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Subject Studies Assignment
Teaching Homeostasis to Year 9 Students
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Contents
INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT ............................................................................................................. 4
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................................ 6
THEORIES OF LEARNING ...................................................................................................................................... 6
MISCONCEPTIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 8
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING .............................................................................................................................. 9
Applying the Research ................................................................................................................................. 11
LESSON SEQUENCE.................................................................................................................................. 13
PRE-TEST .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
LESSON OUTLINE AND EVALUATIONS ................................................................................................................ 15
Lesson 1: Sensitivity..................................................................................................................................... 15
Lesson 2: Responding to external stimuli .................................................................................................... 18
Lesson 3: Homeostasis ................................................................................................................................. 21
Review of homework and exercise books ................................................................................................................. 24
Lesson 4: Thermoregulation ........................................................................................................................ 26
POST-TEST ........................................................................................................................................................ 28
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................. 30
REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................................................. 33
APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................................................... 35
Appendix A: Pre- and Post-Test .....................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix B: Pre-Test Results ........................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix B.1- Table 1- Distribution of students’ perception of the relationship between the brain and body,
demonstrated in the pre-test ...................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix B.2: Table 2 – Percentage of students who correctly recognise the involvement of the brain in four
discrete functions. ....................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix B.3: Table 3 – Students pre-test responses to the question ‘Why do animals sweat?’ .Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Appendix B.4: Table 4 – Percentage of students who correctly identify the word homeostasis as the process of
maintaining a stable internal environment in the pre-test. .....................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix B.5: Table 5- Students pre-test responses to the question ‘On a hot day how does the body keep our
internal body temperature constant?’ .....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix C: ...................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix C.1: Lesson Plan 1 .....................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix C.2: Lesson 1 Evaluation ...........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix D: Lesson 1 Resources ...................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix D.1: PowerPoint slide for starter activity .................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix D.2: PowerPoint slide for AfL question .....................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix D.3: PowerPoint slide for gap fill exercise ................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix D.4: PowerPoint slide and associated worksheet .....................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix E: Example of marked work from lesson 1 ....................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix F .....................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix F.1: Lesson Plan 2 .....................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix F.2: Lesson 2 Evaluation ...........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix G: Lesson 2 Resources ...................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix G.1: Spiral Word Search Activity ..............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix G.2: Ordering the nervous pathway card sort ..........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix G.3: Homework Sheet ..............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix H: Example of marked work from lesson 2 ...................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Appendix I .....................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix I.1: Lesson Plan 3 ......................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix I.2: Lesson 3 Evaluation ............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix J: Lesson 3 resources .....................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix J.1 PowerPoint slides for thermoregulation negative feedback loop taskError! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix J.2: Concept Cartoon ................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix K: Example of Marked Work for Lesson 3 .....................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix L .....................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix L.1: Lesson Plan 4 .....................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix L.2: Lesson 4 Evaluation ...........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix M: Example of marked worked from lesson 4...............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix N: Post-Test results .......................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix N.1 Table 6- Distribution of students’ perception of the relationship between the brain and body,
demonstrated in the post test ..................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix N.2: Table 7 – Percentage of students who correctly recognise the involvement of the brain in each
of four discrete functions. ........................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix N.3: Table 8 – Students post-test responses to the question ‘Why do animals sweat?’ ................ Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Appendix N.4: Table 9 – Percentage of students who correctly identify the word homeostasis as the process of
maintaining a stable internal environment in the post-test. ....................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix N.5: Table 10- Students post-test responses to the question ‘On a hot day how does the body keep
the internal body temperature constant?’ ...............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Introduction and Context
This paper details a sequence of four 1 hour 15 minute lessons on the topic of
homeostasis, taught to a class of year 9 students. The lessons formed the class’s initial
introduction to GCSE level work and were designed to meet the specification of the
‘Responses to a Changing Environment’ Unit within the Edexcel Syllabus (Edexcel, 2012)
and the KS4 National Curriculum (Department for Education, 2014). Homeostasis has been
used as the topic for this assignment as this falls into the schools long-term scheme of work
as the topic that the class was due to be taught in January 2014, as an introductory topic to the
GCSE Biology syllabus.
The study took place in a mixed secondary school with academy status, located within
the
The school has approximately
students of which there
are considerably more boys than girls. The proportion of students eligible for pupil premium
and who have special educational needs is above the national average. The proportion of
pupils with English as an additional language (EAL) is below average. The class of year 9
pupils initially consisted of 20 students, reducing to 19 students (12 boys and 7 girls) from
lesson 2 of the lesson sequence.
Within this year group students were permitted to choose triple science as an ‘option’
for their GCSE, regardless of their science ability. This class is the lower ability of the ‘triple
science classes’ and has a relatively mixed ability. The students end of KS3 national
curriculum levels, assessed in December 2014, range between 4B to 6A and their GCSE
target grades range from D-B. One student in the class has ADHD and three students have
EAL. Although not formally identified as having a learning difficulty, one student has been
observed to have considerable difficulty in writing and drawing diagrams, with handwriting
often being illegible despite his attempts to increase neatness. Due to the differing needs of
the pupils, extension tasks were incorporated into all lessons to maintain engagement and
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stretch higher ability students and print-outs were created for those whose writing speed and
English ability hinders their learning. Four students were chosen of differing ability for which
examples of their work has been provided and their progress in specific tasks has been
monitored where feasible. These students have been referred to as Student A (mid ability
male), Student B (higher ability male) Student C (lower ability female), and Student D (low
ability male).
In order to inform my planning and to establish how to best present an effective series
of lessons, a literature review was undertaken. Literature regarding theories of learning,
common misconceptions in relation to the central nervous system and homeostasis and
assessment for learning techniques have been considered. Prior to teaching the lesson
sequence a pre-test was conducted to ascertain an understanding of students’ level of prior
knowledge and held misconceptions. The same test was presented following the sequence of
lessons to assess students’ progress and the effectiveness of the lessons. During lessons I
attempted to overcome misconceptions by initiating cognitive conflict (Piaget, 1952) often
taking a socio-cultural approach. Throughout the sequence of lessons I used a variety of
formative assessment methods to assess students’ progress and to inform future teaching.
The literature was sourced from Kings College Library, my personal book collection
and electronic journals obtained primarily using Google Scholar and Kings College Journal
Search database. Main resources used within lesson were PowerPoint presentations, video,
worksheets, and mini-white boards.
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Literature Review
Theories of learning
In order to inform best teaching practice it is essential to initially consider how
children learn. Most theories of learning can be broadly categorised as either behaviourist or
cognitivist. An extreme behaviourist approach states that we enter the world as ‘blank slates’
and that learning occurs purely via a series of inputs and outputs. This approach is
deterministic in that learning is entirely dependent upon the environment providing us with
the stimuli by which we learn to respond in particular ways. The behaviourist approach fails
to explain our ability to solve problems without having previously been exposed to the
specific stimuli or scenario. By contrast, cognitivists argue that mental processes are involved
in learning and that existing knowledge is the crucial starting point for developing further
knowledge.
Piaget’s (1952) well known stage theory takes a cognitive constructivist approach.
According to Piaget, some knowledge can simply be assimilated if it complies with existing
held knowledge. However, in order to increase the complexity of knowledge held and
progress in understanding, the individual must undergo cognitive conflict. Cognitive conflict
is a mental process whereby new information conflicts with existing theories, thereby
prompting the reorganisation of held concepts thus leading to a new stage in
conceptualisation. This theory, however, assumes that learners seek to resolve the conflict
between new information presented and existing knowledge to bring about equilibrium. In
fact, the reluctance of an individual to release pre-existing concepts has been well
documented (Ausubel et al, 1978) and therefore increasing the students’ motivation to reevaluate existing knowledge presents a particular challenge in teaching accepted scientific
concepts. Davis (2001) suggests that in order to prompt students to release their
misconceptions and initiate conceptual change, students preconceptions must first be exposed
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using methods such as descriptions, illustrations or concept maps. Students should then
discuss and evaluate their concepts allowing them to recognise inadequacies in their ideas so
causing students to become keen to change their concepts to more fitting explanations.
Piaget’s (1952) theory states children pass through a series of developmental stages,
the last two of which are relevant to secondary education; concrete operational (age 7-12) and
formal operational (age 12-adult). At the concrete stage children can only understand
concepts for which they have direct experience and can also only consider one concept at a
time. At the formal stage the individual can use logical reasoning and think in an abstract
manner about many different concepts simultaneously. Although it is generally accepted that
formal operations do exist as children become more mature, research has questioned the age
at which children reach this stage and it has even been suggested that adults sometimes
perform tasks in an operational manner (Neimark, 1975). A sound understanding of
homeostasis requires comprehension of multiple non-observable concepts and therefore is a
formal operational task. Due to the mixed ability nature of the class, it is unlikely that all of
the students will be able to grasp the concept fully as not all of them are likely to have
reached the formal operations stage. I will however attempt to use observable examples
wherever possible.
Vygotsky’s learning theories are also constructivist although in contrast to Piaget, his
theories take a social cultural approach. Vygotsky (1978) states that in order to learn the
individual must undergo transformation of existing knowledge through interpersonal
interactions, and speech (either internal or external) is required to transfer information into
thought. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is a concept proposed by Vygotsky which
describes the gap between what an individual can learn unaided and the potential learning
that can occur with the guidance of a more capable other (Shaffer, 1999). As the teacher I
must therefore identify the ZPD to pitch the intervention accordingly. Scaffolding, a term
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coined by Wood et al (1976), will be used to aid the students to reach their full potential by
making adjustments to the task to bring it within the child ZPD.
Misconceptions
Key to the constructivist theory is the notion that learners construct new knowledge
by using their existing knowledge to interpret new information. When considering methods to
teach a concept it is therefore imperative to consider their level of pre-existing knowledge as
well as their misconceptions i.e. conceptions which differ from scientifically acceptable ones.
The ‘responses to a changing environment’ unit involves learning the structure and
function of the components of the nervous system. Students will have prior knowledge of
some of the components of the nervous system including the brain and nerves. Johnson &
Wellman (1982) found that at age 10 children understand that the brain performs cognitive
processing for a range of activities including mental acts (e.g. thinking/dreaming) and
feelings (e.g. sad/hungry). 75% understand the brains involvement in simple motor acts
(talking/walking) but 66% deny the brains involvement in involuntary behaviours. All apart
from one student maintained this conception even after being taught lessons about the brains
role in controlling all voluntary and involuntary behaviour thus highlighting the persistence
of children’s initial concepts. One child who was able to correctly recall that the brain
“controls voluntary and involun-tary movements” (p.225) had not however integrated this
notion into her own understanding of the concept as she claimed that the brain was
unnecessary to wiggle toes since “you don’t have to think about it” (p.225).
Children’s misconceptions of nerves are less well documented; however Nagy (1953)
found that children aged 11 believed that nerves were only present in the head, and that the
brain performs ‘intellectual’ functions whereas the nerves perform ‘emotional’ functions.
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Carey (1985) supports this finding and attributes this to linguistic phrases we use such as
“Don’t be nervous” and “He has a lot of nerve”.
Johnson and Wellman’s study (1982) also investigated students understanding of the
relationship between the brain and the body. 80% of the 10/11 year olds tested understood
that the brain and body are not completely autonomous and that the brain ‘helps’ the body,
rising to 96% by age 14/15. That being said, 35% of the 10/11 year olds and 38% of the
14/15 year olds stated that the brain does not receive ‘help’ from the body demonstrating the
misconception that the brain is an efferent only mechanism.
Thermoregulation is often used as an example of homeostasis and research has
indicated student’s misconceptions within this field, with multiple misconceptions being
related to sweating. Buddingh (1993) found that the majority of 16-18year old students
believe sweating is the sole mechanism of temperature regulation, showing no regard for any
internal processes. Hung and Lin (2010) echoed this result with 30 students from medical
college. Westbrook and Marek (1992) found that students believed heat was released from
the body as perspiration rather than understanding that water evaporating from the skin has a
cooling effect. In addition it has commonly been found that students believe sweating is a
method of removing waste or toxins from the body (Westbook and Marek 1992, Hung & Lin
2010).
Assessment for Learning
Throughout the sequence of lessons taught it will be imperative to use assessment for
learning (AfL) in order to recognise misconceptions and acquired level of knowledge to
inform future teaching and also to increase achievement. Black and Wiliam (1998) performed
an extensive literature review which found that formative assessment increased achievement
significantly, with an effect size of between 0.4-0.7, providing decisive evidence that
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formative assessment could improve learning. Hattie’s meta-analysis studies have supported
this finding and have demonstrated that amongst various influences which relate to student
achievement ‘feedback’, an AfL technique, has a large effect size of 0.73 whereas other
variables, such as homework, have a much smaller effect size of 0.29 (Hattie, 2009).
Following Black and Wiliam’s (1998) report, a programme of work with teachers led
to the publication of ‘Working inside the Black Box’(Black et al, 2002) which sets out advice
for improving assessment within the classroom and which has been highly influential within
the field of teaching. The document categorises four key assessment for learning methods;
questioning, feedback, self and peer assessment and formative use of summative tests.
In order to use questioning effectively as a formative assessment tool, Black and
Harrison (2004) suggest that in science lessons teachers should mostly use ‘rich questions’
which require thought in order for pupils to apply ideas or offer a reasoned answer. This in
turn provides information on what the students understand rather than merely what they are
able to recite. In order to engage with rich questions, students must be provided with
adequate time to process the question and formulate an answer. Rowe (1974) however found
that many teachers leave less than one second after asking a question before interrupting.
Black and Harrison (2004) state that increasing wait time to 3-5seconds increases student
involvement dramatically and therefore allows more comprehensive formative information to
be gained.
Similarly to oral feedback, marking challenging work allows the teacher to recognise
students understanding of a topic. Black and Harrison (2004) suggest feedback by marking
should use questions, targets and relate to success criteria in order to be most effective for the
learners progression. Butler (1988) demonstrated that providing students with grades in
formative marking had a negative impact on both performance and interest in the subject,
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whereas comment-only marking was beneficial. Students must then be encouraged to act
upon the comments provided to improve their work.
Self assessment allows pupils to recognise their learning needs and can therefore help
children to take responsibility for their own learning (Harlen, 2007). Peer assessment, in
which students make comments to suggest improvements, provides individuals with a
valuable insight into their own understanding of a subject (Lindsay and Clarke, 2001).
Harrison and Harlen (2006) reported that peer assessment is also advantageous as it allows
assessment to happen “without the pressure that comes from the unequal relationship between
the child (novice) and the teacher (expert)” (p.189).
Applying the Research
The ‘Responses to a Changing Environment unit’ (Edexcel, 2012) specifies that
students learn the structure and function of the components of the nervous system and the
homeostatic mechanisms of glucose, water and temperature regulation. Thermoregulation has
been selected as the initial topic because many of the concepts involved are observable and
are therefore accessible to both concrete and formal operational students. As perhaps
expected, there are a number of commonly held misconceptions in relation to the structure
and function of the central nervous system and homeostasis. A pre-test will determine which,
if any, of these misconceptions are held by the students. It has been found that
misconceptions are highly resistant to change and therefore once the misconceptions are
recognised I will initiate cognitive conflict by prompting the students to expose, evaluate and
become dissatisfied with their current conception and by introducing more plausible
conceptions, as suggested by Davis (2001). The pre-test will also shed light on the student’s
level of prior knowledge so that tasks can be set within their ZPD. Assessment for learning
techniques will be essential to review the acquired level of knowledge, further
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misconceptions that have arisen and also to enhance students learning. When planning
lessons ‘rich questions’ will be carefully selected which are open ended and require one or
more sentences to answer, and when delivering the lessons I will ensure students have a
sufficient length of time to answer. I will mark students work using comments and allow
them time to respond to these comments in the next lesson. I will also use self and/or peer
assessment during lessons which I hope will encourage students to take greater responsibility
for their learning.
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Lesson Sequence
Pre-test
Through analysis of relevant literature it has become clear that gauging the students’
pre-existing knowledge is important in order to pitch the lessons appropriately; therefore,
prior to the lessons being taught, the class completed a pre-test (Appendix A) in a worksheet
format which was intended to be quick and easy to complete. The pre-test was completed by
16 of the 20 students in the class, 4 absent due to illness. It was assumed that if no response
was made the student had little or no understanding of the concept.
Question 1 was designed to determine the students’ pre-existing knowledge of the
function and action of nerves. Seven students made reference to nerves sending information
to the brain or body but none offered an explanation of how this process occurs. A couple of
students commented that nerves are required to ‘feel objects’ or to feel hot or cold, however
four students demonstrated a misconception that nerves are solely required to feel pain. No
indication was made of the misconception that nerves are only present in the head and that
they perform ‘emotional’ functions as found in Nagy’s study (1953).
Students’ answers to Question 2 indicated whether the students understand the brain
as functionally interconnected with external body parts. The question was worded in the same
way as that used in Johnson and Wellmans’ (1982) study who justify this phrasing by stating
that children often “explain the brains role as one of ‘helping’ in other acts” (p.226). The
answers demonstrate that the majority of students believe the brain is either an afferent only
or efferent only mechanism (Appendix B.1), a much larger percentage than found in Johnson
and Wellmans’ study (1982).
Question 3 was designed to examine students’ conceptions of the brains role in four
different functions. The results of question 3 shows that, similarly to Johnson and Wellmans’
(1982) sample of 10year olds, all of the students recognise the brain as being involved in
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mental acts (thinking). 50% of the year 9’s understood the brains involvement in the simple
motor act of walking compared with 75% of Johnson and Wellmans’ sample, and a relatively
small percentage see the brain as being involved in the involuntary acts of a sense of smell
and of feeling hot and cold (Appendix B.2).
Questions 4-6 provided an understanding of students’ level of knowledge of
homeostasis and thermoregulation. Some students did demonstrate common misconceptions
in relation to sweating as documented in the literature review (Buddingh, 1993, Westbrook
and Marek 1992, Hung and Lin 2010). Specifically four students stated that the purpose of
sweating release body fluid and one student stated that it is to “get rid of salt and waste
products” (Appendix B.3). Buddingh (1993) found that students commonly hold the belief
that sweating is the sole mechanism of temperature regulation. For the class tested, all-barone student who answered question 6, also held this misconception (Appendix B.5).
The answers gained on the pre test and the information from the literature were used
to plan a series of four lessons.
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Lesson outline and evaluations
Lesson 1: Sensitivity
The first lesson introduced students to how we recognise changes in our environment
using the central and peripheral nervous system (See Appendix C.1 for lesson objectives and
plan). The lesson aimed to begin to overcome multiple misconceptions held by the students
as indentified in the pre test including; that nerves are required for a limited set of functions
or even solely required to feel pain, that the brain is an afferent only or efferent only
mechanism, and that the brain is not required to perform motor or involuntary actions.
The lesson began with a starter task in which students identified stimuli we are able to
sense in our environment, being provided with images as prompts (Appendix D.1). With
some encouragement students were able to recognise that we are sensitive to stimuli beyond
the ‘5 senses’ of taste, touch, sound, smell and sight. Students recorded which sense organs
are responsible for detecting each stimulus. This task was designed to sit well within the
students ZPD which successfully initiated all students’ engagement with the topic.
In order to establish students’ knowledge of the organs of the nervous system an
image was displayed (Appendix D.2) and the class raised their hand according to which
image they believed depicted the nervous system. This demonstrated that approximately one
third of the class did not know the organs of the nervous system providing an indication of
the level of scaffolding required for the following tasks. Using verbal explanation, images
and questioning students were taught the components of the nervous system and the sequence
of events in response to a stimulus. An electrical impulse passing along a neurone is an
abstract concept and unobservable in everyday life therefore requires formal processing to
comprehend, according to Piaget (1952). For this reason a representative animation was
depicted to help students who are within the concrete operation stage to visualise this
concept. Students completed a cloze gap-fill exercise for consolidation (Appendix D.3). As
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an assessment for learning strategy students were instructed to show ‘thumbs up/thumbs
down’ in response to the learning objective:
I can name the organs, and describe the role of the central nervous system.
Students completed this reluctantly and appeared uncomfortable to perform this in front of
their peers. The response was varied with approximately equal spread of ‘thumbs up’,
‘thumbs down’ and thumbs mid-way. One student who showed thumbs-up, indicating high
confidence, was asked to verbally answer the learning objective. He responded hesitantly
with “Nerves” demonstrating that despite correctly completing the cloze exercise the
information had not been assimilated. A verbal recap was provided and the class were
instructed to read over their work in order to answer the learning objective. Following this the
same question was posed to a further two students, who initially displayed thumbs down,
both of whom provided a much more accurate answer.
In order to satisfy the learning objective of recognising examples of stimuli, receptor
cells, effector cells and responses students completed a worksheet based exercise (Appendix
D.4). Formative marking of the students’ work following the lesson revealed that the majority
had completed the exercise well (See Appendix E for Student A’s work). It was planned that
the terminology would be reviewed lesson 2 to further secure students understanding of this
new terminology and to aid the few who had not fully grasped the concepts.
Students responses to the pre-test indicated that many of the class held the
misconception that the brain is not required for simple motor or involuntary acts. To initiate
cognitive conflict a video was played which explained Christopher Reeve’s spinal cord injury
and also showed that in addition to being paralysed he is unable to perform involuntary
actions such as regulating his body temperature, breathing or coughing due to the damage to
his spinal cord, a concept that conflicts with the students held conceptions. During and after
the video rich questions were posed to the class (Appendix C.1) which were designed to
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encourage students to consider that the brain is required to co-ordinate many actions within
the body, including motor and involuntary actions. The questions required the students to
think about the information presented to them in the video and information learnt during the
lesson to offer a reasoned answer, as suggested by Black and Harrison (2004). Student’s
responses generally referred to the ‘messages’ being unable to get to/from the brain. For the
particular students who provided verbal answers, some information on their level of
understanding was gained however this information was evidently only acquired from a few
individuals in the class. In general the video worked extremely well to maintain engagement
with the topic and students were keen to ask a variety of questions such as “is he in pain?”
and “how does he go to the toilet?”. It was intended that the final exercise of the lesson would
be to write a newspaper article to consolidate the information learnt with key questions and
key words provided as a scaffold. Unfortunately there was insufficient time to complete this
exercise and therefore, as a short plenary, students were asked to answer a question to explain
how and why Christopher Reeve’s accident caused him to become paralysed. On review, it
was apparent that students had written very short answers to this question. These answers did
provide some indication that students understand that the brain is required for motor actions
however did not provide much of an indication, as had been hoped, of whether the students
had grasped that the brain is an afferent as well as an efferent mechanism.
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Lesson 2: Responding to external stimuli
Lesson 2 aimed to continue to address the misconception that the brain is an afferent
or efferent only mechanism by detailing the structure of a nervous pathway. This lesson also
covered the structure and function of neurones and synapses (See Appendix F.1 for learning
objectives and lesson plan).
At the beginning of the lesson students were instructed to read the comments in their
exercise books and respond to the feedback to improve their work, as suggested by Butler
(1998). A word search type activity (Appendix G.1) was provided to occupy students who
had finished their responses to ensure that all students have sufficient time to respond to these
comments.
The first activities were designed for students to learn the order of the nervous
pathway and recall this using the correct scientific terminology. The tasks built upon
information and terminology which the majority of students had successfully learned in the
previous lesson. This task also aimed to help students to overcome their misconception that
‘messages’ can only be sent either to the brain or away from the brain. Students worked in
pairs to complete a card sort activity (Appendix G.2) to order a nervous pathway. In
accordance with Davis’ theory (2001) this task was successful in exposing some student’s
misconceptions and therefore initiating cognitive conflict. One pair of students (Student A
and Student B), incorrectly ordered the pathway such that the brain was the penultimate card
and the effector was the final card. I then questioned the students “but how do the effector
cells know what to do?”. This prompted the students to re-read the cards and re-evaluate their
ideas and the students were able to organise the cards into a more logical order. This task was
deliberately chosen to be a paired activity to allow students to discuss and recognise
inadequacies in their ideas (Davis 2001) and the interpersonal interactions help to transfer
information into thought, according to Vygotsky (1978). Students used the card sort and
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sentences displayed on the interactive white board to draw a flow diagram in their exercise
books (See Appendix H for Student B’s work).
From the information gained in the pre-test and comments during lessons it was
apparent that students had little or no knowledge of the structure of neurones or synapses. I
was however aware that students revised the structure and function of animal cells in the
previous term. In accordance with a constructivist approach I used this knowledge as a
starting point to compare a ‘standard’ animal cell with a neurone. Due to the students lack of
pre-existing knowledge and therefore misconceptions in relation to the structure of neurones
and synapses the new information taught should theoretically (Piaget 1952) have been able to
be assimilated into the students’ held concepts without cognitive conflict being required. A
‘memory game’ (Appendix F.1) was completed as a method to encourage the students to
learn the structure of a neurone to satisfy one of the lesson objectives. Students worked in
pairs to complete this, therefore using a socio-cultural approach by being able to discuss their
ideas. This task also additionally worked as a successful AfL technique as students held up
their diagrams for inspection of the ‘best pair’, allowing me to discover which students had
successfully committed the structure of a neurone to memory.
A quiz using mini-white boards was completed at the end of the lesson. The first
questions were related to the function of the brain and neurones. Almost all students correctly
identified that nerves are required to feel temperature demonstrating that they no longer held
the misconception that nerves are solely required to feel pain. The questions also shed light
on students originally held belief that the brain is not required for motor or involuntary
actions. 100% of students correctly identified that the brain is required to walk indicating that
they understand it is required for motor acts. Approximately 50% of students incorrectly
stated that the brain and nerves are not required to taste, despite being taught that sense
organs send electrical impulses to the brain along neurones. As stated by Ausubel et al
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(1978), their initial misconception has been proven to be highly resistant to change. The rest
of the questions tested whether students were able to recall some of the main concepts taught
during the lessons such as the structure of neurones and the CNS. All students were
successful in identifying the nervous system and CNS, showing that they have progressed in
their level of knowledge since this question was initially posed in lesson 1.
Whilst aware of the relative inefficiency of homework in improving achievement
(Black and William, 1998) a homework sheet was issued which contained a combination of
challenging short and long answer questions in order for students to recall and apply the
knowledge learnt.
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Lesson 3: Homeostasis
The primary focus of Lesson 3 was to introduce the topic of homeostasis (See
Appendix I.1 for learning objectives and lesson plan). This lesson also aimed to address
some students held misconceptions that the purpose of sweating is to release body fluid or
waste products. In the previous lesson it was exposed that some students have not yet
released their misconception that the brain and nerves aren’t required for some involuntary
actions therefore this was re-visited during the course of the lesson.
In the first 30 minutes of the lesson students investigated their own body temperature
and on questioning one student correctly reported that our internal body temperature should
be 370C, with a general feeling of agreement from other students in the class. Students were
taught the dangers of an increased body temperature and were asked to predict at what
internal temperature death occurs. Using a show of hands for ‘yes’ and ‘no’, the class
answered whether they think their internal body temperature would change if they went to a
hot or cold place. Approximately 80% of the class believed it would stay the same and 20%
showed the misconception that it would change despite the prior information taught. Students
were informed of the correct answer and were reminded of the dangers of an increased
internal body temperature. The mechanism of thermoregulation would be revisited in more
detail in lesson 4.
Negative feedback is a formal operational concept due to its multiple abstract and
unobservable concepts (Piaget, 1952). Therefore the ‘thermostat model’ was used to
demonstrate negative feedback using a more concrete operational example. It was expected
that the students would find this a difficult concept to comprehend due to the mixed ability of
the class and the fact that some are unlikely to have reached the formal operational stage
(Neimark, 1975). Consequently a high level of scaffolding (Wood et al, 1976) was provided
to make the task of drawing a thermoregulation negative feedback loop accessible to the
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students and bring it within their ZPD (Vygotsky, 1978) (See Appendix J.1). On circulating
around the classroom to check students’ work, and later review of their exercise books, it was
apparent that although all students could correctly associate a blood temperature of below
370C with shivering and above 370C with sweating some found it difficult to understand that
the hypothalamus first detects the slight temperature change and then coordinates adjustments
within the body to return the temperature back to a normal, stable level. This was
demonstrated by inconsistent drawing of the arrows within their feedback loop such as
arrows pointing in the wrong direction or two-headed arrows (See Appendix K for Student
D’s work). Some students required a significant amount of one-to-one verbal support during
the lesson in order to grasp this concept.
Due to some students persisting with the concept that the brain is not required for
involuntary behaviours, the lesson plan was altered from the original plan to contain the
question:
“Are your brain and neurones needed to keep your internal body temperature the same?”
One girl’s response was:
“Yes because your brain tests the temperature of your blood”
With further prompting of the class to consider why your brain is required, another student
demonstrated a good understanding of the brains role by offering the answer
“Because your brain is needed to tell everything in your body what to do”
In order to initiate cognitive conflict with the students’ misconception that the purpose
of sweating is to release water and/or waste from the body a concept cartoon was used
(Appendix J.2). This was designed to prompt consideration of the conditions in which you
sweat and the methods of controlling water levels in the body. It was intended that by taking
a socio-cultural approach, as suggested by Vygotsky (1978), students would reveal their
misconceptions and through discussion would become dissatisfied with their theory
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prompting them to seek alternative, more satisfactory explanations. In practice however, as
soon as the conflict cartoon was displayed, multiple students called out comments such as
“Easy! The black guy’s right!” revealing that these particular students did not require
discussion to promote a conceptual change. The class were permitted time to engage in
conversation for students who may not have reached this stage. All conversations overheard
correctly identified which person in the cartoon had the most scientifically correct notion.
Student C was questioned as to why sweating is not to release water and correctly replied
“that’s why we pee!”. The class are not particularly well practiced in constructive
conversation so although the task worked effectively as an AfL for some students others were
not engaged and appeared to use the free conversation to talk off topic. For those who had
been prompted to reorganise their held concepts, the accepted scientific theory of how
sweating cools us down was taught as a plausible explanation of why we sweat.
The students’ exercise books and homework relating to content delivered in the first
two lessons was collected at the end of the lesson.
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Review of homework and exercise books
Student’s exercise books and homework (Appendix G.3) was reviewed following
lesson 3. The homework task (set during lesson 2) included two challenging long answer
questions which were intended to provide an insight into the students understanding of the
topic as suggested by Black and Harrison (2004). The first of these questions was:
How does the structure of neurone A [a motor neurone] help it to work effectively?
Even amongst those who had made a good attempt at the homework this question was
answered poorly, with only two students writing a partially correct answer by mentioning the
myelin sheath. Homework tasks are completed without the presence of the teacher and
therefore if no other form of assistance is provided the work needs to be pitched below the
students ZPD (Vygotsky, 1978) for any learning to occur, because the task is required to be
completed unaided. That being said it is possible for the teacher to provide guidance without
being physically present. Evidently this question was too difficult for the students, and was
set within their ZPD. In hindsight, if a higher level of scaffolding (Wood et al 1976) had been
provided by the teacher, the task would have been made more accessible. In this case if the
students were given a list of key words to use in their answer, they are likely to have been
guided towards a more appropriate answer. It was planned for this question to be reviewed in
lesson 5 of the sequence as it corresponds better with the content of lesson 5 than that of
lesson 4.
The second long answer question explained a scenario and instructed students to
describe the nervous pathway that occurred (Appendix G.3). On the whole students
demonstrated some level of understanding of the general path that the impulse takes. It was
evident however that most students had put little effort into this question and had written very
simplistic answers, thereby making it difficult to ascertain their true level of knowledge. As
suggested by Black and Harrison (2004) feedback was provided in the form of questions such
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as ‘what was the stimulus?’ and students were provided with targets such as ‘to improve your
work please complete the question again using the key words receptor cell, sensory neurone,
brain, motor neurone and effector cells’. Comment only marking was provided as formative
feedback in an attempt to maintain interest in the subject and increase performance (Butler,
1988).This appeared to work successfully as most students did respond to the feedback which
may not have been expected from this particular class of students.
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Lesson 4: Thermoregulation
The aim of lesson 4 was for students to learn the mechanisms of thermoregulation
(See Appendix L.1 for lesson plan and objectives) and to overcome their misconception that
sweating is the sole mechanism of thermoregulation. Most of the changes that occur in the
body to control body temperature are observable and will have been experienced by the
students therefore it is largely a concrete operational concept (Piaget, 1952). For this reason it
was expected that all students should have the ability to comprehend the information.
Students’ exercise books were returned and sufficient time and encouragement was
provided for students to respond to comments to improve their work, as suggested by Butler
(1988). On completion of this, students attempted an entry task in which they were asked to
write down 10 key words which relate to the word homeostasis. This worked effectively to
allow students to complete their improvements and also to encourage students to review and
recall information that they had learned in the previous lesson.
Rich questioning (Black and Harrison, 2004) was used to find out if students
understood the function of the hypothalamus. The students questioned were able to explain
that the hypothalamus is located in the brain and tests the temperature of the blood, however
it required a lot of prompting for a student to recall that the brain co-ordinates the response
that the body makes in order to reduce/raise this temperature.
To initiate cognitive conflict with the misconception that sweating is the sole
mechanism of thermoregulation, students drew spider diagrams to explain changes that occur
in our bodies in response to hot and cold conditions. This method was intended to expose the
students’ pre-conceptions, a method described by Davis (2001). An animation was displayed
on the interactive white-board which allowed students to observe the range of changes that
occur in our skin in each of these conditions and students were questioned as to what changes
they could observe. It was apparent on looking at the work completed that all students had
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recorded a variety of mechanisms that occur in our skin and therefore had recognised the
deficiencies in their initial conception. The animation had the additional benefit of showing
changes that occur in the skin at the subcutaneous layer therefore allowing students who are
at the concrete operational stage (Piaget, 1952) to access the learning.
The final task of the lesson, following an AfL quiz, was to complete a 6 mark exam
question. Due to the current ability level of the class a high level of scaffolding (Wood et al,
1978) was provided to make this task accessible by outlining a structure and discussing key
words to be used. Students peer assessed their answers using comments to suggest
improvement, using the schools marking policy of ‘what went well...’ and ‘even better if...’.
On review of students comments it became apparent that the improvements suggested were
often not constructive; for example one student had written “write more”. Alternatively in
some cases it appeared that the students had not fully read their partners work indicated by
improvements being suggested which had already been successfully implemented (See
Appendix M for Student B and Student C’s work).
Although evident that students required more training in peer assessment, it is possible this
task was successful in allowing the students to gain a greater insight into their own
understanding of thermoregulation (Lindsay and Clarke, 2001).
Reading the students answers also exposed new misconceptions which include that in
hot conditions the “blood gets thickest”, the “blood vessels rise to the surface of the skin” and
the “the blood vessels widen so that there is less friction in the blood”. These misconceptions
were addressed via formative marking.
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Post-test
The pre-test questionnaire was repeated at the end of the lesson sequence in order to
assess students learning. The post-test was completed by 15 students, 4 absent due to illness.
The number of students in the class reduced from 20 to 19 during the course of the lessons.
More of the questions were completed by the students than the pre-test which may indicate
more confidence with the subject.
Answers to question 1 provide evidence that most students have a more accurate
understanding of the function and action of nerves than before the series of lessons. In the
pre-test no student commented upon the action of neurones whereas in the post-test 8 students
correctly stated that neurones use electrical impulses to send ‘information’. No students had
retained their misconception that nerves are solely required to feel pain. All apart from one
student correctly made reference to the function of nerves being to “sense things” or to send
messages around the body or to/from the brain. One student stated “so that we can feel pain
and heat” which although not incorrect requires further investigation of whether they
understand the wider functions of the nervous system.
Answers to question 2 (Appendix N.1) demonstrated that all-bar-one student now
recognise that the brain and body are interdependent; a dramatic increase from the 2 students
who held this concept in the pre-test.
Students responses to question 3 (Appendix N.2) demonstrated that in addition to
recognising the brains role in mental acts, almost all of the class also now understand that the
brain is required for the motor act of walking. The percentage of pupils in the class who hold
the correct concept that the brain is required for involuntary acts (smell and feeling hot and
cold) has increased significantly, although approximately one third of the class have retained
their initial misconception.
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All students correctly identified that the purpose of sweating is to cool the body
(Appendix N.3) showing that a large proportion of students had either increased their
knowledge of thermoregulation or had released any misconceptions in relation to sweating.
All of the students have demonstrated an increased knowledge of key terminology as
all recognise the term homeostasis as the process by which the body maintains a stable
internal environment. In the pre-test the percentage of students who correctly chose the word
‘homeostasis’ was no greater than that which would have been expected by chance
(Appendix N.4, Appendix B.4).
Although there was a large increase in the number of students who answered the
question ‘On a hot day how does the body keep our internal body temperature constant?’
students responses were perhaps not as I’d expected (appendix N.5). Four student’s responses
indicated that they still maintain the misconception that sweating is the sole mechanism of
thermoregulation. Almost half the class demonstrated that they have overcome this
misconception and have increased their knowledge by describing various mechanisms of
thermoregulation including the role of sweating, the blood vessels and in some cases hairs. A
few students made reference to ‘homeostasis’ controlling body temperature which, although
correct, does not explain the physical changes that occur to keep the internal body
temperature constant.
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Conclusion
From information gathered before, during and after the lesson sequence via the pre
and post-test results, reviewing student’s written work and various other AfL methods, I am
confident that overall the series of lessons were successful in progressing the students
understanding of homeostasis.
The pre-test indicated that most of the common misconceptions in relation to this
topic which were indentified in the literature review, were held by members of the class. The
post-test results demonstrated that many of these misconceptions had been successfully
overcome. During the course of the lessons, other misconceptions that were not indicated
within relevant literature also became apparent, perhaps demonstrating that further research is
required in this field.
According to the post-test results, not all students released their misconception that
sweating is the sole mechanism of thermoregulation, however, analysis of written class work
does not reflect this. It is speculated that inaccurate answers may be in part due to the format
of the questions and choice of phrasing used; therefore questioning the validity of the posttest answers as a measure of the student’s knowledge. The specific question (question 6) was
preceded by a question (question 4) asking the function of sweating and therefore may have
artificially led the students to state sweating as the sole mechanism of thermoregulation. In
addition some students’ answers referred exclusively to ‘homeostasis’ as the mechanism of
thermoregulation which was indeed the answer to question 5. In hindsight question such as
‘In which ways do changes in the skin occur to keep the internal body temperature constant
on a hot day?’ may have provided answers which provide a more valid understanding of the
students’ knowledge.
One particular misconception; that the brain is not involved in involuntary acts, was
maintained by approximately one third of students in the class despite being explicitly taught
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that the sense organs send messages to the brain via nerves, thus providing support for the
claim stated by Ausubel et al (1978) that initial concepts are highly resistant to change.
Wherever feasible and appropriate within the time constrains of lessons, I aimed to
prompt students to release their misconceptions and initiate conceptual change by exposing
students’ preconceptions and allowing them to evaluate their ideas and recognise
inadequacies, as proposed by Davis (2001). Methods used to do this included spider
diagrams, card sort activities and concept cartoons. It appears that this proved a highly
successful method as all of the misconceptions that were tackled using this method were
overcome, demonstrated through formative and summative assessment. Further strength is
added to this argument by the fact that the misconception which was not overcome by all
students (that the brain is not involved in involuntary acts) was not challenged using this
method. It is however difficult to ascertain whether other factors were involved in the
learning process and whether these misconceptions would have been overcome using other
teaching methods. It must also be noted that the findings of this study have limited
generalisability due to the small sample size.
One key area of weakness in the lesson sequence was that the homework proved too
difficult for the students to complete well. In future I will ensure that an appropriate level of
scaffolding is provided to make the task accessible. In hindsight it may have been more
appropriate to have postponed lesson 3 and spend an extra lesson reviewing the work from
lesson 1 and 2. The reasons for this are threefold; firstly it would have provided time to
complete all planned tasks from lesson 1, secondly recapping key terminology is likely to
have made the homework accessible to the students and finally AfL methods had indicated
that not all students had understood the brains role in involuntary actions. That said, I feel
that the content of the topics were presented in a logical order and worked effectively as the
introductory lessons to the GCSE syllabus.
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Relevant literature promoted the value of assessment for learning methods in
enhancing students learning (Black and William, 1998 & Hattie, 2009) and having
implemented AfL techniques throughout the series of lessons this indeed proved to be the
case. AfL methods in which I could observe all students responses provided me with valuable
insight into each students understanding and knowledge. For this particular year 9 class
certain techniques were not received well (thumbs up/thumbs down) resulting in participation
problems, whilst others (mini-white boards) were well received and will therefore be used
preferentially for this class in future. As suggested by Black and Harrison (2004) rich
questions were regularly used which did provide information pertaining to students
understanding rather than what they can recite. That said, questioning has its limitations in
that it only allows the teacher to gain an understanding of one individuals knowledge rather
than that of the whole class. This method may be more effective in a class where the ability
level and motivation are similar throughout the class. For this particular class I found the
most enlightening AfL method to be marking challenging work. This however is a time
consuming task and can only be completed retrospectively.
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Appendix