control of the churches
The White Rose Movement
The Edelweiss Pirates
The Kreisau Circle, 1939–1944
The Stauffenberg bomb plot,
1944
11
Increased employment through public works programmes, rearmament
and conscription
Self-sufficiency
Bombing, rationing and propaganda
15
Standards of living; promises to
the German people
Effects of Nazi policy on the
lives of Women
Effects on culture (see page 12)
The Jews and other groups, e.g.
gypsies
The Final Solution
16
One party law and
ordermaintaining
dictatorship
The nature of
continuing
opposition and
resistance in the
Third Reich
To what extent did Germans benefit
from Nazi
rule?
Economic policy
The effect of the war
on the civilian population and the economy
Social policy:
Racial persecution:
KEY TERMS
12–
13
14
17
18
Hitler’s Germany– How and why was Hitler able to become Chancellor in 1933?
Dates: 1929– 1933
Weimar Government’s Actions
Failure
to deal
with the
Nazi Party Activity 1929– 1933
Propaganda
and
promises
Depression
Disillusionment
with
democracy
10
Germany was hit very badly by the Depression, as recovery during the Golden Years was based upon US loans. Unemployment rose to
6 million by 1932. Millions became homeless and set up camps on the outskirts of towns. People became dependent on charity food
and soup kitchens. Middle class people lost their savings again as banks folded. The government was taken by surprise at the speed
and the extent of the Depression– taxes were falling because people were out of work. Politicians seemed unable to tackle the problems of the Depression. When the Depression began to bite in 1930, the Chancellor Bruning, pursued a tough economic policy. He
cut government spending and welfare benefits. He urged Germans to make sacrifices. In protest, the SPD (still the biggest party in
the Reichstag at the point), pulled out of the government. To get his measures passed, Bruning relied on President Hindenburg to use
his powers under Article 48 to bypass the Reichstag.
Bruning and Hindenburg decided to call new elections in 1930. This was a disastrous decision, as it gave the Nazis the opportunity to
exploit the fear and discontent in German and make gains in the election. The new elections resulted in another divided Reichstag, and the problems continued into 1931 and 1932. The impression was that democracy involved politicians squabbling over which
job they would get in the Cabinet. Meanwhile, unemployment was heading towards 6 million and the average German’s income had
fallen by 40% since 1929. The Reichstag met fewer and fewer times (for only five days in 1932), and Bruning had to rely on Hindenburg using his emergency powers under Article 48, bypassing the democratic process altogether.
Election
ComCentre
Nazis
As the crisis, developed- support for extremist parties grew too. Here are the election
munist
Parties
results for the left, centre and right wing parties:
May 1928 54
240
12
The Nazis used the increasing votes for the far left to their advantage, by preying on middle
231
107
class fears of Communism, to widen their support further. The centre parties underestimated Sept 1930 77
the fear and anger that German felt towards the Weimar Republic and did not think they would July 1932
89
212
230
fall for the vague promises and accusations of the Nazi party. Long standing resentment of
Nov 1932
101
193
196
the Weimar government (end of the war, Hyperinflation, Weimar decadence) was reignited
Mar
1933
81
199
288
when the government failed to make things better. After the Reichstag elections of July 1932,
the Nazis were the largest single party. Hitler demanded the post of Chancellor from President Hindenburg. However, Hindenburg
was suspicious of Hitler and refused. He allowed the current Chancellor, von Papen to carry on and used his emergency powers to
pass the measures that von Papen hoped would solve the unemployment problem.
However, von Papen was soon in trouble. He had virtually no support whatsoever from the Reichstag and so called yet another election in November 1932. The Nazis came out as the biggest party yet again, but their share of the vote fell. They had lost more than 2
million votes, along with 38 seats in the Reichstag. Hitler considered this a disaster and at the same time, it seemed the Nazis were
running out of funds for their campaigns. It appeared as if the tide had finally turned, and the Nazis were no longer the only solution.
Hindenburg yet again refused to appoint Hitler Chancellor, and instead appointed von Schleicher in December 1932. Within the month,
however, he too was forced to resign. To rescue the democratic system, he needed a Chancellor who was supported in the
Reichstag!
Nazi propaganda was organised by Joseph Goebbels. They used the latest technology- loudspeakers, slide shows and
films- to spread their message. They ran a ‘Hitler over Germany’ presidential campaign, which involved flying Hitler
from one mass rally to the next. Although Hitler lost out to Hindenburg, this had ensured Hitler was very well known. This
was reinforced by a poster campaign, simple in messages, but strong in emotional appeal, which portrayed Hitler as
the strong leader who would ‘save’ Germany. The mass rallies in themselves yet again highlighted the discipline and
order of the party in such a time of chaos. Nazi propaganda persuaded the German masses to believe that the Jews were
to blame and that Hitler was their last hope. Goebbels wanted to appeal to peoples’ emotions, therefore he relied on
generalised slogans rather than detailed policies. They talked about going back to traditional values, but were never very
clear about what this meant in terms of policies.
Posters and pamphlets could be found everywhere. The Nazis promised ‘Work, Freedom and Bread’.
Violence The SA (thugs Hitler hired to protect the party) also played an important role. By 1933, there were about half a million
‘Stormtroopers’. They beat up opponents, especially the Communists, mainly in street fights called Zusammenstöβe
(clashes). Then the SA would end the fights to make it seem like the Nazis were the only people who could bring proper
law and order!
The Backstair’s
Organisation
and
Hitler’s
leadership
The Nazis were well organised and disciplined. This appealed to middle class people in a time of chaos. The Nazis
were able to raise money to fund their election campaigns- both from ordinary members, but also rich business men. Nazi
party members worked hard in their local regions to spread the Nazi message through door to door leafleting and public
meetings. Posters could be seen everywhere. The Nazis also organised soup kitchens for the unemployed.
Hitler’s speeches and personality also gained the Nazis a great deal of support. He came across as a strong leader who
could solve Germany’s problems. He was very charismatic and powerful during his speeches and seemed to be able to
identify with his audience and fill them with a sense of hope.
Hitler was a brilliant speaker, and his eyes had a peculiar power over people. He was a driven, unstable man, who believed that he had been called by God to become dictator of Germany and rule the world. This kept him going when other
people might have given up. His self-belief persuaded people to believe in him.
The
Despite the fall in Nazi votes at the November 1932 election, the Nazis were still the largest party in the Reichstag.
Hindenburg was having to use his emergency powers under Article 48 to get anything done. Htiler had been previously
offered the role of vice chancellor, but had refused. Hindenburg needed a chancellor who was supported in the Reichstag.
So Von Papen and Hindenburg took a risk. On 30 January 1933 Hindenburg made Hitler Chancellor. He thought he
could control Hitler by making von Papen vice chancellor and putting von Papen’s supporters into the cabinet – how
wrong he was.
In the end, Hitler did not TAKE power at all – he was given it.
political
Deal
Hitler’s Germany– How did Hitler change Germany from a democracy to a dictatorship
11
and then reinforce this?
Dates: 1933– 1934
Having become Chancellor, Hitler set about seizing total power. The Nazis needed a majority in the Reichstag, so Hitler called elections for March
1933. The Nazi propaganda machine persuaded people to vote for the Nazis. There were mass rallies, torchlight parades and radio broadcasts...
The Reichstag (the German Parliament) burned down. A Dutch Communist named van der Lubbe
was caught red-handed with matches and fire-lighting materials. Hitler used it as an excuse to arrest
many of his Communist opponents, and as a major platform in his election campaign of March
1933. The fire was so convenient that many people at the time claimed that the Nazis had burned it
down, and then just blamed the Communists. Whoever caused the Reichstag fire, Hitler benefited.
He claimed that the fire was proof of a Communist plot and persuaded President Hindenburg to sign
an emergency decree, the Law for the Protection of People and the State. It ended all the freedoms guaranteed in the Constitution and gave the police total control.
March
1933
Election
The election results of March 1933, not unexpectedly, brought victory for the Nazis. More people (44%
of the voters) voted for them than ever before, and the Party won more seats (288) than ever before.
With the support of the Nationalist Party (52 seats), this gave the Nazis a slender majority of the 647
deputies in the Reichstag. Hitler now had a majority control of the Reichstag. Goering become
Speaker of the Reichstag.
Enabling
Act, 23
March
1933
This was to allow Hitler to rule single handed without the need for the Reichstag (parliament) for an
‘emergency’ period of 4 years (although once passed, what was to stop him from extending it?!).
To get the Act passed in parliament:

Communist and Socialist deputies were denied entry to the Reichstag.

Other parties were intimidated by the SA and SS men who lined the hall chanting ‘WE WANT
THE BILL, OR ELSE FIRE AND MURDER!’
Removal
of opposition
Hitler used the Enabling Act to turn Germany into a one– party state:
Local government - 26 April 1933
The Nazis took over local government and the police. The Nazis started to replace anti-Nazi teachers and University professors. Hitler set up the Gestapo (the secret police) and encouraged Germans to report opponents
and 'grumblers'. Tens of thousands of Jews, Communists, Protestants, Jehovah's Witnesses, gypsies, homosexuals, alcoholics and prostitutes were arrested and sent to concentration camps for 'crimes' as small as writing anti-Nazi graffiti, possessing a banned book, or saying that business was bad.
Trade Unions banned - 2 May 1933
The Trade Unions offices were closed, their money confiscated, and their leaders put in prison. In their place,
Hitler put the German Labour Front which reduced workers' pay and took away the right to strike.
Political Parties banned - 14 July 1933
The Law against the Formation of Parties declared the Nazi Party the only political party in Germany. All other
parties were banned, and their leaders were put in prison.
In November, 1933 new ‘elections’ were held for the Reichstag. Only the Nazis were allowed to stand.
Party
Night of
the Long
Knives,
30th June
1934
Now that Hitler was in control of Germany, he did not need the SA, which was now a threat to his control.
It was an undisciplined body, with many of its members no more than thugs. Many- including their leader, Ernst
Roehm- were homosexual, which conflicted with the new image of ‘respectability’ Hitler wanted to create.
In addition, Roehm’s views were more socialist than those of Hitler; he wanted the state to take over the major
industries. Hitler had won the support of the leading industrialists and, at this stage, did not want to lose that
support.
Above all, Roehm wanted the SA to control the German army. This alarmed Hitler because it would make
Roehm more powerful than he was. Throughout 1933 Hitler had been trying to win the support of the army leaders for the Nazi take-over. Now he had to decide- Roehm and the SA, or the army. He chose the army.
On 30th June 1934- the ‘Night of the Long Knives’- Hitler claimed that the SA was plotting to seize power and
ordered the SS to arrest its leaders. Over the next few days, hundreds of SA leaders were shot, including
Roehm. In total, 400 were killed. At the same time, Hitler also took the opportunity to remove other opponents;
for example von Schleicher, the former Chancellor, was murdered. In July Hitler explained his actions to the
Reichstag. It accepted his claim that he had ‘saved the nation’.
President
Death of
Now President Hindenburg was the only person with more authority than Hitler. On 2 August 1934,
he died at the age of 87. Hitler immediately declared himself president as well as chancellor and took
the new title of ‘Fuhrer and Reich Chancellor’. On the same day the German army swore an oath of
loyalty to Hitler. The army, the only force with the power to oppose and remove Hitler, had promised
to support him.
Parliament
Reichstag
Fire
Hindenburg,
2nd
August,1934
Hitler’s Germany– How did Hitler change Germany from a democracy
to a dictatorship and then reinforce this?
Dates: 1934– 1945
12
CONTROL
Propaganda
Goebbels was Minister for Propaganda and National Enlightenment. Goebbels passionately believed in Hitler as the saviour of
Germany. His mission was to make sure that others believed this too. Throughout the 12 years of Nazi rule Goebbels decided what
the German people should and should not hear. He wanted to make people totally loyal to Hitler and the Nazis.
Propaganda ensured Germans found out very little about the bad things that were happening, or if they did they only heard them
with a positive, pro– Nazi stance. The evidence suggests that personal support for Hitler remained high throughout the 1930s and
he was still widely respected even as Germany was losing the war in 1944.
Censorship/
culture
Newspapers printed only stories that were favourable to the Nazis; newspaper editors told what headlines should be. Those
that did not support the Nazis were shut down– over 1,500 were closed by 1934. The Nazis used national, rather than local
newspapers to ensure their message was read across the country.
In 1933, a mass burning of books took place by students, burning any books with anti– Nazi ideas.
Art and music which was seen as ‘un– German’ was banned, for example Jazz music. Only art and sculptures by Nazi–
approved artists were allowed to be showed, usually with images of heroic looking Aryans, military figures or the perfect Aryan family.
Rallies,
cinema
and radio
After 1933, rallies became even more spectacular than before. The most famous was the Nuremberg Rally, which was held
every year for a week in August. There were army parades, gymnastic displays, fly-pasts by the air force… and set– piece
speeches by Hitler. ‘Love for the Fuhrer’ reached fever pitch in the mid-1930s, and Hitler was mobbed by screaming girls,
much like a modern pop star.
Radio was also used to send out the Nazi message. All local radio stations were taken over by Goebbels. Cheap radio sets
called ‘People’s Receivers’ were produced so that every German household could afford one. They were made short wave,
so no foreign stations could be picked up. Loudspeaker pillars were set up in public places so that people could hear the
radio wherever they were. Hitler’s speeches were played.
Cinema had become very popular in the 1920s in Germany. Goebbels harnessed this and the German film industry made
over 100 films a year, all closely censored to reflect Nazi principles. Examples of Nazi films include the Triumph of the Will
(which promoted Hitler as a strong leader who will make Germany great again) and the Eternal Jew (anti– Semitic documentary).
Posters promoted Hitler as the Children’s Friend, the Strong Leader/ saviour of Germany, the Hard Worker and Mr. Popular.
The Nazis saw the Berlin Olympics as an opportunity to show off to the world and demonstrate the ‘superiority’
Olympics, of the Aryan race. A huge new stadium to seat 100,000 people was built and the most modern technology used.
When the black American athlete Jesse Owens won 4 gold medals, however, some of the Nazi celebrations were
1936
dampened.
Berlin
Education
Indoctrination
Church
Hitler tried to get the churches to encourage their congregations to support the Nazis. At first Hitler tried to reach
agreement with the churches– in 1933 a Concordat was signed with the Catholics by which the Church promised
to keep out of politics and, in turn, the Nazis would not interfere with the Church. A harder line was taken against
Protestant churches. They were brought together in one Reich Church– a Nazi– dominated Church. Ministers
who opposed this, such as Martin Niemoller and Paul Schneider, were arrested and put in concentration camps.
Hitler wanted a ‘Thousand– Year Reich’. He therefore began a programme of indoctrination of young people.
Teachers had to belong to the German Teachers’ League, a Nazi organisation, and were forced to teach Nazi
principles. Any teachers who refused were dismissed.
The aim of education for boys was to prepare them to be soldiers: ‘violent, masterful, fearless and cruel…
indifferent to pain, without weakness and tenderness’.
The aim of education for girls was to prepare them to be good mothers: cook, clean and sew; eugenics– the
science of selective breeding– so thy might be able to look out for the perfect genetic husband.
All subjects were taught in order to indoctrinate Nazi beliefs: History, Weimar Republic had betrayed Germany;
Biology, to explain Nazi ideas on race– that Germans were the ‘master’ Aryan race and the others were inferior;
Maths, to calculate the amount of furl needed to drop a bomb on the Jews of Warsaw, or to work out how much it
cost to feed mentally ill patients in Germany’s hospitals; PE, to have fit healthy young people– boys for soldiers,
and girls so they could have good reproductive health.
13
Hitler’s Germany– How did Hitler change Germany from a democracy
to a dictatorship and then reinforce this?
Dates: 1934– 1945
CONTROL
Terror
The Nazis fostered a climate were nobody ever criticized the government or Hitler. The terror methods below
acted as a deterrent to Germans stepping out of line and encouraged people to be suspicious and distrustful
of each other to incite informants. Each block of flats had a ‘staircase ruler’ who reported grumblers to the
police. Children were encouraged to report their parents to their teacher if they said anything against the
state. People were taken to mental hospital for re-education for merely saying that business was bad. German
people learnt to ‘speak through a flower’- always saying nice things whatever their private thoughts were.
Before war broke out, there was very little open opposition, or even underground resistance. What did exist
was destroyed. The SS and Gestapo terrified most Germans.
SS
The SS was formed in 1925 from fanatics loyal to Hitler. After virtually destroying the SA in 1934, it grew into a
huge organisation with many different responsibilities.
It was led by Heinrich Himmler. SS men were of course Aryans, very highly trained and totally loyal to Hitler.
Under Himmler, the SS had primary responsibility for destroying opposition to Nazism and carrying out the
racial policies of the Nazis.
Two important sub divisions of the SS were the Death’s Head units and the Waffen- SS. The Death’s Head units
were responsible for the concentration camps and the slaughter of the Jews. The Waffen- SS were special SS
armoured regiments which fought alongside the regular army.
Gestapo
The Gestapo (secret state police) was the force which was perhaps most feared by the ordinary German citizen.
Under the command of Reinhard Heydrich, Gestapo agents had sweeping powers. They could arrest citizens
on suspicion and send them to concentration camps without trial or even explanation.
Modern research has shown that Germans thought the Gestapo were much more powerful than they actually
were. As a result many ordinary Germans informed on each other because they thought the Gestapo would
find out anyway.
Police
and the
Courts
The Police and the courts also helped Hitler to prop up the Nazi dictatorship. Top jobs in local police forces were
given to high-ranking Nazis reporting to Himmler. As a result, the police added political ‘snooping’ to their normal law and order role. They were, or course, under strict instructions to ignore crimes committed by Nazi
agents. Similarly, the Nazis controlled magistrates, judges and the courts, which meant that opponents of Nazism rarely received a fair trial.
Concentration
Camps
Concentration camps were the Nazis’ ultimate sanction against their own people. They were set up almost as
soon as Hitler took power. The first concentration camps in 1933 were simply makeshift prisons in disused factories and warehouses. Soon these were purpose- built. These camps were usually in isolated rural areas, and
run by SS Death’s Head units. Prisoners were forced to do hard labour. Food was very limited and prisoners
suffered harsh discipline, beatings and random executions. By the late 1930s, deaths in the camps became
increasingly common and very few people emerged alive from them. Jews, Socialists, Communists, trade unionists, churchmen and anyone else brave enough to criticise the Nazis ended up there.
‘Good news’
Many Germans admired and trusted Hitler. For ’ordinary’ people the years before 1939 were happy. People
learnt to ‘keep their heads down’ in order to enjoy the comfortable life the Nazis could offer them. They were
prepared to tolerate the terror and to trade in their rights in political freedom and free speech in return for
work, foreign policy success (destroying TOV, unite all Germanic speakers, gaining Lebensraum) and what
they thought was a strong government. In reality, the Nazi form of government was chaotic, but Goebbels did
a good job of keeping the ‘Hitler Myth’ alive– that the Nazis, and Hitler in particular, had saved Germany.
Law and
order
Many felt that the Nazis had re– established law and order (few people locked their doors). Many felt that the
Nazis were bringing back some much needed discipline to Germany by restoring traditional values lost during
the decadence of Weimar and clamping down on rowdy Communists.
Economic
recovery
Nazi economic policies gave full employment (work programmes/ Strength through Joy), prosperity and financial security– many observers stated that there seemed to be no poverty in Germany. The ‘Beauty of Work’
movement (SdA) gave people pride in what they were doing. Autobahns improved transport.
It wasn’t all good news, though (see Life in Nazi Germany).
Foreign
policy
Nazi propaganda had always centred around the belief that the Weimar politicians had ‘stabbed Germany in the
back’. When Hitler came to power, he promised to right the wrongs of the Versailles Treaty. This made him
very popular. Germans began to feel that their country was a great power again after the humiliations of the
First World War. For many Germans, the methods used by the Nazis were regrettable, but necessary for the
greater good of Germany. Some Germans would have also agreed with the anti– Semitic, racist message of
the Nazi party.
Hitler’s Germany– Resistance to the Nazis (Groups highlighted in yellow are
14
compulsory for examination- others for depth)
Dates: 1934– 1945
Some Historians have claimed that Hitler was a ‘weak dictator’- that he only looked all– powerful; in reality the Nazi government was chaotic. When the war broke out in 1939, opposition groups sprung up, made up of youths, University Students and even from within Hitler’s
own army.
Political
Opposition
KPD,
Socialist
Party and
Trade Unions
The main enemies of the Nazi regime were the Socialist Party, the Communist Party and workers’ Trade Unions. They were targeted very early on
(after the Reichstag Fire). This was because they had so many supporters . Even when they lost the elections of 1933 they had millions of members.
They wanted workers’ rights. The Socialist Party wanted a return to democracy, the Communists wanted a revolution. The Nazis banned all these
organisations. However members still met in secret – although it was very dangerous because of the risk or arrest. They used passive resistance such
as strikes and handing out leaflets. They also write anti-Nazi graffiti on walls. From 1933 the offices of all political opponents were ransacked by the SA
and later the Gestapo. Their offices were closed, and once the Enabling Law was passed, it became illegal to be a member of these groups. Many
were beaten up, tortured, some were killed. There were 400 strikes between 1933 and 1935 but the Gestapo continued to make arrests – two thirds
of the Communist Party’s members were arrested. Many were sent to the concentration camps, many more went into exile abroad or forced to go
underground, holding secret meetings.
Youth Opposition
Many young people were attracted to the Nazi Youth movements by the leisure opportunities (see Life in Nazi Germany). There were really no alternatives. By 1939, membership of a Nazi youth movement was made compulsory. But
by this time, the youth movements were going through a crisis. Many of the experienced leaders had been drafted
into the German army. Others had been replaced by even keener Nazis. Many of the movements were now run by
older teenagers who rigidly enforced Nazi rules and forbade teenagers to meet informally with their friends. As the
war progressed, the activities of the War movement focussed increasingly on military drill and the war effort. The
popularity of the movements decreased and an anti– Hitler Youth resistance movement appeared.
Student
Opposition
Military Opposition
The ‘Swing
Movement’
Mainly middle class teenagers. They went to parties where they listened to English and American music and sang English songs. They
danced American dances such as the ‘jitterbug’ to banned jazz music. They accepted Jews to their clubs. They talked about and enjoyed sex. They were deliberately ‘slovenly’. The Nazis issued a handbook helping the authorities to identify these degenerate types.
Some were shown with unkempt, long hair; others with exaggeratedly English clothes.
The
Edelweiss
Pirates
The Edelweiss Pirates was a mostly working class youth group who opposed the Nazi regime. It wasn’t one big
organisation but a collection of groups. Local areas had their versions or branches. Numbers varied, but it was
popular and in large cities might have had several hundred members. They used passive resistance to oppose the Nazis. They refused to join the Hitler Youth, and when this became compulsory they avoided meetings at all costs. They wanted to have fun and do what they wanted – not what they were told. They engaged
in various activities to oppose the Nazis – including making up rude alternatives to the pro-Nazi songs sung by
the Hitler Youth, drinking, listening to banned music (‘degenerate jazz and blues’, having sex and going to
dances. Some even beat up Nazi Youth members. Their unofficial uniform was a checked shirt and wearing
badges showing the edelweiss flower (a white Alpine flower which became a symbol of resistance for some).
The Gestapo did investigate the groups. Many members of the Edelweiss Pirates were beaten up but punishments were not as severe as for adult opponents. Many had their heads shaved. After a Hitler youth leader in
Cologne was killed, some were even hanged in revenge.
The
White
Rose
Group
A small group of students at Munich university, led by siblings Hans (age 24) and Sophie Scholl (21) and Christoph Probst. They disagreed with the Nazis aims and persecution of the Jews. They were disgusted with
the lack of opposition and wanted to shame the German people for supporting Hitler. They were most active
between Summer 1942 and February 1943. They spread anti-Nazi messages by handing out leaflets, putting
up posters and writing anti-Nazi graffiti on walls. The Nazis branded them as outsiders and enemies of the
state. The caretaker saw Hans and Sophie handing out leaflets at Uni and informed the Gestapo. They were
arrested and tortured. On the 22nd February 1943 they were sentenced to death and executed.
Kreisau
Circle
This group was made up of army generals and intellectuals and officials. Many were members of the Nazi
Party – but disliked their policies or became disillusioned with Hitler towards the end of WW2 (1943-45).
Many of them were middle class and disliked Hitler’s working class past. They were also horrified by the actions of the SS death squads in Europe – it went against the army’s code of conduct.. There were said to be
dozens of plots to assassinate Hitler – this group in particular had regular access to the Fuhrer.
July
Bomb
Plot
The most famous was the July Bomb plot (known as Operation Valkyrie) – organised by Claus von Stauffenburg, a Colonel who had supported the Nazis to begin with, but was disgusted by their anti-Semitism. He planted a bomb in Hitler’s military headquarters on a day when he knew Hitler would be there. The bomb exploded
and four people were killed, however it failed to kill Hitler because of two main problems – the windows had
been left open, lessening the effect of the explosion, and someone had moved the briefcase bomb at the last
minute. Despite this, it was the closest anybody had come to killing the Fuhrer. All the plotters were rounded
up and executed. Hitler also used this as an excuse to get rid of other opponents – 5000 people were arrested
and executed as a result of this plot including most members of the Kreisau Circle.
15
Hitler’s Germany– To what extent did Germans benefit from Nazi rule?
Dates: 1934– 1945
ECONOMIC POLICIES
Farmers
Reich Food Estate: September 1933, set up central boards to buy agricultural produce from the farmers and distribute it to markets across
Germany. Gave peasant farmers a guaranteed market for their goods at guaranteed prices.
Reich Entailed Farm Law: Gave peasants state protection for their farms: banks could not seize their land if they could not pay loads or mortgages. Racial aim- Blood and Soil was the idea that the peasant farmers were the basis of Germany’s master race. Farmers were a key element of Hitler being able to get power, so he did not want to forget them. Reich Entailed Farm Law ensured peasants’ farms stayed in their
hands. Reich Entailed Farm Law meant only the eldest child inherited the farm. Many children of farmers left the land to work for better money in
German industries.- Rural depopulation ran at about 3% per year in the 1930s- the opposite of the Nazis’ aims! This also meant that efficient
farmers had to work through the same processes as less efficient farmers.
Hugenberg’s reforms: Tariffs (taxes) on foreign imports, margarine manufacturers must put butter into their produce from German farmers.
Big and small business
Hitler appointed Hjalmar Schacht as the president of the Reichsbank. He formulated the ‘New Plan’ to attempt to improve Germany’s balance of trade, reduce
unemployment, build up the armaments industry and make Germany self- sufficient. He imposed limits on the amount of profit that could be taken out of businesses in dividends and encouraged people to reinvest profits in businesses. Schacht reorganised the German economy to allow for a massive programme of
work creation through Public Work Projects.
In 1936, a ‘Four-Year Plan’ was announced, under the control of Georing to get the German economy ready for war. Massive state investment in industry. The
army grew from just 100,000 men in 1933 to 1,400,000 in 1939. These soldiers needed equipping, so 46 billion marks were spent on weapons and equipment,
creating thousands of jobs in the arms industries. Hitler decreed that Germany would have a world- class air force (Luftwaffe). Rearmament and the industry that
it encouraged boosted national pride. Germans began to feel that their country was finally emerging from the humiliation of WWI and the TOV. More raw materials, such as coal, iron and oil were produced. Synthetic raw materials, such as rubber, fuel and textile, were developed. Companies such as chemical giant IG
Farben gained huge government contracts to make explosives, fertilisers and even artificial oil from coal. Mercedes and Volkswagen prospered from Nazi policies. Public Work Projects began, such as the building of the Autobahns, extension of railways, house-building programmes and grandiose public building projects.
However, Public Works Projects were not sustainable in the long term. Schacht also argued that rearmament was not providing long-term stability, but merely
gearing Germany towards another catastrophic European war.
Success?
Key aims: Autarky and to end unemployment.
Autarky never fully achieved– had to rely on resources gained from occupied territory during the war. Germany was modernised by the Public
Works Projects. Food production increased by 20% 1928–38, leaving Germany self-sufficient in bread grains, potatoes, sugar, meat, vegetables
and eggs. Still not at a level sufficient enough to feed the German population without the need for imports. Unemployment figures did not include
women who were forced out of their jobs, or who accepted government loans to give up their jobs and get married. Did not include Jews dismissed from their jobs, or opponents who were in Concentration Camps. Part time workers were counted as full workers. Unemployment figures
did not factor in the 1.3 million men conscripted in the army.
Public Works Projects were not sustainable in the long term.
Workers lost their main party– the SPD and trade unions– remained a source of bitter resentment. Mainly big business, rather than small would
have benefitted, but small engineering firms could have done well out of rearmament spending.
Defeat
In 1941, Hitler’s armies attacked the USSR. At first, German forces did well and got to within 60 miles of Russia’s capital, Moscow. But a freezing Russian winter forced the Germans to stop. Their tanks wouldn’t start, their guns wouldn’t fire and their clothing wasn’t warm enough. Soon,
the huge Russian army began to push them back towards Germany. In one great battle at Stalingrad, over 80 000 Germans died and 90 000
surrendered. Only 5000 of them ever returned to Germany at the end of the war. There were defeats elsewhere too- British armies defeated
them in North Africa and then America joined in on Britain and Russia’s side! By the beginning of 1944, it was clear Germany was doomed to
defeat!
Hardship
The German people soon began to realise how difficult war was when they were not winning. Supplies were needed for the soldiers so sacrifices had to be made at home. There were severe food shortages. The Nazis responded by asking the German people to commit themselves
totally to winning the war (a policy called total war by Goebbels). Everything was focussed on making weapons, growing food and caring for
wounded soldiers. The focus of propaganda changed. Anything that didn’t contribute to the war effort was stopped- beer houses, dance halls
and even sweet shops were closed. Letter boxes were boarded up and magazines shut down. Factories were forced to stay open longer and
even women were drafted in to work in them.
Bomb-
Effect of the War on the
Civilian Population
Workers
Economic Policy
German economy was in a mess when Hitler became chancellor in 1933. There were 6 million unemployed and a crisis in farming.
DAF: German Labour Front. Trade unions banned soon as Nazis took power. All workers had to join the DAF. Its rules included: Bosses could
no longer sack workers on the spot; workers could not leave a job without the government’s
permission; workers could no longer bargain for higher wages; strikes were made illegal; limitations on the hours a person could work
were abolished (strict control).
Strength Through Joy (KDF): Gave them cheap cinema and theatre tickets, organised courses and trips and sports events. Workers
were offered cut price cruises on the latest luxury liners. Many thousands of workers saved 5 marks a week in the state scheme to buy the
Volkswagen Beetle (The ‘People’s Car’), although with the outbreak of war, car manufacturing ceased and many did not receive their cars. KdF
activities had a high level of propaganda attached to them.
Beauty of Labour movement (SDA):
Encouraged people to be proud of their work, improved working conditions in factories, introduced features not seen in many workplaces
before, such as washing facilities and low- cost canteens.
RAD- National Labour Service: Hitler’s first measure to tackle unemployment. Gave men (unmarried and under 25) jobs in Public Works
Projects, eg, building schools, hospitals and motorways and digging drainage ditches.
Men in the RAD had to wear a uniform and live in work camps. Hard, manual labour. Their wages were really only pocket money, but for many
this was an improvement on a life with no work. They also got free meals. However, by the late 1930s, many workers were grumbling their
standard of living was lower than it had been before the Depression.
From 1942, Britain and America began combing German cities. Hitler had promised this would never happen. Night after night, major German
cities were pounded by comber planes and, not surprisingly, support for the Nazis began to weaken. The culminated in the bombing of Dresden
in February 1945, where it is estimated between 35,000 and 150,000 people were killed.
16
Hitler’s Germany– To what extent did Germans benefit from Nazi rule?
Dates: 1934– 1945
SOCIAL POLICIES
The Nazis promoted and supported the Aryan ‘Master Race’ (Ubermenschen). Hitler believed in Social Darwinism– the survival of
the fittest, and thought all fit, healthy Germans belonged to a the 'People's Community' which needed to unite behind Nazi ideology if
Germany was to triumph. However, those who did not fit into the Nazi ideal were classed as ‘undesirables’ and ‘a-social’.
ARYANS (‘MASTER RACE’)
Children/
Youths
(See education also). Many young German people were happy. Nazi culture was very youth-oriented. Hitler Youth- organised by members of the SS- to prepare them for future military service. The HJ (Hitler Youth) provided exciting activities for
young boys. The HJ and the BDM (German Maidens- girls version of the HJ) treated young men and women as though
they were special. They would get uniforms and do many activities with their friends. Paraded through their towns, took part
in sport. The males would be encouraged to play war games. Many parents were frightened that their children would report
them to the Gestapo, which gave young people a power that they enjoyed. Reichsfuhrer Schools- able boys ages 12- 18
educated at the state's expense. Best pupils from here sent to Ordensburgen- an elite military training academy- expected
to become leaders of the SS or army. At all schools, an emphasis was placed on physical education, rather than learning
'dead facts'.
But not all young people were happy with the Nazi regime: SOME girls were unhappy with the emphasis on the three Ks
(Church, children, cooker). Girls who were regarded as true Aryan girls were sent off to special camps where they were
bred (like farm animals) with selected 'Aryan' boys. School teachers complained that boys and girls were so tired from attending evening meetings of the Hitler Youth, that they could barely stay awake the next day at school. By 1938, attendance at Hitler Youth meetings was so poor – barely 25% – that the authorities decided to tighten up attendance with the
1939 law making attendance compulsory.
Towards the end of the war, youth gangs such as the Edelweiss Pirates grew up, rejecting the HJ and Nazi youth culture,
drinking and dancing to American jazz and 'swing' music. In Cologne in 1944 they sheltered army deserters and even at-
Women
Goebbels: "The mission of women is to be beautiful and bring children into the World". Women were expected to stay
at home and look after the family. Women doctors, teachers and civil servants forced to give up careers. Their life was to
revolve around the three 'Ks': Kurche (church), Kinde (children), Kuche (cooking).
Nazis wanted a high birth rate so the population would grow. Law for the Encouragement of Marriage gave newlyweds a
loan of 1,000 marks, and allowed them to keep 250 marks for each child they had. Mothers who had more than 8 children
were given a gold medal. Birth rate did increase during the 1930s. Mothercraft classes introduced.
Unmarried women could volunteer to have a baby for an Aryan member of the SS.
High level of control- idealised idea of what a woman should be- slimming discouraged because it was not seen as good
for childbearing. Not all women would be happy with having to give up their career. Numbers of women allowed into university was restricted. Women supposed to emulate traditional German peasant fashions- plain peasant costumes, hair in
plaits or buns and flat shoes. Make- up, dying their hair and wearing trousers not allowed. Not expected to smoke in public.
War also had a big impact on Nazi policies towards women. Before it, women were producing soldiers for the Reich, but war
meant they had to replace men in the factories. As such, a Duty Year was introduced, where women would join the work
force for a short period of time.
Men/
ordinary
Germans
To people who had been unemployed and starving, 'work and bread' was a wonderful blessing worth every civil liberty they
lost. The Nazis set up KdF (Strength through Joy), which gave workers rewards for their work - evening classes, theatre
trips, picnics, and even free holidays. The Nazis devised a scheme to allow workers to buy a Volkswagen Beetle car for a
small weekly payment. The RAD gave men under 25 work, with bed and board completing Public Work schemes, such a
building schools, hospitals, railways and the autobahns. Rearmament meant men were conscripted into the army. The
autobahns improved transport and travel and people appreciated the public works - eg new schools and hospitals. Some
Germans thought the Nazis had made the streets safer, with no crime. Germany was re-emerging as strong and successful in world affairs. They were regaining their pride and destroying the Treaty of Versailles. Rearmament: 100,000
men to 1.4 million, 1933- 1939. Nazi rallies provided colour and fun. Nazi ideology gave people hope and confidence.
Some German people would have been supportive of the Nazis' racial policies- could have felt special due to the idea of
them being the master race.
Full employment was at the expense of women, Jews and did not take into account rearmament and the young men taking
part in Public Work Projects. RAD schemes were only temporary and hard, manual labour. Many men resented the long
hours, and did not receive a proper wage, merely pocket money. Most did not receive their Volkswagen Beetle, as car
production was halted when war broke out in 1939. Holidays through the KdF had a heavy presence of propaganda.
Trade Unions had been banned, and instead workers had to join the DAF. Heavily weighted in the favour of the business
17
Hitler’s Germany– To what extent did Germans benefit from Nazi rule?
Dates: 1934– 1945
SOCIAL POLICIES
‘Undesirables’
Racial policies
Tramps,
Gypsies and
Unemployed
It is estimated that 500,000 Gypsies died in death camps such as Auschwitz.
The Nazis also persecuted anyone who did not fit their idea of an ideal German. They called these people asocials. The Nazis thought that Germany wasted money looking after them and that they weakened the country.
Ideal Germans were socially useful – they worked hard and served the FATHERLAND. So the Nazis persecuted
tramps, beggars, alcoholics and anyone who refused to work. Around 500,000 tramps and beggars were sent to
concentration camps in 1933.
Homosexuals
Homosexuality was classed as 'degenrate behaviour', which threatened the ideal of 'masculinity'. Homosexuality also threatened the Nazi ideal of a large family. By the end of World War II, 100,000 homosexual men had
been arrested, with between 5,000 and 15,000 sent to Concentration camps, where they would have been sub-
Disabled
It was argued that allowing disabled people to live and have children, led to the "unfit" reproducing more quickly
than "the fit". It was said that this weakened society's ability to function efficiently, placing an unnecessary toll on
non-disabled people.
The Nazis claimed that some of the financial issues in Germany in the 20s and 30s were in part down to the
strain disabled people were putting on the economy. The Nazis sterilised disabled people or those with hereditary diseases from as early as 1933. Propaganda, such as the film 'Ich Klage An' promoted the idea of mercy
killings (euthanasia).
T4 Program- disabled people in Germany were killed by lethal injection or poison gas. In total, 275,000 disabled
children and adults are believed to have been murdered by the Nazis.. Hitler ordered the suspension of the
T4 program in 1941, after opposition from groups within Germany, including Catholic churchmen, however it continued in a more covert way up until the end of World War II.
A small group of disabled war heroes were offered sheltered employment. This appealed to the Nazi idea of 'the
triumph of will over adversity'.
Nazi
beliefs about
the Jews
Believed they were an inferior race. Believed that intermarriage between Jews and Germans over the
years had weakened the German people. Resented also for their influence in Germany- although they
formed less than 1% of the overall population, Jews were prominent in professions such as law-
Beginning of 1933: Boycott of all Jewish Shops and businesses was ordered.
1934: Jewish shops had to be marked with a yellow star to identify them. Jews were dismissed from
persecution
important jobs.
1935: Nuremberg Laws- Jews no longer classed as German citizens, as a result they could not be
employed in a public position or protected by the law. At the same time, the Law for the Protection of
German Blood and Honour banned marriage and sexual relations between Jews and non- Jews.
1938: Jews could not be doctors. Jews had to add the name Israel (men) or Sarah (women) to their
names. Jewish children forbidden from going to school.
Increasing
violence
9th November 1938: Kristallnacht (Night of the Broken Glass). Jewish homes, businesses and Synagogues attacked.
1939: Jews were forbidden to own a business, or own a radio. Jews forced to live in ghettoes.
1941: Einsatzgruppen squads in Russia started mass- shootings of Jews. All Jews were forced to
wear a yellow star of David.
Final
Solution
Genocide- aim to destroy a whole race of people.
Extermination Camps- e.g. Auschwitz, Treblinka and Sobiboraim.
Aim to totally exterminate the Jewish people. Trains transport Jews to the camps. Possessions taken.
The healthy sent to work camps. May be sent for medical experiments.
18
KEY TERMS AND SPELLINGS
3 C’s
Himmler
Article 48
Hitler Jugend
Aryan Race
KdF
Auschwitz
Kristallnacht
Autarky
Law for the protection of the
People and the State
BDM
Lebensraum
Bruning
Niemoller
Concordat
Night of the Long Knives
DAF
SA
disillusionment
SdA
Edelweiss Pirates
Social Democrats (SPD)
Einsatzgruppen
SS
Enabling Act
Van der Lubbe
Ernst Roehm
Von Papen
Fuhrer
Von Schleicher
Genocide
White Rose
Gestapo
Zusammenstoβe
Goebbels
19
The War in Vietnam, 1954– 1975
Key issue
Topic
Coverage
Page
How effective
were guerrilla
tactics during
the Vietnam
War?
Background to
Vietnam War
Reasons for USA
involvement in
Vietnam
The French defeat at Dien Bien Phu and
its consequences
US policy and intervention following
French defeat
JFK’s influence
LBJ’s Domino Theory
Gulf of Tonkin Incident
The theory of guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla tactics, 1964–1968
Operation Rolling Thunder
‘Hearts and Minds’
Agent Orange and napalm
Search and Destroy
Events
Aftermath/ significance
From the Gulf of Tonkin to the evacuation of Saigon
Changing perspectives: Early years; Defeatism; Horror
Evaluation of the significance of the
media to public opinion
The trial of Lieutenant Calley
21
Viet Cong
tactics
The US response
to guerrilla
tactics
How did the
coverage of
the Vietnam
War in the USA
lead to demands for
peace?
The My Lai Massacre, 1968
TV and media
coverage of the
war
The public reaction to the My
Lai Massacre
Public Opinion
Polls
Protest movements in the
USA, 1968–1973
Student opposition
Civil Rights Protesters
Political Opposition
Veteran Opposition
Reaction- National Student Strike
Increasing violence
The Kent State
University protest, 1970
Why were US
actions to end
the Vietnam
War unsuccessful?
The Fulbright
hearings, 1971
The Tet Offensive and its impact on the war,
1968
Purpose of the hearings
John Kerry
Successes and failures of the VC
Successes and failures of the USA
Results of the Tet Offensive
Containment>
Rolling Back
Attacks on Laos and Cambodia, 1970
US bombing of the North and attacks on
Laos and Cambodia, 1970 –1972
Public reaction
Vietnamization
The Paris Peace
Conference and
US withdrawal
Nixon’s new strategy
Increasing pressure on North Vietnam to
make peace
Henry Kissinger
Ceasefire War
The fall of Saigon, 1975
Removal of US financial support for
Thieu’s government
Consequences of the Vietnam War
KEY TERMS
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
20
TIMELINE OF EVENTS
1862
Vietnam becomes part of French Empire
1890
Ho Chi Minh born
1941
Viet Minh formed to resist Japanese forces
1945
Japanese hand Vietnam to Viet Minh, Ho Chi Minh declares the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam (September), French arrive
back in Vietnam to attempt to reinstate colonial rule
1946
War breaks out between the Vietnamese and the French
1954
Battle of Dien Bien Phu
Ceasefire agreed at Geneva.
parallel
Vietnam split down the 17th
1957
Viet Minh begin terror campaign on South Vietnam
1959
Ho Chi Minh trail first used
First American casualties- Military advisors killed
1960
National Liberation Front formed in the North.
South, they are known as the Viet Cong
1963
Diem killed.
1964
Gulf of Tonkin incident
1965
Operation Rolling Thunder started, 200,000 troops there,
first major clash at la Drang
1966
400,000 troops in Vietnam
1967
Thieu becomes president of S Vietnam, 490,000 troops there
1968
Tet Offensive, My Lai Massacre, 540,000 troops in Vietnam
1969
Secret bombing of Cambodia, Vietnamisation begins, My Lai
Massacre story breaks, Ho Chi Minh dies, Nixon announces the
beginning of US troop withdrawals
1970
Kent State University Protest
1971
Calley convicted of murder and jailed
1973
Last US troops leave Vietnam
15,000 military advisors in Vietnam
1973-74 'Cease-fire War'
1975
In the
Fall of Saigon
Vietnam War–
How effective were guerrilla tactics during the Vietnam War?
21
Background to Vietnam War
Pre– WWII: Vietnam part of French colony of Indo– China.
1941: French driven out by the Japanese. Japanese resisted by nationalist freedom fighters– Viet Minh, led by former school
teacher, Ho Chi Minh. Originally supported by the Allies. Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam an independent republic on 2nd September 1945, at the end of the war. France tried to re-impose colonial rule, and as Ho Chi Minh was Communist, America
supported the French (time of the COLD WAR– USA trying to contain Communism). $3 billion financial aid given to France
to help between 1949 and 1954.
French defeat
at Dien Bien
Phu
1946– 1954: Conflict between French and Viet Minh. 90,000 French casualties.
March 1954: Viet Minh destroy the French Army at Dien Bien Phu.
July 1954: Geneva agreement gave Vietnam independence.
Consequences
Divides Vietnam in two:

Communist north under Ho Chi Minh

‘democratic’ south under Ngo Dinh Diem (a Vietnamese nationalist).
Hope of elections in 2 years to reunite.
Reasons for US involvement
US policy and
intervention
following
French defeat
USA supports South Vietnam:
Obviously struggling against Viet Minh/ Viet Cong. Anyone who was anti– Communist in the Far
East was likely to receive American backing.
Diem was a fanatical Catholic with a poor record for human rights. One American politician said:
‘He’s a son of a bitch, but at least he’s our son of a bitch.’
USA send money, supplies and military equipment to Diem.
Ho Chi Minh did not accept the division of Vietnam. 1954: Sets up the National Liberation Front
(NLF), a patriotic movement to reunite Vietnam, overthrown Diem and get rid of the USA.
1959: Communist government ordered Viet Minh to begin terror campaign against Diem’s government.
JFK’s
influence
Increased number of military advisors from 100 to 1600 by 1963. Helped to equip the South Vietnamese Army. Spent nearly $270 million in military support for Diem.
Attempting to counter NLF terrorism, Diem began the ‘Agroville Program’, later called the
‘Strategic Hamlets Program’. Hundreds of thousands of peasants living in Viet Cong controlled
areas moved to live in ‘safe’ villages– in effect concentration camps. Failure– peasants did not
want to move, played into the hands of the Viet Cong– increased popularity.
Diem’s government loses
US support
8th May, 1963: Buddha’s birthday. Buddhist monks from Hue asked permission to fly Buddhist
flags. Diem refused. Buddhists demonstrated– ARVN (South Vietnamese Army) attacked them
with hand grenades and put Hue under military control. 11th June, 1963: Buddhist monk named
Thich Quang Duc burned himself to death. Worldwide outcry. America’s patience with Diem ran
out.
November, 1963: CIA arranged a government coup. Diem assassinated.
LBJ’s Domino
Theory
‘If you let a bully come into your front garden one day, he’ll be up on your porch, and the
day after that, he’ll rape your wife in your own bed.’
The new president, Lyndon Johnson, wanted a more aggressive war against communism.
Johnson didn’t think South Vietnam could keep the North out.
Gulf of
Tonkin
Incident–
US
involvement
escalates
July, 1964: American forces help ARVN carry out raids on North Vietnamese radar stations. After one of
these operations in the Gulf of Tonkin, USS Maddox fired on Vietnamese torpedo boats which came too
close. Over the 3rd to the 4th August: Sailors on the Maddox panic– fear they are under attack.
Johnson never believed this was the case– he was looking for an excuse!
Privately: ‘Those dumb, stupid sailors were shooting at flying fish.’
To Congress: ‘North Vietnam has conducted deliberate attacks against US naval vessels.
7th August, 1964: Gulf of Tonkin Resolution authorised by Congress to escalate US involvement.
Johnson orders bombing raids and sends more troops to Vietnam.
Turning point in US legal history– gave president power to wage war without declaration of war by Congress
– this power removed in 1973.
America knows war can only be won on the ground. 2.8 million sodiers sent to Vietnam 1964– 75.
Once they became involved, USA had to keep escalating the war to try and defeat the Viet Cong.
22
Vietnam War– How effective were guerrilla tactics during the Vietnam War?
The theory of
guerrilla war-
Viet Cong Tactics
Early 1965: Viet Cong had 170,000 soldiers.
Well equipped from China and USSR– still heavily outnumbered and outgunned by ARVN and the USA forces.
No match in open warfare. Nov 1965: Ia Drang Valley– US forces kill 2000 Viet Cong for the loss of 300
troops.
Did not daunt Ho Chi Minh. Believed superior forces could be defeated using Guerrilla tactics. He had seen
these in China– Mao Tse– tung had used these same tactics to secure a Communist victory. He also used
these tactics against the French and Japanese.
AIM– wear down enemy soldiers, wreck their morale and make US soldiers live in constant
fear of an ambush.

RETREAT when the enemy attacks

RAID when the enemy camps

ATTACK when the enemy tires

PERSUE when the enemy retreats
They would stay ‘close to the belt’- shadowing US troops as closely as possible to make it difficult
for US planes to bomb them.
Guerrilla tactics of the NVA and VC 1964– 1968
Very effective– guerrilla tactics were a nightmare for US
army:
HARD TO FIND:

Guerrillas don’t wear uniform and they dressed
like ordinary people (simple black pyjamas of a
peasant).

Guerrillas work in small groups with limited weapons.

170 ,000 troops compared to the 9 million troops of
the Americans.

Guerrilla’s don’t have head quarters or base
camps.

Viet Cong get South Vietnamese people on their
side—respected ordinary people.

240km of tunnels.
WEAPONRY:

Equipped by China USSR.

Use booby traps (e.g. Punji trap), ambushes and
trip wires.

Bouncing Betty land mine.
GUERRILLA METHODS OF FIGHTING:

Attacked, then disappeared into the jungle, villages
or tunnels.

Ambushed– struck quickly, often at great personal risk,
killed the ‘point’ soldiers, command officers and radio
operator as quickly as possible.
RUTHLESS/ NEVER GIVE UP:





Viet Cong kill peasants who tried to stop them.
Guerrilla’s aims were to wear US morale and exhaust
soldiers.
VC terrorise SV police, teachers and government
(27,000 civilian deaths 1966– 71).
Ho Chi Minh trail– supplies from North Vietnam brought
down via this train through Laos and Cambodia. Often
travel by bicycle. 40,000 Vietnamese worked to keep it
open whatever the threat (bombed constantly).
Believed in what they were fighting for– simply
refused to give in.
23
Operation Rolling Thunder ‘Hearts
and Minds’
US Response to guerrilla tactics
7th Feb, 1965: USA launch Operation Rolling Thunder. Extensive bombing raids on military and industrial
targets in North Vietnam. Lasts until 1972. Targets expanded to include towns and cities in North and South
Vietnam. Also Ho Chi Minh trail, Cambodia and Laos.
More bombs were dropped on North Vietnam than were dropped in the whole of the Second World War
on Germany and Japan.
Effective? Damaged N. Vietnam’s war effort and disrupted supply routes. Enabled USA to strike communist forces, even as ground troops reduced.
1970– 72: Intense bombing campaigns against Hanoi forced North Vietnam to negotiate.
Could not defeat the communists, only slow them down. Viet Cong continued to operate supply lines. Even
after major air raids on N.V. in 1972, the communists were able to launch a major assault on the south.
Cost horrendous– communists shot down 14,000 US and S.V. aircraft.
Estimated that to kill one Viet Cong fighter= 75 bombs/ 400 artillery shells= $400,000.
Johnson insisted victory would only come if USA won the ‘hearts and minds’ of the Vietnamese people. Policy of ‘Hope and Electricity’.
Americans built schools, roads and sewers and provided medical aid.
Strategic Hamlets program and killings in villages undid any of the good work this achieved.
Agent
Orange and Napalm
US developed powerful chemical weapon called Agent Orange. Highly toxic ‘weedkiller’. Used to
destroy jungle where the Viet Cong hid. 82 million litres of Agrent Orange sprayed thousands of km²
of jungle.
Napalm was another widely used chemical weapon. Destroyed jungle where guerrillas might hide.
Burned through skin to the bone. Many soldiers and civilians killed.
Search and Destroy
Response to guerrilla tactics. US Commander General Westmoreland developed a policy of Search
and Destroy. Established secure and heavily defended US bases in the south of the country
and near to the coast. From here, US and SV forces launched Search and Destroy raids from
helicopters. They would descend upon a village and destroy any Viet Cong forces they found. Soldiers had to send back reports of body counts. Nicknamed ‘Zippo Raids’, after the cheap lighters they
used to set fire to the villagers’ homes. Did kill Viet Cong soldiers, but:

Raids based on inaccurate information.

Inexperienced troops ran into traps.

Innocent villages mistaken for Viet Cong strongholds.

Innocent civilian casualties very common.

For every Viet Cong weapon found in a Search and Destroy mission, 6 civilians died.

Made US and SV forces very unpopular with peasants; made Viet Cong more popular in
return.
Impact of guerrilla tactics and
US response on US soldiers
Morale collapsed:












Average age of soldier: 19
Questioning orders
Deserting
Smoking marijuana
Shooting heroin
Stealing
Racially abusing comrades
Others became trigger-happy and cruel
Many came to regard the Vietnamese as sub human
people responsible for their friends’ deaths.
In 1970, 18% of soldiers had gone AWOL
435 cases of ‘fragging’- shooting an officer
‘Working it out’- unit refusing to do as they are told.
Vietnam War– How effective were guerrilla tactics during the Vietnam War?
24
Events
Aftermath/ significance
My Lai Massacre, 1968
January, 1968: North Vietnamese had launched the Tet Offensive. During the offensive, the 48th VC
Battalion had retreated to the village of Son My in the north of South Vietnam, and was believed to be
hiding there. Whole area was known as a Viet Cong fortress, leaflets dropped warning all non– Viet
Cong to flee.
March, 1968: Unit of young American soldiers (Charlie Company) started a Search and Destroy mission
in Quang Ngai region in South Vietnam.
They had been told that in the My Lai area, there was a Viet Vong HQ, and 200 Viet Cong guerrillas.
16th March, 1968: Early morning– Charlie Company arrived in My Lai.
Next four hours:

Between 300 and 400 civilians were killed.

Mostly women, children and old men.

Some killed as they worked in the fields.

Many of them mown down by machine gun fire as they were herded into an irrigation ditch.

Others shot in their homes.

No Viet Cong were found in the village, and only 3 weapons were recovered.

Women were gang raped, some victims were mutilated, with the letter C for ‘Charlie’ carved
onto their stomachs.
At the time, the army treated the operation as a success. Commanding officers report said 20 non–
combatants were killed, and the rest of the dead with Viet Cong.
All the soldiers knew what had taken place, but took it to be a normal and inevitable part of war.
12 months later: Letter sent to 30 leading politicians.
Ronald Ridenhour had evidence of ‘something rather dark and bloody’.
Recounted stories that had been told and asked Congress to investigate.
Life magazine published official army photographs of massacre.
Investigation: Ended in the trial of Lieutenant William Calley for murder. He had personally shot many
of the people in the irrigation ditch.
September, 1969: formally charged with murdering 109 people. Ten other members of the company
also charged. Army denied Calley was acting under orders. His senior officers were acquitted.
After a long trial, heavily covered by the media, in March 1971 Calley was found guilty of murdering
22 civilians.
August, 1971: sentenced to 20 years hard labour.
November, 1974: Released.
My Lai was not an isolated incident.
However, revelation about My Lai shocked the public. Clearest evidence yet that the war had gone
wrong.
November, 1969: 700,000 anti– war protesters demonstrated in Washington DC. Larget political
protest ever.
Why did Charlie Company massacre the vil-
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Unclear orders which emphasised killing
Told only VC would be there
Racist attitudes towards Vietnamese
Desire for revenge for fallen friends
Frustration– could not find enemy
Poor officers– Calley college drop out
Poor leadership, who ‘turned a blind eye’
Emphasis on body count= success.
Inability to communicate with villagers
Vietnam War= brutal and brutalising. War of mass killing and destruction.
25
Vietnam War– How did coverage of the Vietnam War in the USA lead to demands for peace?
Vietnam War was the first which appeared on the TV the next day.
First ‘Living Room War’- extensively reported in the newspapers and on television without censorship. Media coverage had a divisive effect on public opinion.
TV and Media Coverage of the War
Public Opinion
Early
years:
Support
In the early years, American media was supportive. 1962 Time Magazine praised the war as ‘a remarkable US military effort’.
American soldier in Vietnam– especially if he was a ‘Green Beret’- was singled out for praise.

Time (1961): [Idolised as a man who] ‘can remove an appendix, fire an obsolete gun, sweet-talk some bread
out of a native in his own language, fashion explosions out of chemical fertiliser, cut an enemy’s throat, live of
the land.’

The Green Berets (1965) by Robin Moore: Glamorised the soldiers as down-to-earth heroes, there to help the
Vietnamese and set them free. South Vietnamese soldiers not portrayed so favourably. Moore called them
‘lousy little dirty bug-outs’.

The Green Berets (1968) film starring John Wayne: made with full cooperation of the Johnson government.
Americans seen handing out sweets to local children and supervising humanitarian aid. In contrast to the
Americal Special Forces, the Viet Cong were brutal.
The story involves mission of Colonel Mike Kirby to capture a top NVA officer, who lives a life of luxury as
his people go hungry.
Changing
perspectives:
Defeatism



Horror
Vietnamese propaganda reports of a massacre and the complaints of a number of soldiers were ignored or
covered up for 18 months.
November, 1969: Journalist Seymour Hersch broke the story– soldiers’ testimony and photos by Ron Haeberle (US
army photographer) who had taken one set of black and white ‘official’ photographs to give to the military and another
set of graphic colour photographs on a secret second camera.
The trial of Calley: reaction of US public to My Lai was surprising– 79% disapproved of Calley’s court martial, and 20%
refused to accept what he had done was wrong.
However, the massacre completely destroyed any appearances of the ‘moral right’ that Americans had felt
about the war.
US public was confused and distressed– how had so many good American boys been able to do such things? Returning Vietnam soldiers had gone from heroes, to ‘baby killers’ following My Lai.
How significant
was the
media to
public
opinion?
Claimed that media coverage directed public opinion by horrifying the public about the war.
However, only 1/4 of reports contained images of dead bodies, and before 1968 most news reports were pro–
American.
TV reporting only became hostile after public opinion began to turn against the war.
Public opinion was formed by images and reports the public had been seeing for the previous 4 years.
Americans had watched TV and made up their own minds.
135 photographers from all sides recorded as dead or missing.
Famous photos– ARVN colonel Nguyen Ngoc Loan executing VC captive in Saigon.
1972 image of children running from a village following a napalm attack was launched by mistake.
Polls
Americans who believed the war was a mistake:
1965: 24%
1966: 37%
1967: 41%
1968: 53%
1969: 58%
1970: 56%
CBS (1965): Shown American soldiers firing Vietnamese house thatched rooves with Zippo lighters.
Tet Offensive, 1968: Americans begin to face up to what was going on in the war.
Journalist John Wheeler (Feb, 1968): Article called ‘Life in the V ring. Describes a day during the Battle of
Hamburger Hill. Concentrated on the fears and bitterness of the soldiers who were having to fight.

Walter Cronkite (Feb, 1968): TV presenter made his crucial ‘We are mired in a stalemate’ broadcast, which
summed up the growing mood of defeatism. Cronkite was admired for his moderate and realistic views and
here he was saying he had ‘no confidence in the Vietnamese government’ and was ‘disappointed by the American leaders’ and concluded that ‘the only rational way out will be to negotiate, not as victors, but as an honourable person who… did the best they could.’
By the time of John Wayne’s ‘Green Berets’, people had realised the portrayal of Vietnam as a ‘Wild West’ to be
tamed by good and decent heroes was not the way it was.
Vietnam War– How did coverage of the Vietnam War in the USA lead to demands for peace?
26
As the war progressed, opposition to the war increased.
Protest Movements in the USA, 1968– 1973
Student
Oppositions
First protests against the war occurred in 1964 by students.
1965: Vietnam Day Committee student group organised a 36-hour teach-in against the war at the University of California, to which 30,000 students attended.
Students from this university were also the first to burn their draft cards in 1965.
November, 1965: Norman Morrison, 31 year old pacifist, set fire to himself under the office window of
Secretary of State Robert McNamara.
1967: Anti– Vietnam protest movement began, but still had a ‘hippy’ feel to it- ‘Make love, not war’.
‘Human Be-in’ in San Francisco– protests about Vietnam war. Christian groups also joined in opposition.
October, 1967: 100,000 protesters marched to the Lincoln memorial in Washington D.C. Protesters
were attacked by the police and there were 647 arrests.
Civil Rights
Protesters
1965: President Johnson had promised Americans a ‘Great Society’ programme of state welfare and
good homes.
War cost $20 billion a year, so this programme was cancelled!
Many young people questioned this choice– saw the war as a waste of money.
Muslim group Nation of Islam asked why black Americans should fight for a country who did not
grant them equal rights.
1966: Muhammad Ali refused to be drafted- ‘No Viet Cong ever called me n***er’.
Martin Luther King Jr– first of all hesitated to criticise the war as he wanted the government to support his
Civil Rights campaign, but in 1967 spoke out on social grounds:
Black American less likely to be able to ‘dodge the draft’. Also more likely to be sent on active
duty, and twice as likely to be killed as white Americans.
Other Americans began to ‘dodge the draft’. 600,000 young men evaded the call up/ refused to fight. Some publicly burnt their
draft papers and were arrested. Rich people went abroad until they were too old.
170,000 Americans received official conscientious objector status.
Famous draft dodgers includes two future presidents: Bill Clinton and George W. Bush.
Political Oppo- 1968: Eugene McCarthy campaigned on an anti– war platform.
1968: Robert McNamara (Secretary of State) admitted in public that Operation Rolling Thunder was
sition
not working– sheer numbers of casualties was not helping them to win the war.
The Kent State
University
Protest, 1970
The Fulbright
Hearings, 1971
Veteran
Opposition
1971: Veterans led an anti– war march that attracted 500,000 people. Veterans attending the march
threw away 700 medals.
Reaction
1969: out of work draftsman Sam Melville planted a number of bombs in office buildings in protest.
Kent State University, Ohio– 4th May, 1970: against the US bombing of Cambodia. The state’s governer
turned out the NATIONAL Guard, who shot dead four students.
In response, 100,000 demonstrators marched on Washington and 4 million students went on a National
Student Strike.
Increasing
violence
Anti– War protesters set fire to 30 Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) buildings.
August, 1970: van filled with 907 kilograms of ammonium nitrate was blown up at the Universwity of Wisconsin– Madison.
Nixon tried to reduce opposition by saying he agreed with ant-war movements but opposed the violence:
1969– made draft fairer by choosing names on a lottery basis, 1971– set up President’s Commission on
Campus unrest to address student opposition to the war, 1973– abolished the draft altogether.
Purpose of the
hearings
April– May 1971: Congress beginning to question the war. Senate Foreign Relations Committee held
22 hearings called the Fulbright Hearings for proposals to withdraw from Vietnam.
Committee chairman William Fulbright opposed US involvement. Began proceedings by criticising the
‘fraudulent Gulf of Tonkin episode’, which had taken responsibility of the war away from congress.
Fulbright said the purpose of the hearings was ‘positive congressional action to end American participation in the war’.
John Kerry
1971: John Kerry complained on the veterans’ behalves to the Fulbright Hearings. He was a returning
war hero and spoke of how he was told he was fighting against Communism, but was in fact a civil
war waged by people fighting for their freedom while their country was ravaged by American
bombs.
NOT ALL AMERICANS OPPOSED THE WAR!
Opinion poll after Kent State University shootings showed half agreed with the invasion of Cambodia, and 58% thought the students’ deaths
were their own fault. On 20th May, 1970 100,000 New Yorkers marched in support of the war.
Vietnam War– Why were the US actions to end the Vietnam War unsuccessful?
27
Events
Results of the
Tet Offensive
Famous as the only military action that both sides lost!
Significant repercussions: loss of life and decline in morale.
1.
Viet Cong never fully recovered (many soldiers deserted, 45,000 troops dead, more or less destroyed in the south,
support they expected from the south never materialised)
2.
American public turned against the war (support wanes, credibility gap, most deadly year for US deaths in 1968,
media reports heavy civilian losses, public begin to turn against President LJ– does not stand for re-election)
3.
Turning point in the war (realisation war cannot be won, change in tactics by NVA/ VC was a complete shock, when
General Westmoreland requests 200,000 more troops to ‘finish the job’, he is refused by the government).
Successes and
failures for the VC
The Tet Offensive and its impact on the war, 1968
NV had offered a truce (ceasefire) for the Tet holiday (27th Jan to 3rd Feb), so half of the ARVN had been allowed to go on
leave.
Not a complete surprise though– General Westmoreland had withdrawn 15 US battalions from country to defend Saigon, having noticed the VC build up.
Reasons for attack in 1968: Hanoi government had become convinced that the ARVN were unable to resist and the US were so
unpopular with the peasants that they would be ready to rise p and drive them out.
Other people think it was a desperate last-ditch attempt because American bombing of North Vietnam had convinced the Hanoi
government it was about to lose.
Final theory: Hanoi government was looking for a way to get rid of the South Vietnamese VC and taking control of the war effort.
Change in tactics– coordinated attack, not guerrilla warfare.
31st January, 1968: 84,000 VC troops attacked.
NVA and VC launched a major offensive on Tet– Vietnamese New Year.
VC fighters attacked over 100 towns, cities and other military targets.
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Successes and
failures for the USA
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ARVN taken by surprise.
15 man suicide squad captured American embassy in Saigon and held it for 6 hours.
Northern town of Hue (on border between North and South Vietnam) captured.
Alleged 100s of South Vietnamese ‘collaborators’ executed.
Took American soldiers 25 days to recapture the town. At least 3,000 civilians died in American reoccupation. 75%
of town’s houses were wrecked. Many other towns the same.
Made two further direct military pushes in May and August.
VC offensives were defeated with heavy losses.
ARVN did not crumble.
Peasants did not rise up in support of the North Vietnamese.
Results initially appeared disastrous for the North Vietnamese: 45,000 NVA and VC losses in first phase of the Offensive.
Lost most guerrilla fighters and equipment.
Morale fell.
Soldiers deserted.
North Vietnam considered surrendering– in April, 1969, issued Directive 55: ‘Never again are we going to risk our
entire military force.’
The ARVN did not crumble, and towns captured in the Offensive were recaptured soon after.
VC was destroyed in the South of Vietnam.
Towns captured by the North Vietnamese were recaptured.
VC all but destroyed in South Vietnam.
The ARVN did not crumble.
US public lost faith in the war.
President Johnson did not stand for re-election– realised the public had lost their confidence in him (chants of ‘Hey,
hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?’)
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Media turned against the government.
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A credibility gap opened up between what the government told people and what they thought was true. Attitude develops that the Vietnam War is unwinnable.
For the South Vietnamese:
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Large scale destruction in South Vietnam.
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14,300 civilians killed
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70,000 homes destroyed.
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627,000 refugees.
Vietnam War– Why were the US actions to end the Vietnam War unsuccessful?
28
Vietnamization
Nixon begins to pressurise North Vietnam to make peace, using aggressive tactics to force peace talks.
Time of Détente– ideal opportunity to bring peace to Vietnam!
Henry Kissinger (Nixon’s National Security Advisor) began secret talks with North Vietnamese.
‘Madman Theory’- Nixon privately expressed the belief that if the North Vietnamese thought he was ready to do anything (even use the nuclear bomb) he could frighten Hanoi into an agreement.
Not afraid to escalate the war and undermine NV war effort.
Attacks on Laos and Public
Reaction
Cambodia
Containment > Rolling Back The Paris Peace
Conference and US withdrawal
Pressuring
for Peace
Nixon’s new strategy
Richard Nixon became President in 1969. Told Americans in November, 1969 of his plans to end the war. Wanted to
bring troops home, but could not abandon Vietnam. No real intention of ending the war, rather make it easier to
stomach for the American people.
Nixon said it was the job of the ARVN, not the Americans to defend South Vietnam. American forces were ‘foreign’
and should be brought home.
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US invest money in ARVN to recruit more troops and provide training and weapons. Suited Americans.
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Gradually ‘brought the boys home’ which made Nixon popular.
However, Vietnamization was largely unsuccessful– ARVN troops lacked the discipline to make it work!
Remaining US troops also demoralised– felt USA no longer committed to Vietnam, and they were simply waiting to be
sent home.
NVA, at invitation of Cambodian government, used bases in neighbouring Cambodia to assemble forces.
‘Operation Menu’- secretly bombing NVA supply bases in Cambodia since 1969.
Attempt to destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
1970: Nixon decided to ‘go for broke’, and sent 100,000 US and ARVN troops into Cambodia to destroy North Vietnamese presence in the country and their bases and supplies.
‘Operation Lam Son 719’- 1971: ARVN attacked the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos. US troops did not enter Laos, but
provided air support.
Communist forces were trying to take over the country (the ‘Pathet Lao’), supported by the NVA.
ARVN were defeated and driven out of Laos, but Operation may have prevented a planned VC attack on South
Vietnam.
1972: Nixon bombed Hanoi and Haiphong and mined North Vietnamese harbours.
Crossing into Cambodia, led to further anti war demonstrations and the growing anti– war sentiment led congress to cut military spending and cancel the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, making it
more difficult for Nixon to carry on the war.
October, 1972: Kissinger announced that ‘peace was at hand’ in Vietnam.
However, negotiations stalled.
Nguyen Van Thieu (South Vietnamese ruler) refused to accept the terms of the ceasefire–
‘Policy of the Four Nos’:
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No talks
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No shared government
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No reforms
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No surrender.
North Vietnamese also left the negotiating table blaming Americans for trying to change agreed terms.
Christmas, 1972: Nixon conducted huge campaign on North Vietnam– dropped more bombs in 11 days than in all the years
1969– 71.
Also placed pressure on Thieu, promising financial support, but telling him America was signing with or without him.
Paris Peace Accord signed on 27th Jan, 1973:
Treaty= ceasefire, withdrawal of US troops, return of all prisoners of war, direct talks to be held between North and South for a political settlement.
Last American troops left Vietnam on 29th March, 1973.
Ceasefire War
Thieu immediately renounced promises made to Hanoi government– or the Provisional Revolutionary
Government (PRG) as it was now called and began to try and drive PRG forces out of South Vietnam.
PRG were scared of US retaliation so issued commanders the ‘5 forbids’: Don’t attack, don’t resist enemy
attacks, don’t surround enemy positions, don’t shell enemy positions, don’t construct defences.
Local PRG commanders ignored Hanoi.
1973– 1974: The ‘Ceasefire War’ in South Vietnam. 56,000 ARVN and 100,000 PRG soldier deaths in
these years.
29
Vietnam War– Why were the US actions to end the Vietnam War unsuccessful?
The Fall of Saigon, 1975
Congress stopped all financial help to Thieu’s government in South Vietnam.
South Vietnam’s economy collapsed. South Vietnam were on their own.
March, 1975: North Vietnamese government invaded South Vietnam.
ARVN collapsed. NVA advanced rapidly.
Thieu resigned, and on the 30th April, 1975, Communist troops marched victoriously into Saigon.
Helicopters landed on the roof of the US embassy to pick up last remaining diplomats.
Many watched evacuation on TV and thought chaotic scenes were embarrassing for the USA.
North Vietnamese then took their revenge:
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60,000 supporters of Thieu’s government were killed
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300,000 sent for re-education
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Over next 15 years, 1.5 million boat people tried to leave Vietnam in rafts of small boats. Many drowned.
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A million South Vietnamese went to live in the USA or France.
Vietnam was ruined and for the next 20 years one of the poorest countries in the world.
Why were the US
defeated in Vietnam?
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1965– 75: growing opposition at home
Military stalemate in Vietnam
1968: Tet Offensive damaged US confidence
1972: massive Christmas bombing campaign
1973: Paris Peace Accords/ US troops left.
US congress reduced aid to Thieu
1975: Thieu government fell to NVA
Consequences of the Vietnam War
Effect on Chemical warfare:
Damaged crops which led to food shortages
the envi- 
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Destroyed 5.4 million acres of forest areas and animals and plants living there.
ronment
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Poisoned streams and rivers.
Effect on 
US troops 
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Effect on
policy of
Containment
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Effects
on Vietnamese
Society
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Effect on 
Vietnamese
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citizens
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Drug addiction– heroin use at 30%. Cheap and readily available
Confusion and bitterness– not welcomed home in the same way soldiers were from
World War II
Found it difficult to adjust to civilian life
PTSD
Cancer– from use of Agent Orange
US policy in tatters
Shown USA’s vast military strength could not stem the spread of communism
Heavy bombing of Laos and Cambodia helped communist forces win more support
Propaganda disaster– although meant to be a ‘moral crusade’, atrocities carried out by
USA soldiers and chemical warfare damaged their reputation
Relations with other communist states became a little less strained.
Morals– thousands of peasants driven to shanty towns near US bases. Poverty, prostitution and drug abuse common
Huge black market
Buddhist priests protested in late 1960s
Refugees– Around 5 million South Vietnamese displaced from their homes
Took 20 years to start recovering from the war
‘Boat People’ attempt to leave Vietnam, mainly late ‘70s, but well into the early ‘90s.
Chemical warfare meant South Vietnamese citizens had high levels of dioxin in their
bodies because of Agent Orange– 3x as high as US citizens
Unexploded mines caused death and injuries for years to come
Napalm caused horrific burns which killed or disfigured civilians.
30
KEY TERMS AND SPELLINGS
Agent Orange
Laos
ARVN
Lieutenant Calley
booby trap
Mao Tse-tung
Cambodia
Charlie
close to the belt'
colonial rule
conscientious objector
Containment
Détente
Diem
Dien Bien Phu
Dodge the Draft'
Domino Theory
Fulbright Hearings
guerrilla
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
Hanoi
Hearts and Minds'
Henry Kissinger
Ho Chi Ming Trail
Ho Chi Minh
Indochina
JFK
John Kerry
Kent State University Protest
General Westmoreland
morale
My Lai Massacre
Napalm
NLF
NVA
Operation Rolling Thunder
Paris Peace Accords
President Johnson
President Nixon
PRG
protest movements
punji trap
Robert McNamara
Saigon
Search and Destroy
Tet Offensive
Thieu
Viet Cong
Viet Minh
Vietnam
Vietnamization
Walter Cronkite
Zippo Raid
Strategic Hamlets Program