4 .1
.RACISM.
BIRTHCONTROLAND
REPRODUCTIVE
RIGHTS'
AngelaDavis
\\ lren nineteenth-centuryfeminists raised the dcmand for 'voluntary motherlr,,ocl'.the c:rrnpaignfor birth control was born. Its plrponents rverec:rlledrad
r,.rl sa n d they rveresubj ectcdto the srl nrenrockerl rrshad hcf.rl l rn t hc init iel
.r(l v ()c a tes
of w oman suffr:rge.' V rl untarv motherhood' w as consi der edauda, r(
outrageousand outlandish b,vthoservho insistcdthat wives h:rti no right
'us,
r,I r'efuscto satisfytheir husbands'sexuaI urges.Eventualll, of course,the right
r,, birth control, like worren's right to vote, would be more or lesstaken tor
lr.rrted by US public opinion. Yct in 1970, a fulJ ccntury later,the call for legal
.,rrdeasilyaccessibleabortiorrs*'as no lesscontroversialth:rn the issueof'vol
,,,rt.rrymotherhood' u,hicb had originally launchedthe birth control movemcnt
rrrth e U ni ted S tates.
llirth control - individual choice, safc contraceptivemethods, as well as
,l,ortionswhcn necessary- is a fundamentalprerequisitefor the em.rncrpao,,rr
, 'i rvomen.Sincethe right of birth control is obviously advantageousto women
,'i lll classesand races,it would appe:rr that even vastly dissimilar women's
: r,lrps rvould have attemptcdfo unitr around this issue.In rcality, however,the
'r th control tnovement has seldom succeedcdin uniting women of diffcrerrt
.,,ciaJtrackgrounds,and rarelv have the movement'sleaderspopularized thc
,,' rrtri n econccrns of rvorki ng cl ass w omen. Moreover, argLrmen t sadvanced
I'r birth control advocates havc sorretirres bccn bascd on blatantlv racist
,,,r : An gel a D .tvi s {1981), 'R :ci srr, B i rth (l ntrol end R cproducti !e R ,ghts, pt. 102-71. i n
la I) avi s, \Y amcn, R arc antl C l ass(l .ondor: l he Women\ P rcss,N e$ )i )rk, R sn dom H ous r.
' r Ir
353
ANGELADAV]s
I
premises.The progressiveporcntial of birth control rerrains indisputable.Bur
in actuirlit,v.
the historical record of this rrovement leavesmuch to be desiredin
the realm of challcngesto racism and classcxploitation.
Thc most inportant vjctory of the contcmporary irirth controi rlovcnent
rvas won during the earlv 1970s rvhen abortions \vere ar lesr declared legal.
Having energed during the infancy of the new Wirmen'sLiberation nrovemenrr
the struggleto legalizeabortior.rsincorporated.lll rhe enthusi:lsmand the mili
tirncy ol tlre young ntovcmenr.Bv Januarl', 1973, the abortion rights camp.rrgn
had reacfrecl:r triunlph.nt culmination. In Roc r,. \Yade (410 US) and Doe r,r.
Bolton (410 US), the US SupremeCourt ruled that a woman's right to personal
privacy implied her right to decidewhether or nor ro have an ahorrron.
The ranks of the abortion rights campaign did not include subst:rntial
numbers of womcn of color. (liven the racial conrpositiou of the largcr
V(rmen's Liberatior movcment,this was not at all surprising.\(hen quesrions
wcrc raised about the abscnceof racially oppressedwomen In both thc larger
move[lent and in the abortion rights cantpaign,two explanationslvere c(]mnronly proposedin the discussionsand literatureof the period: women of coJor
rvere overburdenedby their people'sfight irgainstr:rcism;and/or they had not
yet bccome consciousof rhc centraliry of sexism.But the real rneaningof the
almost lilv rvhite complexion of tlre abortion rights campaign vvasnor ro be
lound in an ostensiblymyopic or underdevelopedconsciousness
amorg women
of color The truth lay buried in the ideological undcrpinnings of the birth
colltr(Jlnro\.elnentitself.
The failure of the abortion rights campaign to conduct a historical self
evaluation led to a dargcrously strpcrficialappraisal of Black people'ssuspicious attitudes torn'ard birth control in gcneral. (irantecl, rvhen sorne lJlack
people unhesitatinglvequatedbirth control with genocide,it <lid appear to bc
an exaggerated- even paranoiac- reaction.Yer white abortion rights activists
misseda profound message,for underlvingrhesecries of genocidewerr irnportant cluesabout the history of the birth control movemerr. This movenlenr,for
exanrple,had beenknown to ddvocareinvoluntary sterilization- a racist fbrm
of mass'birth control'. If ever women rl'ould enjoy the right to plnn their pregnancics,legal and easilyaccessiblebirth control rneasuresand:rbortronswould
have to be complementedby an end to sterilization.rbuse.
As for thc abortion rights campaignitself, how could wonren of color fail to
grasp its urgency?They vverefar more familiar than their white sisterswith the
nurderously clumsy scalpelsof inept abortionistsseekingprofit in illegality.In
New York, for instance,during the severalvcars precedingthe decriminaliza
tion of abortions in that state, s<ure80 percent of the deathscausctlby illegal
abortions involved lSlackand Puerto Rican women.l Immediately afterward,
women ol cokrr receivedcloseto half of ail the legal abortions. If the abortion
rights campaignof the early 1970sneededto be reminded thar rvomen of color
wanted desperatclyto escapcthe back-room quack abortionists, the_vshoultl
have also realized that thesc same women were not about to express Dro
354
'RAClsM,
BrRrHCoNTROLAND REpRoDUCTTVE
RTGHTS'
ai n s i n d i s put able.B ut
rruch to bc dcsiredin
th control movement
at last declaredlegal.
-iberation movetrtent,
hu si a smand t he m ili
rtion rights canlpaign
(410 US) and l)oe r.'.
ran'sright to personal
re an abortion.
t i n cl u d e s ubs t ant ial
ositior of the Jargcr
ising.\Vhen questions
ncn in both thc larger
planationswere comrriocl:r""'omen
of color
and/or
they
had not
;
e rcal neaning of tlre
npalgD\,r'ilsnot t() be
usnessamong women
; .i n n i n rl sof t he bir t h
luct a historical self
Black people'ssuspi:d, rvhen some Black
le, it clid appear to be
rights activisrs
'ortion
genocidewcre import. This movcment, for
zation a racist form
3ht to plan their preg'
and abortions u'ould
vonen of color fail to
white sistersu,ith thc
1 profit in illegality.In
ng the decriIninalizaaths causedby ilJeg:rl
rmediitcly afterward,
rtions. If thc abortion
I that wonen of color
rt i o n i sts,t hey s hould
bout to expresspro-
l,rrrtionsentiments.The,v',verein favor ctfabortton rlgbts, which did not mean
rlr,rlthev wcre proponentsof abortion. I(hen Black rrnd l,atina women resort
t,,,rb o rt i ortsi rr such l argenumbers,the stori estl -reltel l are not so much lbout
rir, ir <iesireto be frec of their pregnancv,but rather about the miserablesocial
, ,,rrLlitionsrvhich clissuadethem from bringing new lives into the world.
lllack women have beenaborting themselvessinccthc ellrliestdaysof slavery.
\l.rlv slave women refused to bring childrcn into a worlci of interminable
l, ,rced labol where chainsand floggingsand sexual21buse
for womcn werc thc
, r t r.ydayconditions of life. A doctor practicing in ()corgia around the midclle
,'i the last century noticed that abortiorrs and niscarriages were far morc
L,'rnmon among his slave patients than among the rvhite \{'onlen lle treated.
\icording to the physician,either Black women worked too hard or,
as the plantersbelieve,the blacks are possessed
of a secretbv rvhich they
destro,vthe fetus at an early stageof gestation. . . All cor.rntrypractitioners are aware of the frequcntcomplaintsof plantcrs (about the) . . . unnaI
ural tendencyin the African female to destroy her offspring.l
I rpressingshock that'whole familiesof women f:ril to have any children',' thrs
,l0ctor neverconsideredhow'unnatural' it was to raisechilclrenunder the slave
..\\tem. The prcviously meDtionedepisodeof Margaret Garner,a fugitive slave
r lro killed her orvn daughtcr aDd attemptedsuicidehcrselfu'hen shc was cap
r' rre db y . l ave-catthcr.. r* .r c,rsern p,,i rrt.
Sherejoicedthat thc girl $'as deaci-'now slrc u,ould ncver know u,hat a
woman suffersas a slave'- anclplcacleclto be tried for nrurder'l *,ill gcr
singing to thc gallows rather than be returned to slaver_v!'r
Why were sclf imposed abortions and reluctant acts of infanticide such
(()rnmon occurrencesduring slavery?Not becauseBlack women had discov
, fcd solutjons to their predic2rment,but rathcr becauscthey were desperate.
\bortions and infanticideswerc acts of dcspcration,motivated not by the biologicalbirth processbut by the oppressiveconditions of slavery.Most ol these
\v()nren,no doubt! would have expressedtheir deepestresentmenthad someone
lr.riledtheir abortions as a stcpping stonc to$'ard frcedorrr.
During the early abortion rights campaignit rvastoo frequentlyassumedth.lt
gal
l,
abortions provided a viable alternativeto the myriad problems posed by
1,,rvertv.As if having fewer children could create more jobs, higher wages,
l,etterschools,etc., etc. This assumprionreflectedthe tendencyto blur thc disrrr)ctionbetween abortion rights and the g,eneraladvocacy of abortions. The
(.rmpaign often failed to proviclea voice for women who wanted the /iglr, to
lcgalabortions while deploring the socialconditions that prohibited them trom
lrr:aringmore children.
The renewedoffensiveagainstabortion rights that erupted duringithe latter
lralf of the 1970s has rrade it absolutelynecessaryto focus more sharply on thc
rrtedsof poor and racially oppressedwomen. By 1977 the passageof the Hyde
355
I
l5
ANGELADAVIs
Ameudment in (iongresshad mandaredthe withdrarval of federal funding for
abortions, causing manv state legislaturcsto follorv suit. Biack, Puerto Ricrn,
Cihicanaand Native Amcrican womcn, togetherwith their irrpoverishrd rvhitc
sisters,rver.ethus elfectivclvdivestetiof the right to lcgal rbortions- Sincesurgicrrl sterilizrtions, fLrndcd bv the f)epartment of Health, Education and
Wclfare, remaineclfree on dcrrand, more and more poor rvomen have been
forced to opt for permancrrtinfertility. Vhat is urgentl,vrequircd is a broad
crmp:rign to defendthe reproductiverights of :rl1rvomen- and especi:rllvthose
$'omen u'hose economic circumstancesoften compel them to relinquish the
right to reprodr"rction
itself.
\Vomen'sdesire to control their reproductive s1'stcnris probablv as oro as
hrrmrrnhistory itself.As earl,vas 1814 thc Llntted StatesI'ractrcdl ReceilttBook
cont;rined,amonli its many recipesfor food, household chemicalsand medic i n e s ,' r ecei pts' for' bi rth prevenri vel oti ons' . Trr rnake ' H anD :ry'sPr event ive
Lotion', for example
T:rke pearlash, I parr; rrarer, 6 parts. Mix and filter. Keep it in closed
bottles,and usc it, rvith or without soap, immcdretelyafter conncxion.i
Iior 'Aberrretlry'sPreventivel,otion'
Teke bichloridc of nlercur\',2-5pirrrs;nrilk of aLronds, 400 parts; alcohol,
100 p:rrts; rosew:rtet 1000 prrts. Immerse the glands in a little of the
m i xture . . . Infal l i bl t. i f usedi l t propcr ti mc...
While womcn have probably alu'aysdreameclof infalliblc methods of birrh
control, it was not until tlte issueof \\'omen'srights in getreralbec:rmethe focus
of an organizedmovemcntthat rcproductiverights could enrergeas a legifimtte
d e ma n d. l n an essaycnri tl ed ' Marri age' , w ri tten duri ng the 18 50s, Sar ah
Cirirnke argued for a 'right on the parr of woman ro decidc t,/:ezrshe shall
becomea mothet hou, often and under u'hat circumstances'.tAlluding to one
phvsician'sbumorous observation,Grimke agreedthat, if wives and husbands
alternativelygave birth to their children, 'no farnily would ever have more rh21n
three,the husband bearingone and the wifc nvo'.3 But, as sheinsists,'the riglit
to decidcthis matter has beenalmost wholly denied ro woman'.'r
Sarah (irimke advocated womcn's right to sexu.rl :rbstinence.Around the
same time the well-knorvn 'emanciparcdmarriage'of Lucy Stone and Henrv
Blackwell took place. Thcse abolitionists :rnd wonren's rights .rctrvrstswere
rnarried jn a ceremony that protested womcn's traditional relinquishmentof
their rights to their persons,namesand property. In agreeingthat, as husband,
he had no right to the'custody of the wife's person',r0I-lenryBlacku,ellprorn
isedthat he would not attempt to imposc rhe dictatesof his sexualdesrresupou
h i s w i fe .
The notion that women could refuse to submit to their husbands'sexual
clem:rndseventually becane rhe central idea of the call for'volunrary mother,
hood'. Br the 1870s,when the rvoman suffragcmovement had reachedirs peak,
356
'RActsM,BrRTHCoNTRoLAND REpRoDUcrvERIcHTS'
of federalfunding for
Bl a ck, Puer t oRic an,
ir impoverishedwhite
a b o rti o ns .S inc es ur
'rrlth. Fldr.rcationand
()r womcn nave t)ecn
v re q u i re d is : r br oat l
anclespecialll'thosc
rcrr to relinquish the
is p ro b a b ly as old as
'racticalReceipt Btnk
chemicalsancl mcdi
'I-Iannay'sPrcvcntivc
Itcr Keep it in closecl
ely a fte r c onnex iol. '
ds,.1 0 0p ar t s ;alc ohoi,
rrrL l srn rr lit t le of t he
lib l e me thodsof bir t h
reralbccamcthc focus
erDergeas a legitirnate
ng th e 1850s , S ar ah
iecide r.abel she shall
rces'. AlJuding to one
if rvivesand husbands
d ever have nore than
s s h ei n srs t s , ' r hel. qi1
r'oman'.!
)stinence.Around the
ucy Stone and Henrl
; rigbts :rcrivistsu,ere
n:rl relinquishment of
cing that, as husb:rnd.
enr,vBlackwell pronrrissexualdesiresupon
eci r h u sb: r nds ' s ex ual
or 'vo l u n tar y r lot her
t had rcachedits pcak,
l r rri n i s ts w crc publ i cl v advocati ngvol untarv motherl rood.In a spe echdelir ', re d i n 1 8 73, V i ctori a l V oodhul l cl ai rnedthar:
The wife who submits to sexLlrlliDtercourseagainsther lvishesor desires,
y i rt ual l y comrni tssui ci dc;u' hi l e the husband w ho compel si t, c,
'm m r t s
murder, and ought just as much to be purislred for it, as thougtr he stranglcclher to death for refusinghim.r 1
\\ixrdhull, of course, u,:rsquite notorious rts 11proponent of'free love'. Her
,lLfenseof a woman's right to abstain from sexualintercorrrscwithin rnarr.rgc
L\ rl means of controlling her pregnancieswas associatedu'ith Woodhull's
ol rnarri age.
' ' r,r.rl l a rr.r.k on l he rn' rrrrrri ,,rr
It was not a coincidencethat women's consciousness
of their reproductive
r rqhtswas bom *'ithin the organizednovcment for rvorrcn's political equllity.
lrrtleed,if u,omen remaincd forever burdenedb,vincessantchildbirths and frc
(lrrentmjscarriilges,they would hardly be able to exercisethe political rights
tlrcv rnight win. Moreover,women's nevl dreamsof pursuing citreersand other
t' .rth so fsel f tl evckrpmentoutsi cl cmarri :rge:rndmotherhoodcoul d only be r eal
rrt cl if they could limit and plan their pregnancies.In this sensc,thc slog:rn'vol
l|rrtilry motherhood' contained a new and gerruinelVprogressivevision of
rr ornanhood.At the same time, however,this vision u,as rigidly bound to the
lrlcstvleenjoved by the middle classesard the bourgeoisie.The aspir:rtiorrs
rrrderlying the demrnd for'voluntar,v motherhood'did not reflect the conditr,rnsol workittg-cllss rrortren,cnglrgccltrs tht,t $'ere in lr fltr nrorc ftrnclrtrner.rl fight for economic sun'ival. Since this first call for birth control u'as
.Lrrociatedwith goals which could only be achievcd by women pL,sscssrnll
rrrterial we.rlth,vast numbcrs of poor and u,orking-classrvomen woulcl find it
r.rrherdifFcult to identifv with the embryonic birth control moverrenr.
Rrward thc end of the nineteenthcentury thc white birth rate in the tlnited
strtes suffered a signilicant clecline.Since no co[traceptive innovations had
lu cn publicly introduced, the drop in the birth rate implied that women were
'.rrbstantiallycurtailing their sexual activiry. By 11390the typical native borD
rr ltite woman was bearingino more than four children.ll SinceIJS s,
'clctv \ '-rs
1,,eomingincreasinglyurban, this new birth pattern should not have beena sur1,rise.While farm life dcmanded large families, they became dysfunctional
ithin the cootext of citv life. Yet this phenomenonu'as publicly interpretedin
'r
. racist and anti working classfashion bv the ideologuesof rising monopoly
,,rpit:rlism.Since native born white w(rren werc bearing fewer children, the
.l )(c te ro f' race sui ci de' w asrai sedi n offi ci alci rcl es.
In 1905 PresidentTbeodore Rooseveltconcluded his Lincoln D:ry Dinner
.pcechwith the proclamation that 'race puritl' must be maintaincd'.rr By 1906
lr(' blatantl_vcquated the fajling birth r2rteamong native-born whitcs q'ith thc
rrrrp e n d i ng
threat of' race sui ci de' .In hi s S tatcof thc U ni on messag et hat year
l(ooscveltadmonished the weli-born white \()men who engagedin'rvillful
..rcrility- the one sin for u'hich the penalty is n:rti(xtal death, race suicide'.rr
357
ANGELADAVIS
Thesecommentswere made during a period of acceleratingracist ideology and
of great waves of race riots and lynchings on the domestic scene.Moreovet
President Roosevelt himself was atrempring ro muster suppoft for the US
seizureof the Philippines,the counrry'smost recrnr ,mperialisi venr,rre.
How did the birth control movemenrrespond ro R,,osevelt.saccusationthat
tnelr causewas promotrng race suicide?The president'spropagandisticpkry
was a failure, accordingto a leading historian of the bi.rh cont.or movemenr.
for, ironically, it led to greatersupport for its advocates.yet, as Linda Gordon
maintains,this controversy'also brought to the forefront thoseissuesthat most
separatedfeministsfrom the working classand the poor,.1i
This happenedin rwo ways. First, the feministswere increasinglyempha
sizing birth control as a route to careersand higher education_ goals our
of reach of the poor with or without birth control. In the context of the
whole feminist movement! the race-suicideepisode was an additional
factor identifying feminism almost exclusivelywirh the aspirationsof the
more privilegedwomen of the sociery.Second,rhe pro birih control feminists beganto popularize the idea thar poo, p.upL had a moral obligation to restrict the size of their families, becauselarge famihes creare,r
drain on the taxes and chariry expendirure, ,,f rhe wealrhy and becausc
poor children were lesslikely to be ,superior,.r6
The acceptanceof the race-suicidethesis,to a greater or lesserextent, by
rvomensuch as Julia Vrard Horve and Ida HustcclHrrper reflectedrhe suffragc
movement'scapitulation to the racist postureof Southernwomen. lf the suffra_
gistsacquiescedto argumentsinvoking the extensionof the ballot to women as
the savinggraceof white supremacy,then birth control advocateseither acqui_
escedto or supported the new argumentsinvoking birth control as a meansol
preventing the proliferation of the'lower classes,andas an antidore to racc
suicide.Race suicide could be prevented by the introducion of birth control
among BIack people,immigrants and the poor in general.In this wa5 the prosperous whites of solid Yankee stock could maintain their superior numbers
within the population. Thus class-biasand racism crept into the birth control
movement when it was still in its infancy. More
it was assumed
"nJ -nr.,
within birth control circlesthat poor women, Black
and irnmigrant alike, hacl
a 'moral' obligation to restrict the sizeof their families,.17What was demandetl
as a'right'for the privilegedcame to be interpretedas a ,duty'for the poor.
When Margaret Sangerembarked upon her Iifelong crusade for birth control
- a term shecoined and popularized- ir appearedas though rhe racist an<tantrworking-classovertones of the previous perrod mighr possibly be overcom(.
For Margaret Higgens Sangercame from a working-classbackground hersell
and was well acquaintedwith the devastatingpressuresof pouerty. rJ(henht.r
mother died, ar the age of forty-eight, she had borne no lessthan elevenchil
dren. Sanger'slater memoriesof her own family's troubles would confirm hcr
belief that working-classwomen had a specialneed for the right to pran an(l
358
1
:
t€
'RAC|sM,
BrRTH
CorutRore|.]oRrpaooucrrvr
Rrcsrs'
ng racist ideologyand
:stic scenc.Moreover,
' support for the US
:rialist venture.
evelt'saccusationthat
s propagandisticploy
th control movement,
Yet, as Linda Gordon
thoseissuesthat most
'. l
i
'e increasinglyemphaeducation- goaJsout
. In the context of the
:le was an additional
the aspirationsof the
:ro-birth control feme had a moral obligaarge families create a
wealthy and becausc
, or lesserextent. hv
r reflectedthe suffrage
Lwomen. If the suffra
he ballot to women as
dvocateseither acquicontrol as a meansol
rs an antidote to racc
ction of birth control
. In this way, the prosLeirsuperior numbers
into the birth control
nore, it was assumecl
immigrant alike, hacl
What was demanded
'duty' for the poor.
:sadefor birth control
rgh the racist and anti'
xrssibly be overcome.
ss background hersell
of poverty. Vhen hcr
, less th a n elev enc hilles would confirm hcr
the right to plan and
spacetheir pregnanciesautonomously.Her affiliation, as an adult, with the
Socialistmovement was a further causefor hope that the birth control campaign would moye in a more progressivedirection.
\?hen Margaret Sangerjoined the Socialistparty in 1912, she assumedthe
responsibilityof recruiting women from New York's working women's clubs
into the party.l8 The Call - rhe pany's paper - carried her articles on the
women'spage.Shewrote a seriesentitled'What Every Mother Should Know',
inother called 'What Every Girl Should Know', and she did on-the-spotcoverageof strikesinvolving women. Sanger'sfamiliarity with New York's workingclassdistrictswas a result of her numerous visits as a trained nurseto the poor
sectionsof the city. During thesevisits,shepoints out in her autobiographn she
met countlessnumbers of women who desperatelydesired knowledge about
birth control.
According to Sanger'sautobiographicalreflections,one of the many visitsshe
ntadeas a nurse to New York's Lower East Side convincedher to undertakea
personalcrusadefor birth control. Answering one of her routine calls, shediscoveredthat twenty-eight-year-oldSadieSachshad atrempredto abort herself.
Once the crisis had passed,the young woman askedthe attending physicianto
give her adviceon birth prevention.As Sangerrelatesthe story, the doctor recommendedthat she'tell [her husband]Jake to sleepon the roof'.re
I glanccdquickly to Mrs. Sachs.Even through my suddentearsI could see
stampedon her facean expressionof:rbsolute despair.rVe simply looked
at each other,sayingno word until the door had cioseclbchind the doctor
Then shelifted her thin, blue veinedhands and claspedthem beseechingly.
'He can't understand.He's only a man. But you do, don't you? Pleasetell
me the secret!and I'll never breatheit ro a soul. Please!'zo
Three months later SadieSachsdied from another self-inducedabortion. That
night, Margaret Sangersays,she vowed to devote all her energy towards rhe
acquisitionand disseminationof contraceptivemcasures.
I went to bed, knowing that no matter what it might cost, I was finished
with palliatives and superficialcures; I resolvedto seek out the root of
evil, to do something to change the destiny of mothers whose mrserres
were as vast as the sky.2l
During the first phaseof Sanger'sbirrh control crusade,she maintained her
rrf6liationwith the Socialistparty - and the campaign itself was closely asso
ciated with the rising militancy of the working class.Her staunch supporters
included Eugene Debs, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn and Emma Goldman, who
respectivelyrepresentedthe Socialisrparty! the International Workers of the
World and the anarchist movement. Margaret Sanger,in turn, expressedthe
rlnti-capitalistcommitment of her own movement within the pages of its
1<ttrnal,,\Yoman Rebel, which was 'dedicated ro the interests of working
women'.22Personally,she continued to march on picket lines with striking
359
ANGTLADAVIS
workcrs end pLrbliclycon,:lcmnedthe outragcousassarrltson striking u,orkers.
In l 9 l .l , fo r exampl e,u,henthe N ati onl l (i uard massacrcdscoresof (j h ic: r no
n i n e rs i n l -udl orq (bl oredo, S angcrj oi ncd the l abor movenent ro cxposr ng
J o h l D . R o ckefel l er' srol e i n thi s attrck.rl
tlnfortLrnatelv,thc alliancc between thc birtlr control c:rnrpaign irnd rht
raclicalllbor movement did not enjo,va long Jife.\{hilc Soci:rlisrsand other
n'orking-cl:rssitctivistsconrinued ro support tlrc dcmand for birth contrrl, it
did not occupy .1celrr:rl placein their ovcrall straregv.Ancl Sangerherselfbcgrn
to u n c l e re s ri m.rre
thc ccntrrl i ty of capi tal i st cxpl oi tati on i n her anal v sisof
poverty, itrgulltg thar r(x) manv children causedworkers ro fall into their mis
erablc predicarncnt.N{oreover,'wonrcn u,ere inaclvertentl,vperpctuating fhc
cxploitntion of thc rvorking cLass',she believed,,by conrinually fJoodingtht
labor m:rrket with ncu workers'.lr lronicall,v,Slnger may havc been encour,
a g e d to a d opt thi s posi tron by the neo Mal tbusi an i ders embr:rcedi n som c
socialistcircles.Such outstirndingfiguresof the European sociaiistnrovemenr
2rsAnatolc Franceand Rosa l.uxenburg h:rd proposede .birth strike'to prevent
the continued flow of labor into the capitalistDrarkt.ri
V/hen Marg:rret Sarrgerscvered her ties u,ith the Socialist party for thc
purposc of Lruildingan indepenclentbir.thcontnrl cirmpirign,she and her fol
l o l v e rs b c c amemore susccpti bl ethan ever bcfore to the anti -B l ack;rnt lant irmmigrrnt propaganciaof thc times. l_ike thcir preclcccssors,
rvho had beel
d c c e i v e db y the' race sui ci de' propaganda,
rhe rdvocatesof l )i rth control beg: r n
to c rrrb re c et ht prcr:ri l i ngrrrci sti cl eol oq\..
Thc fetl l i ni l rrcnccof thc cugelicr
rnovementu,ould soon destrov the progressivepotcnti:rl of thc ltirth contr0l
c:rnrpaign.
I)uring the firsr decadesof the rwentiethcentury rhe rising popularit,vof thc
cugenicsmovement u'as harclll a fortuitous cleveloprncnt.F.ugenicideaswerr,
pcrfectlv suited to the ideokrgicalncctls of the loung monopoly capitalists.
lruperi:rlrstincursionsin l-atin America:rnd in the pacrficneededro bc justifiecl.
rrsdicl the intensifiedexploitation of Black u,orkersin rhe Sourh irird immigranl
rv.rkers in the I.\ortlt a'd V/est. l'hc pseud.scientificracial the.ries i.rssocllte(l
u'ith ttreeugcnicscarnpaigl furnisheddramatic apologiesfor the conduct of thc
young monopolies.As a rcsult, this movelItcntwon the unhesitatingsupport ol
such leedingc:rpiralistsas the Carrregies,rhe Hrrrinrns and the Kelkrggs.r.'
Bv l 9 l 9 the eugcni ci l fl uenceon thc bi rth control novement w i l s unnllst ak
ably clear. In an article published by Nlargarct S:rngerin the i\merican Ilirrlr
Ciontrol Leaguc'sjournal, shedcfined 'thc chiel issncof birth conrrol' as .mor(.
childrcn from the fit, lessfrom the unfit'.r Arountl this timc the ABCI_ herrt
ily welcrrrred tlre rurhor of The Risng 'l ide rf Cokr Against Wbite \Vrn.ll
Supreitu(y tllto its inner sanctum.lr Lothrop Stocldard.I larvartl professor:rnrl
theorcticianof the eugenicsntovement,was offered a searon rhe bo:rrdof direc
to rs . In th e p agcsrhe A B C Ls j ournal , arri cl esby (i ul , l rvi ng B i rch, crrect oror
th e ,{ me ri c a n} l ugeni csS oci etl beganto:rppear.IJi rchadvocatedbrrrh cont r ( )
as a weapon to'prevenr the Antcricirn pcople froln bcing rcpl:rcedby:rlien or
350
"!aF
RIGHTS
'RAcrsty,
BIRTHCoNTRoLAND REPRoDUcrlvE
striking workers.
cores of Clhicano
ment in exPoslng
lmpaign and the
cialists and other
r birth control, it
rger herselfbegan
r her analysis of
al l i n to th eir m is
perPetuatrngthe
rally flooding the
Lavebeen encour_
mbraced in some
rcialistmovement
r strike'to prevent
list party for thc
, shc and her folt i Bl a ck and ant i's. u,ho had been
rrth corltrol Dcg,all
:e of the eugenics
the birth control
1popularity of the
.ugenicideas were
ropoly capitalists.
ded to be justified,
r th a n d i m m igr ant
heoriesassociated
the conduct of the
sitating support of
the Kelloggs.r''
e n t wa s unm is t ak
re American Birth
I control' as 'more
e the ABCL heartinst White Worlcl
rard professorand
the board of dirccl Birch, director of
:ated birth control
:placedby alien or
or hr orerly high hrnh rxtes among
Negro stock, whether it be by immtgrrtton
nll:l:11^i.t"l"-Tl
socret1,c.'"'O
1932tbi Fugenic'
in thiscountrv'.r'Bv
others
laws..andthat thousands
r0
twenty-six stateshad passeocompulsory'sterilization
preventcd from reproducing
9{,unfit' personshad alreadv t..n,u'git"lly
's""g.. offered her public approval of this development 'Morons'
i*"r",
rr,r^
'#;;*l';";;;t,
unemplovables' criminals'
epileptics, illiterat"" p""pt"'
ntna'' ought to be surgicallv sterilize-1'..:n.tr:t*uto'n"
n..r,J",", ""a aup.
no
intransigentas to leave them with
radio talk.rr She did not wlsh to be so
c h o i c e i n th ernatter;i ftheyw tshed,shesai d' theyshoul dbeabl etocho osea
camps'
lifelong segregated€xistencein labor
Wi th i rrtheA meri canB i rthC tl ntrol League,thecal l Jorbi nhcontrolsterilizaa m ong
the call for comPulsory
Black people acquiredthe '"-t tnfi" "tlgt "s
of Amerrca' pranneda
i,t't"ccessor,the Birth control Federation
;i;;.1;;ii
' N e g r,, l ro i rct' . l n the l -ederati rrn'"'rordt:
the South' still breed carclesslvarrd
The massof Negroes,partrcularly in
increasearnongNegroes' even more
dir"*.ourly, with the result that the
of the population least fit' and
than among whites, is t'u--it'"t portion
Ieastable to rear children properly'rl
local birth control com(ialling for the recruitment of Black ministersto lead
that Black O::lt-;|"rr'U Ot "
mittees,the Federation'sproposal suggested
not
birth control propaganda 'we do
cleredas vulnerableas possibleto th;i;
'that
Sangerin. a,letter 1o a colleaBue'
want word to gct out" tu"n" M^'ln'"t
and the minister is the man rvho
we want to exterminatethe Ntgto loput"tinn
of their more rcbclli.us
out that idea if it "uei occu's to any
;:r'r;;"t*;;"
tt'utment con6rmed the ideologmembers'.rlThis episodein the t'i'th tt'nttol
robbed of
eugcnic ideas'tt
ical victory of the racism "'utin"i-*itt'
|i1
ll-t:"
right
individual
the
not
for peopleof colt'r
t,t tt"*."*tt.
O",ential, advocating
birth
l-he
corrlrol
rather rhe ,^.ir, *.",.iy of p(tpuldtion
t<t
"' '-i crntrol,but
in the
'' birth
would be called upon to sertt ," "l "tt:itlljapacitv
.r*^i*
e x e c u ti o n oftheU S government,si mperi al i standraci stpopul ati
onp olicy.
1970s should have examined thc
The abortion rights activistsot ttt't t"'ty
understoodwhv
H"d th'v done so' thev misht have
#;;y;;;;;;:;.''nt'
of suspiciontorvard their cause'
tf,ft.t. gfack sistersadopteda posture
.,,
racist deedsof
how importa.t it was to undo the
-"it,
il;;ffi;;erstood
:dt,*:*"."il{:l*;l'*::*.-,,*l#l"J:[:'li',i:'
lt"r.qt""rfy,
beenmore receptiveto the
,ft. young white feminisismight have
campaigl;i:tg;g1'.;::l1;ili:Til^','':;1;:"thattheir
,ugg..iiun
tion of sterilizatitlnabuse,whl(
It was not until the media otl'ati
Black
tft"t the casualsterilizationof two
s;; ; M;.,;;.
:il:
:r il:yll,.T:,
;Jilfl* J#jl;:fiXll.'|il.
Plndora's b<lx tlt sterlllzatlon a
case of the Relf sisters b.ok., ,t *",
politics
p.^.,ically too late to inflr'rencethe
351
ANGELADAVIS
of the abortion rights movement.It was the summer of 7973 atd the Supremc
Court decision legalizing abortions had already been announced in January.
Neyerthelessthe urgent needfor massopposition to sterilizationabusebecamc
tragically clear The facts surrounding the Relf sisters'story were horrifyingly
simple.Minnie Lee, who was twelve yearsold, and Mary Alice, who was fourteen, had been unsuspectinglycarted into an operating room, where surgeons
irrevocably robbed them of their capacity to bear children.3aThe surgcry nacr
beenordered by the HEW-funded Montgomery Community Action Committee
after it was discoveredthat Depo-Provera,a drug previously administeredto
the girls as a birth prevention measure,causedcancer in test animals.35
After the SouthernPovertyLaw Centerfiled suit on behalf of the Relf sistcrs,
the girls'mother revealedthat she had unknowingly 'consented'to the operation, having been deceivedby the social workers who handled her daughters'
case.They had asked Mrs. Relf, who was unable to read, to put her'X'on a
document, the contents of which were not describedto her. She assumed,she
said, that it authorized the continued Depo-Proverainjections. As she subsequently learned,shehad authorizedthe surgicalsterilizationof her daughters.r,.
In the aftermath of the publicity exposingthe Relf sisters'case,similar epi,
sodeswere brought to light. In Montgomery alone, elevengirls, also in their
teens,had been similarly sterilized.HEN(l-fundedbirth control clinics in other
states,as it turned out, had also subjectedyoung girls to sterilization abuse.
Moreover, individual women came forth with equally outrageousstories.Nial
Ruth Cox, for example, Aled suit against the state of North Carolina. At thc
ageof eighteen- eight yearsbeforethe suit - officialshad threatenedto discontinue her familyt welfare paymentsif she refusedto submit to surgical sterilization.lT Before she assentedto the operation, she was assured that her
infertility would be temporary.rs
Nial Ruth Cox's lawsuit was aimed at a sratewhich had diligently practiced
the theory of eugenics.Under the auspicesof the Eugenics Commission of
North Carolina, so it was learned,7,685 sterilizationshad been carried out
since 1933, Although the operationswere justified as measuresro prevent the
reproduction of 'mentally deficient persons', about 5,000 of the sterilized
persons had been Black.ie According to Brenda Feigen Fasteau,the ACLU
attorney representingNial Ruth Cox, North Carolina's recent record was not
much better. 'As far as I can determine,the statisticsreveal that since 1954,
approximately 55o%of the women sterilized in North Carolina were Black and
approximately 35o%were white.'40
As the flurry of publicity exposingsterilizationabuserevealed,the neighboring state of South Carolina had been the site of further atrocities. Eighteen
women from Aiken, South Carolina, chargedthat they had been sterilizedby a
Dr. Clovis Pierce during the early 1970s. The sole obstretician in that small
town, Piercehad consistentlysterilizedMedicaid recipientswith two or more
children. According to a nurse in his office, Dr Pierceinsistedthar pregnanr
welfare women 'will have to submit (sic!) to voluntary sterilization' if they
362
I
i
1
l
I
j
t
l
I
RIGHTs'
CoNrRoL AND REPRODUCTIvE
'RAcrsM,BTRTH
3 and the Suprcrrr,
runcedin Janulr r
tion abusebecatrr,
' were horrifyittglr
ice,who was fotrr
m! where surge()ll\
ra The surgeryh,r,l
Action Commrttc,
rly administeredt,,
t animals.-ri
I of the Relf sister'.
nted' to the oper,r
lled her daughters'
to put her 'X' on il
-. She assumed,slt,
Lons.As she subst
of her daughters.'
s ' ca se ,si m ilar epi
girls, also in their
trol clinics in other
sterilizationabusc.
rgeousstories.t","i.rI
th Carolina. At thc
reatenedto discon
it to surgical steril'
s assured that her
diligently practiced
ics Commission ol
rd been carried out
iuresto Preventthe
l0 of the sterilizcd
lasteau, the ACLU
lent record was not
:al that since 1964,
lina were Black and
ealed,the neighboratrocities. Eighteen
beensterilizedby a
tician in that small
s wlth two or more
;isted that pregnant
;terilization' if they
ar \W hi l e he w as ' ti red of pcopl e run ning
..,r,tc c lh i m t o del i ver thei r babi es
my taxe' " rr D r Pier ce
havi ng babi es and payi ng for them w i rh
, ,,,rr,J
" .a
fo' the steri[zation' ht.Pttf:tT:1'
,, , , rvedsome $60,000 rn taxpayers'"ionty
Carolina Medical Assoctatton'
r ,,,,,uSho tri"l he was supported by the South
and legal right to insrstt'n
moral
.l,,,r,i-embers declaredthat doctnrr.hru" "
patientJif it is done on the initial
ttf')",f.t permission before acceptinga
'',
"','i*.l",inn,
the complicity of
of sterilizationabuseduring that time exposed
and
At flrst the Def,artment of Htalth-..Education
,,,.';;;;;;i;;".ttment.
been
had
men
wtrmen and 8'00t)
\\ cllrrreclaimed that apProximatel)' I b'0u0
rr
programs Later' however'
fecleral
oi
,,,,liiir.a i" 7972'\tndei the auspices
Carl Shultz' director of HE!('s
rlrcscfigures underwent a rirastic revision'
100'000 and 200'000 sterill',pLrlationAffairs Offtce, estrmatedthat between
ar
government During
federal
beenfunded that year by the
,,,ii-, i"i**"flv
carrred out unoer
incidentally,250!000 sterili?ationswere
ii;,i.;; a.t-".y,
of the Nazis'
record
possiblethat the
,,', N-iJ Herejitary Health Law'oi Is it
h"ut been almo-*.egualled bv us
;i;,,;";;;", the years of their reign,.
-ny
spaceol a srngleyeart
in the
l,,uernment-fundedsterilizations
of the united
( iiven the historical genocrdernflictedon the native population
would be exemptedfrom the
t,,,r.r,... *t"fa as..imethat Native Americans
to Dr Connie Uri,s testl
r'rlvernment,sslertllzatloncampaign.But, according
'
per cent of all
twenty-four
't"-"'in*' bv 1976'
.''our
b,r.::ld
'illll.'il.lil1ff,'TTI:'ilijJl1L;:-:
ffi ;;";,',;;;'r*i
commrtteet
ttrld the Scnare
U.ing stopped,' the Choctaw physrcia-n.
ii,r.,
ro our people"asAccording
'Our "r.
unborn will not be born ' ' Thrs is genocid'rl
in Claremore',Oklahoma' had
to Dr. Uri, the Indian Health ServicesHospital
giving birth in that federal facill)censterilizingone out of every four women
iry."
N a ti v e A m ertcansaresP ecl aItargetsofgovernmentpropagandao nst erts
ilizaat Native American people,there
rion. In one of the HEw pamphlet; aimed
one horse and anothtr sketch of a
,r'r'1.,.fl t?" f"-t ly with teu cbildren and
are supposedto imply that
i",o,lf*irt rr" child and ten borses-Thedrawings
chiidren mean,wealth' As if the
rnore children mean more pnut'ty "nd fewer
..' ' r' -,.' " * * abytheone-chi l dfami l yhadbeenmagi cal l yconj uredupby
birth control and sterilizationsurgery'
US government has an undeniably
The domestic poPulatrotl policy of the
Rican and Black women con,".iri.ag". Native American, Chicana' Puerto
numbers A::o:di"q to a National
tinue to be sterilized in ai'p'ofo'tlo"^tt
Princeton Universitv's Office of
Fertility Study conducted rn 1970 by
married Black women had beenperPopulation Control, twenty per cent of ali
Chicana women
sterilized.l0Approximately the same Percentage,of
Mo.eouer, forty-three per cent of the
-""."i1t
had been rendered surgically infertlie.lr
were Black'51
throttgh lederally subsidizedprograms
women
" "ift. sterilizecl
have heen sterilized
who
wirmen
,,u--'bt' t'f Puerto Rican
"r,.tlrftltg
363
ANGELADAVIs
rcflectsa specirllgovcrnmenr policy thar can be traced brck to t939. ll rhrrr
ycar PresidentRoosevelt'slnterdeplrtment:rl(lonnittee on Puerto Rico issuerl
a statementattributing the islaDd'secononic problernsto the phenomenonol
overpopul:rrion.iI This comrnittec proposed that efforts be undertaken t,,
reducethe birth rate to no nrorc than the lcvel of the death rate.,l Soon aftcl
wilrd an experimental stcrilizationcampaigrtrvas nndertaken in Puerto l{ico.
Although the Catholic Church initialJvopposedthis experirnertrnd forceclthc
cessationot the program in 1945, it wirs converrcd drrring the c:rrl1'19-50sro
the teachingsand practiceof pop ulirrioncolttrol.j j In th is perioclover I 0 b irrlr
-5
control clinicswere opened,rcsultingin a twenty per cent declinein populariol
grolr'th by the rlicl 1950s.ji.Bl the l970s over thirrv five per cent of rll Puerto
llican u'omen of childbearingage had bcen surgicallv stcrilized.j- According
to llonnic Mass, a seriouscritic of the US govcrnment'spopularion polic,v:
if prrrclymathematicalprojectionsare to be taken seriously,if the presenr
rate of sterilizationof 19,000moDthl,vwcrc to continLre,rhen the island's
population of workcrs :rnd peasantscoLrldbc cxtinguishcdrvithin the llexr
1 0 o r 20 ycars... fcstabl i shi nglfor the 6rst ri me i n $,orl d hist or y ir
systematicuseof population coDtrol capallleof eliminating an errrrrtgen
eration of people.Js
During the 1970s the devast:rringirnplicationsof the Puerto Rican experr
ment began to emergeu'ith unmistlkable clarity. In Puerto Rico tlrr presercr
o i e o rp o rr rti orrsi n thc hi ghl v autontl tr' (l rnetal l rrrgi c,rl
rnd phrtrm:rccut icr r l
inclustrieshad exaccrb:rtedthe problem of unemploymcnt.The prospcct of al
ever-largerarmy of unemployedworkers rvasone of the ntain itrcentlvesfor tJtc
nuss sterilizationprogram. Inside the Llnited Statcstoclal, enormous numbers
of pcopleof color - and especiallvracially oppresseilvourh - have becomeparr
of a pool of pernanentlv unemployedrvorkcrs. It is harcllv coincidentirl,con
sideringthe Pucrto Rican example,that the incrcasingincidenceof sterilization
hes kept pace with the high rates of unemployment.As growirrg numbers of
rvhitc people suffer the brutal consequcnccsof unemployment, thev can ir]so
expect to becometargetsof thc official sterilizrtion propaganda.
Tlre prevalenccof stefilizationabuseduring rhe latter 1970s may be greater
than ever before.Alrhough rhe Deparrment of Health, Education irnd .Welfarc
issucdguideliuesirr 1974, which n'ere ostcnsiblvdesignedto prevenr involuir
tary sterilizatior.ls,tbe situation has nonethelessdcteriorated. When thr
Arnerican Civil l,ibertics llnion's ReproductiveFreedom Proiecf conducted a
surveyof teachinghospit:rlsin I 975, they discovercdthat fortv per cent ol those
tnstrfutlor)swere Dot even aware of tlre regulations issued by HII$(/.J'rOnh
thirty per cent of thc hospitalsexaminedby the ACI-LI rvcrc even amrmpung r()
comply with the guidelines.6('
The 1977 Hyde Anendment has added yet another dimension to cLlercrlrj
sterilizationpractices.As a result of this iau passedby Congrcss,federalfuncls
for abortions wcre eliminated in all casesbut those involving rapc and the risk
364
'Rlcrsn, BrnrH CoNTRoLAND REpRoDUclvERtcHTS'
ack to 1 9 39. ln t hat
,n Puerto Rico issued
, the phenomenonof
s be undertaken to
th rate.iaSoon afterrken in Puerto Rico.
iment and forced the
Lgth e ca rly 1950st o
reriod over 150 birth
Jeclinein population
per cent of all Pucrto
jt
rilized. According
lpulation policy:
riously,if the present
nue, then the island's
ishedr'"'ithinthe next
: in world histor,va
natxrg ar entlre gell-
?uerto Rican experii, , l i rco th c pr es enc e
and pharmaceutical
:. The prospectof an
ain incentivesfor the
', enormous numbers
-r- have becomepart
ll coincidental,condenceof steriLzation
growing numbers of
they can also
'rment,
ganda.
970s may be greater
lucation and !(elfare
I to prevent involunriorated. When the
Project conducted a
orty per cent of those
ed by HE\(.5e Only
:e even attemptingto
imension to coercive
,ngress,fedcral funds
ing rape and the risk
of death or severe illness. According to Sandra Salazar of the California
Department of Public Health, the 6rst victim of the Hyde ,\mendment rvas a
twenty-seven-year-old
Chicana woman from Texas. She died as a result of an
illegal abortion in Mexico shortly after Texasdiscontinuedgovernment-funded
abortions. There have been many more victims - women for whom sterilization has become the only alternative to the abortions, which are currently
beyond their reach. Sterilizatiorrscontinue to be federally funded and free, to
poor women. on demand.
C)verthe last decaclethe stmggle againststerilizationabusehas beenwaged
primarily by Puerto Rican, Biack, Chicanaand Native American women. Their
causchas not yet beenembracedby the women,smovemenras a whole. Within
organrzationsrepresentingrhe inrerestsof middle-classwhite women. there has
beena cert:rinreluctanceto support tbe demandsof the campaignagainstster
ilization abuse,for thesewomen are often denied their individual rights to be
sterilizedwhen they dcsireto take this step. lfhile women of color are urged,
at every turn, to becone permanentlyinfertile, white women enjoyiug prosperous economic conditions are urgcd, by the same forces, to reproduce them_
selves.l hey thereforesomerimesconsrderrhe 'wairing penod' .rnJ other details
of the demand for 'informed consent'to sterilizationas further inconvcnrences
lor women like themselvcs.Yet whatever the inconveniencesfor white middleclasswomen, a fundamental reproductiveright of racially oppressedand poor
women is at stake. Sterilizationabusemust be ended.
Norf.s
1. Edwin M. Gold, er al., 'Thcrapeutic
Abortionsin New york City: A rwenrv-1,ear
rcview',in Ancri.canJournalof Publn:Htalth, vol. t.V, july l9bj. pp. 964_72.
Busrness:
Quotedin LucindaCisla,'UnGnished
Brrrhcunrrullnd wurnentlibera,
tron', in Robin Morgan (ed.),Sisterhood
ls Pct*,erful:Att antbologtoJ turltlltgs
fron the aomens liberationmctuement
lNew York: VintageBooks,I 970;,p. 26i.
A,lsoquoredin RobertStrples,l'he Black V/ctman
ot Arzerrra(Ciicago,Nelson
H a l l , 1 974),p. 146.
2 . Herbert Gurman, The Black Fanly ir Slaueryaxd Frectlotn, l75Lt-19-25(Neu,
York: PantheonIiooks, 1976), pp. 80-1, note.
3. I bid. , p p . 8 0 - 1 , n o t e .
4. Herbert Aptheker, 'The
Negro Woman', in Herbert Apthcker (ed.), Massesanr_/
Maittstreant,vol. 11, no. 2, p. 12.
5. Quoted in Rosalyn Bexandall,Linda Gordon and SusanReverby (eds),Arzencat
Workitg Women: A docxtxentary history
160A tu *e p,,escrt (New york:
Randorn Housc, 1976), p. 17.
6 . Ib i d ..p . 17.
7 . l-errrer, Gerda led.), I'he Female Experience: An Anerican docutttentarl,
(lndianapolis,
IN: tsobbsMcrrill Educational
l\rblisher,1977),p. 91.
Ib i d .,p . 91
9 . l b i d .,p .91.
1 0 . 'Marriageof Lucy SronelJnderProresr',;n HistlJryof lyonen Sufftage,vol. 1.
Quoted in Miriarn Schneir,Fenirisnr: The essentia!bistoricala,rrrirgs (New york:
VintageBooks,1972),p. 104.
1 1 . Speechby VrrginiaVoodhuJI,'Thelllixir of Lifc'. euoted in Schneir,
Fernmtsnt,
p .1 53 .
365
ANGELA DAV S
12. N4.t11P Rr':n, Woar,lrrlorrrlfu Atlcntt /ront ()tktuaLTnttcs tr.rtLl l'rcscrr/{Nov
Yor k : l' n n k l i n w : l t t s l n c . . 1 9 7 - 5 )p, . 1 6 2 .
1-1. Nlelvin Steirrfeld,L)rr-lld.r.st I\1,sr./.,/ts(S.rnRemon, CA: CirrscnsusPublrshers.
1912) .P . ) 1 2 .
1,1. Bonnic N{irss,Poprlrrllo, Tdtgct:'l'ltt politiral L,crnotnl t)f popuhttnt.o
toL ,l
F.ducetionl']rrss,1977). p. 20.
Ldtin Atnctitd (lirronto: \)ironren's
1.5. I-ind.r (,ordon. llirr'rr s 13or111
\\'orrrarri Rr.q/-'l:llith.o,itroI i/r Arr.r/.d (Ner\
Yor k : P c n g u i nB o o k s . I 9 7 6 ) , p . I 5 7 .
I 5. I bid. , p. 1 , 5 l i .
17. I bid. , p. l 5 l l .
1ll. lli. M r r g r r c r S r n e e \ A n A r l o b i o g r d p l - r r '1 N e *, Y o r k L
: ) o v c r P r e s s ,l 9 7 l ) p .7 .5 .
19. I br d. , p. 9 0 .
2t ) . I bid. , p. 9 1 .
21. lbic l. ,p. 9 2 .
22. I bid. , p. I 0 5 .
2.3. Mass, I'opuLdltotll'drttt, p.27.
1. 1. Br uc c l) e n c i s , 'S o c r a l i s r r . r n d\ \ i r r n e n i n t h e L J r i t e d S t a r e s .1 9 0 0 1 9 1 2 '. So r i 'r 1 i st
Rer olut t o n , 2 t - . r 'o l . V l , n o . l , J e n u r r l - N {l r c h 1 9 7 6 , p . i i - 5 .
l-5. l)evid Nl. Kenneclr,.
Br-lb C-orlrol in Antcrtta: Tltc tutcct of Margarcl .larrgcr(t.\erv
l leven, CT, and l.on(lon: Yelc Universitl,l'ress. 1976), pp. 2l 2..
26. Nlass, l'()l)uLlti("1 Targtt, p. 2().
27. Ciordon. ll,'orrrar! Ilorl)l \I/o//r,?/r:Ri.qrl, p. l3l.
fiJ. Mrss. Polrlntiotl lhlldl, p. 2i).
29. (iordon, \\rornau'sIlodt. \\:l)/7rirlr's
.iir,,ir1.
f- 2Nl.
10. llcrbcrt Aptheker. 'Sterilizati()n Experimcntrtion irnd Irnperialisnt'. I'olitiLal
nfarr,.. vol. LIll, no. J, Jrrrurrl lt) /'1, p. 44.
i 1 . (icnr (lorcir, T/,'zllr ddcn Nlalptactttt (Nerv York: A Jove/l lll Book, 1977), p. 149.
l l (,orclon. \I/orrcr'-sllorll \v;lrnrr'-sRtfri, p-.132.
lbid. , pp . . 1 j 2 - 3 .
-1.1.Aptheker.'Stt rilization , ;r. 38. See.elso. Annc llr:rdcn, 'Forcetl Sterilization:Norv
wonrcr cirr fighr brck', SrrrrrDclrr
Palriol. SeprtenLrcr
197-1.
i 5 . I bid.
.l6. Jilck Slatcr.'Sterilizrtiorr,Newest'I hrear to the Poor', F.1,,orr'.
vol. XXVlll, no. 12,
O c t obcr 1 9 7 3 . p . l - 5 0 .
-17. Ilraden, Forced Steriliz:rtion'.
3li. l- c s P; r y n c . 'F o r c c d S t c r i l i z e r i o n l o r t h c ' P r x r r ? ', S a n l : r a n c i s c o ( i l t r o nr cl c, l 6
Febr ue r , v1 9 7 4 .
i9. Ileroid X.. 'I;orccclSrerilizetionPcneclcsSoLrth, Nluhannted Speaks,l{l Octobcr
1975.
40- SlLrter,
'Sterilizrrtion,Nervest-l-hreetto thf l\)or'.
4 L P:rync,'lirrccd Srerilizetion'.
42. I bid.
4i. t bid.
44. Apt hek e r , 'S t e r r h z a t r o n p',. , 1 0 .
4-5. P.ryne,'Forccd Stt'rilizat io n'.
,,16.Aptheker. Sterilization',p. 48.
47. Arlcnc Erscn,'The,r'reTrling to Tirkc Our Future - N.rrivc Anrcricrn \lbmcn ancl
St er ilize t r o n ',T h c G u a r d t a n , 2 3 M e r c h I 9 7 f .
.1ii. lbrcl.
. 19. lbid.
50. Quoted in r pirtnphlc issued b1'the Cilnmitrce ro hncl Srrrilizirtiol Ahusc, Bor
A244, Cooper St.rtion,Ncw York 1000i.
5 l. r hid.
52. I hid.
5.1. (,orclon, \\'otnan 's IJoLly,\I'orrrrr'-c Rrgl:t, p. -3-38.
366
'RAC|sM,
ANDRepnooucttvrRtcrrs'
BrRTH
CoNTROL
.s fo trc .l','eserl(Ne\\
Consensus
Publishers.
' popltlatirl L:otrcl ,l
P .2 0 .
ttral u1 Anlerica lNc\|
,.t. l b i d .,p .338.
Mass,Pop latioflTarget,p.92.
l b i d .,p . 91.
Gordon,Wozrazi Body,Womat\ Rigbt,p. 401.Scc,also,pemphletissuedby the
Committce to lnd SterilizationALruse.
\s. Mass, Poprl,?tion Target,p. 108.
\'). RahemahArnan, 'Forced Sterilization',Unt<'n Wagr:,4 March 1978.
r , t ) . I bid.
- l' re ss,1 9 71) p. 75.
1.900 1912', Socialist
Margaret,laager (Neu,
L 1 2.
lmperialism'. Polltical
l l l look. 19 77 ), p. I4 9.
'ced Sterilizrtion: Now
r, vol. X X VIll, n o. 1 2,
lncisco Chronicle, 26
ed Speaks,10 October
Amcrican Worncn and
:rilizrtion Abuse, 13ox
367