T H E P R O B L E M S OF N A T U R E C O N S E R V A T I O N
I N MADAGASCAR
P. GRIVEAUD & R. ALBIGNAC*
With an area of about 600,000 km2, Madagascar is one of the largest
islands in the world. But this island is also a galaxy of very diverse
environments, of micro-biotopes which are quite different from each other.
Not only is the Great Island endowed in general with a unique flora and
fauna derived from the fact of its long isolation, but this-flora and fauna
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vary greatly in the different parts of the island.
One need only pass through Madagascar quic ,ly to appreciate the
considerable difference between the rain forest of the East and the
euphorbia bush country of the South-West, between the xerophyte forest
and the palm savannahs, between the remarkable ‘Tsingas’ of the NorthWest and the mangrove swamps. I n the East there are beaches of Polynesian aspect, the massif of the Isalo which resembles alruin, and areas
with canyons like those in America. The traveller in Madagascar cannot
fail to be struck by this variety.
The fauna itself is very special. With its many species of lemurs, its
carnivora, some of which, such as Cr_vptoproctafeyox, are the last survivors
of ancient species which have quite disappeared from the rest of the world,
its Centetidae, its couas and Vangidae, its curious Arclzaea spiders, and
all its unusual insects, this fauna forms an inexhaustible scientific treasure.
Unfortunately, numerous species are threatened with extinction. Some
have disappeared already in our own day, such as the hippopotami, the
great tortoises, the Aebyonzis and the Mullerornis, the giant running birds,
and also some large species of Lemuridae. Those that remain are
threatened a little more each day.
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THE ACTIVITY OF MAN
Of all the phenomena capable of disturbing the balance of Nature,
man is indisputably the principal force with which Nature has to contend.
I n Madagascar, as in other places, the impact of man in past ages has
corresponded with the beginning of these disturbances of the natural
balance. The first inhabitants of the island had nothing like all the means
which mankind has today of upsetting what Nature has created, and
*
Entomologist and Zoologist a t the O.R.S.T.O.M.
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Fig. 1. ‘Tavy’ in a forest.
anyway they were few in number. The changes which they brought
about in the original natural state of the Great Island were nevertheless
quite substantial. I t is indeed almost certain that we can attribute to
these first inhabitants the huge fires which, at a remote period, must have
swept through a large part of the forests, which scientists assume originally
covered the Great Island almost entirely. The chain reactions inevitably
followed.
The disappearance of large areas of forest led to climatic changes,
particularly in the amount of rainfall, in the districts affected. ‘The
botanical environment changed. The soil eroded, being inadequately
held in check by the scanty vegetation. The fauna itself was badly
affected. The animals found themselves cut off in a number of different
environments, where the species continued to evolve more or less in
isolation, giving rise to particular forms or sub-species. Finally, to this
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historical period, going back between 500 and 5,000 years, may be dated
the disappearance of all the mammals and large running birds which
are completely extinct today. But as regards the latter, one may also
presume that man hastened their extinction by indulging in excessive
hunting.
T H E P H E N O M E N A O F EROSION
It was at this time that various changes took place, which have subsequently only got worse.
The notorious ‘lavaka’ erosions which we see today, veritable gnawing
cankers which carry off the thin layer of arable soil and the earth itself
towards the rivers and the sea, are of quite ancient origin.
The ‘tavy’ agricultural methods, and the ruts made by the movements
of herds of cattle are only aggravating this situation bit by bit.
The ever-increasing growth in the population will only make the
phenomena of erosion worse, unless appropriate measures are taken to
stabilise the soil.
The two most urgent measures are the suppression of ‘tavy’ methods
and re-afforestation.
T H E FORESTS O F MADAGASCAR
The primitive Madagascan forest formed and, where it still exists, still
forms the only natural wooded environment where the animal species
peculiar to the Great Island can live and evolve. For obvious reasons,
as it was necessary to act quickly, we were unfortunately unable to replant the forests with native species, whose growth would have been far
too slow. Trees of imported species were used, such as conifers, eucalyptus,
mimosas, etc. These species, however, are most unsuitable for the native
animals of-Madagascar. Anybody, no matter how ignorant he may be
of these matters, who walks through the eucalyptus or pine forests, will
notice that they are almost lifeless and contain hardly any animals.
If we want to preserve what is left of the remarkable fauna of Madagascar, we must above all conserve its natural habitat as much as possible
by stopping the disturbance of the biological balance.
T H E U N I N H A B I T E D REGIONS
There is one point, however, on which it is difficult to interfere. This is
the progressive and inexorable reduction of the uninhabited regions in
the face of the population growth. This phenomenon has already reached
alarming proportions in other parts of the world, and is now ,beginning
to make itself felt in Madagascar. Only a few dozen years ago, there was
no need to go more than a few kilometers from a town in order to find
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large numbers of birds. Continually driven away from their native marshes
which have been converted one by one into rice fields or fish-ponds, and
disturbed by farmers, hunters and, alas, more and more poachers, they
are being reduced every year. I t is possible to foresee that within a few
decades they will completely disappear within a radius of 100 to 200 km
around large towns.
In this instance also, the answer is not to try and replace these creatures
with introduced species, when we do not know what results these introductions will have, but to save what remains by setting aside here and
there enough uninhabited areas for these species to be preserved.
INTRODUCTIONS
I n practice it is almost always impossible to predict what upsets
introduced species will cause to the evolution of the balance of nature.
Nature, in her wisdom, has established this balance everywhere, and
man tends to disturb it more and more. Plants and above all the majority
of animal species need well defined areas for their reproduction, which
are called ‘territories’. If man introduces foreign species into these
territories, very often they gradually eliminate the original flora and
fauna and take their place.
We shall just quote a few simple specific examples:
The introduction of mimosas, although it permitted a certain amount
of re-afforestation of denuded ‘tanety’ areas, gradually became an invasion, and no room was left for any other forest species in places where
they were introduced.
The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crass$es), which originaIIy came from
tropical America, has invaded a large number of lakes and rivers in
Madagascar, thanks to its fantastic ability to reproduce itself by runners.
Certain lakes, canals and rivers have gradually been totally blocked.
I n the animal kingdom, some introductions have had very doubtful,
if not disastrous results.
Among the fishes, for example, the Tilapia has the merit oftcombatting
to some extent the invasion of certain aquatic plants, and at the same time
of providing tasty food, but bit by bit it is upsetting every aquatic environment. Being herbivorous it eats the plants, but if it gets into the rice fields
’ it can cause serious damage, and gradually it changes lakes and ponds
into bare sheets of water. As a chain reaction, many animals and insects
disappear, as they can no longer find the shelter and the food they need.
The lakes are abandoned by the ducks who no longer find on the banks
the shelter necessary for nesting and protection of the species.
The introduction of one bird, the Martin, Acridoteres tristis, on the East
coast has been followed by the gradual disappearance of many other
species, whose territory the Martin is invading more and more extensively
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and to its own benefit. At Tamamave, for example, these foreign birds
are practically the only ones to be seen.
But other introduced animals have brought about much more dramatic
results.
Let us mention the case of a cochineal insect, which was unfortunately
introduced into the South of Madagascar with the object of reducing
the spread of cactus. I n a very short time we have seen not the reduction,
but the almost total disappearance of the cactus. Now in this desert region
of the South, the fleshy parts of the cactus formed the essential basic food
for cattle and numerous other animals, so now large sums must be spent
in fighting against the cochineal and in replacing the old cacti with new
selected, resistant and spineless varieties, which are not establishing themselves easily.
The certainly accidental introduction of the rat (Rattus rattus) must now
be paid for dearly, since this species has gradually invaded the whole
island, displacing the native species of rodents, which were much less
prolific and had their natural enemies.
Let us be content with these few examples, as the subject is unfortunately.
too vast.
THE ABUSE O F CHEMICAL MATERIALS
We must now start on the last chapter of disturbances to the balance
of nature. This deals with the consequences of the dissemination of the
countless products of which our modern civilisation is ever more prolific.
I n Madagascar, as everywhereelse, we are playing the sorcerer’s apprentice
with our often reckless use of certain insecticides, herbicides, etc. Far
be it from us to condemn systematically these products of human scientific
genius. They have allowed and will still allow us effectively to co-mbat
many pests and enemies of mankind. But we should only use them with
the greatest caution. We are using them principally against pests that
attack crops and against parasites on man himself.
Now what precisely does happen, and why are we witnessing in
Madagascar the spread of certain pests in spite of treatment?
The vast majority of these pests are to be found in the native flora,
apart fi-om a few cases of accidental introduction. But in this native flora
they live in balance, since they have all the enemies present whose
function is to maintain the balance. When man puts large areas under
one crop, he provides an unexpected feeding ground for the native pests,
and they start to multiply, without their natural enemies coming to
destroy them any more. That at least is what happens during the first
years of production.
Sometimes the predators, particularly if they have not been disturbed,
gradually gain the upper hand again and restore the balance. But man
cannot or will not wait for the balance to be restored naturally, and he
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fights against the pests with all the weapons in the chemical arsenal which
are at his disposal. Quite often, the result is that the usehl predator, a
tiny delicate insect, is the first to be exterminated, and the result is the
exact opposite of that hoped for. Gradually a resistant strain of pests
develops and proliferates all the more.
I n the last few years agronomists and entomologists have appreciated
the seriousness of the problem, and more and more specialist institutes
are undertaking studies with a view to replacing chemical weapons with
biological ones, using the natural enemies of the pests : predators, viruses,
fungi, etc. Madagascar must not relax its vigilance in this matter, and
the highest premium should be on the study of biological counter-measures ; these should only be entrusted to qualified specialists.
FACTORS F O R I M P R O V E M E N T
As we have just seen, the situation is frequently precarious, if not
desperate, and it justifies us in trying to improve it as quickly as possible
.with all the means in our power. We are not of course the first to have
thought of this, but we would hope that with the experience that has
been gained, corrections would be made and more consistent support
granted.
The Nature Reserves, which are inadequately supervised at the moment,
are often attacked by fire or by man, who gets in too easily and damages
the fauna and flora. The wardens of these Reserves do not have the
material resources to do their job properly. It is also necessary that the
Head Wardens of the Reserves, who have many duties to perform, should
attend training courses in Tananarive for example, of which a part,
dealing with the knowledge of fauna and flora, could be held at the
O.R.S.T.O.M. Centre in Tsimbazaza.
At the same time one must frequently deplore the lack of access roads
to and within the Reserves. If these were made, they would permit much
better supervision by the wardens, who in addition have only very slow
transport facilities at the moment, namely their own feet.
Apart from these integrated Reserves, which obviously cannot cover
all the micro-environments, even though there are at present eleven of
them, it is equally necessary to designate new special Reserves or Tourist
Reserves. These new areas could be selected on the advice of specialists
in the fauna and flora of Madagascar. These reserves would thus allow
tourists to see a cross-section of the remarkable fauna and flora of Madagascar easily and quickly.
I t is also absolutely necessary that the remaining primaeval forests, if
they must be exploited for economic purposes, should be exploited
rationally. One can in fact exploit a forest without, however, destroying
everything: it is just a matter of felling the largest trees and then letting
the forest restore itself over a period of 50 to 100 years. I n this way the
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fauna and flora will only be slightly affected, even though exploitation
of the forest has been possible.
Finally, well-illustrated literature should be produced for the better
education of the general public about the flora and fauna of Madagascar.
THE ACHIEVEMENTS SO FAR
Nature Reserves, Zoological Reserves and National Parks
Nature Reserves
There used to be twelve of them, most of which were established in
1927, and the three latest in 1939, 1940 and 1952 respectively. Even at
that time'the need for these Reserves was apparent, their aim being to
preserve areas where only the natural biological balance prevailed.
The number of twelve integrated Nature Reserves might seem at first
very large for such a small country, but it is scarcely sufficient to represent
the majority of the different environments of the Great Island. These
Reserves permit the preservation of only a cross-section of native species.
They are as follows:
Nature Reserve No. I : Betampona (Tamatave) : This extends over
41,777 ha (reserve
protective zone) at a height of between 300 and
550 myand represents the fauna and flora of the low altitude eastern zone.
Nature Reserve No. 3: Zaliamena (Ambatondrazaka): This covers
82,800 ha, including a protective zone of 24,800 ha, and represents a
zone of greater height than Reserve No. 1, again with fauna and flora
of the eastern hills.
Nature Reserve No. 4: Tsaratanana (Ambanja): This has an area of
60,000 ha, excluding the protective zone, and contains the highest
mountain in the island, Maromokotra (2,884 m high). I t allows the
preservation of high altitude environments.
Nature Reserve No. 5: Andrigitra (Ambalavoa) : This covers an area of
35,400 ha, with a protective zone of 11,100 ha, at a height of between
1,000 and 2,658 m. This is a border zone between the East and the West
with numerous very special xerophyte plants and animals partly of
Eastern types and partly of Western.
Nature Reserve No. 6: Lokobe (Nosy Be) : This has a total area of 1,202
ha at a height of between O and 550 my and allows the preservation of a
cross-section of natural low-altitude vegetation from the area of the
Sambirano, in the Nosy be district. This is the only forest area on this
island.
Nature Reserve No. 7: Ankarafantsika (Ambato Boéni): Its total area
is 70,349 ha, of which 9,139 ha form the protective zone. I t enables some
very characteristic animals to live in a low-altitude tropical forest.
Nature Reserve No. 8: Namoraka (Saolala) : This covers a total area of
23,326 ha, including a protective zone of 94 ha, of chalky limestone. Its
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Fig. 2. The Nature Reserves (not on scale).
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purpose is to conserve a cross-section of biotopes from the Western limestone region at a height varying between 180 and 380 m.
Nature Reserve No. 9: Tsingy du Bemaraha (Antsalova) : This comprises
155,920 ha of limestone tropical forest at an altitude of 70 to 700 my and
also allows the preservation of biotopes fi-om the Western limestone region.
Nature Reserve No. 10: Lake Tsimanampetsotsa (Tuléar) : 15,282 ha of
reserve include a vast very salty lagoon, together with a narrow strip of
sand and a limestone plateau, which allow the preservation of shrub
groupings from the South-West on the sand and xerophyte ‘bush’ on
the limestone plateau, as well as the characteristic fauna; there are also
many lakeside birds, particularly pink flamingos.
Nature Reserve No. I I : Andohahelo (Fort-Dauphin) : The 61,200 h a of
this reserve, varying between 120 and 1,956 m in height includes land
of both the Eastern and Southern regions. Its object is to preserve a
cross-section of flora and fauna from the Southern part of the Eastern
region, from the Mandrare area of the South region and from intermediate regions.
Nature Reserve No. 12: Marojejy (Andapa) : This has an area of about
48,000 ha and allows the preservation intact of the only mountain range
showing a continuous succession of plant levels from the Eastern region
ranging in height from 100 m to 2,100 m in a very limited area. I t is the
plants of this mountain range which are most characteristic and unusual.
Nature Reserve No. 2: It is to be regretted that Decree no. 64,381 of the
16th September 1964 removed the classification from Reserve No. 2
at Masoala, to the South of Ambohitralana in the North-East. This
Reserve had an area of 27,682 ha and contained plants and animals of
great interest.
National Parks
There are two parks. While permitting the preservation of certain
biotopes, they may be visited by tourists with the permission of the Water
and Forestry Department. They are :
The Ambre mountain: a humid forest between 1,000 and 1,500 m in
altitude, near Diégo.
The Isalo:
a massif of ruinous aspect, in the South East.
<oological Reserves
These have been established to protect certain birds and tortoises.
They are:
Province of Diégo-Suarez : Nosy Anambo,
Sugar-loaf Islands,
Sepulchre Islands,
Heron Islands,
Lake Mahery,
Lake Texier,
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Province of Majunga:
Province of TulCar :
Nosy Tranja
Europa Islands,
Nosy Trozona,
Nosy Ve,
Chesterfield,
Nosy Vorona,
Nosy Manitsa,
The colonies of waders at Manombo and
Saint Auguste,
Province of Tamatave :
Sand Islands,
Fonga,
Vatomandry.
Finally, several state forests also contribute towards the preservation of
animals, either because they form a protective zone around the large
Reserves, or because they allow a nucleus ofpriniitive forest to be preserved.
SPECIAL REGULATIONS MADE BY T H E LEGISLATURE AND C U R R E N T L Y
IN FORCE
I t would of course take too long and be too boring to list here all the
laws and decrees about nature conservation; suffice it to say that these
measures specify a series of ‘protected’ animals among the Madagascan
fauna, which it is forbidden to hunt or even to keep in captivity without
a special permit. This applies in particular to the lemurs, to certain birds
and reptiles, and may soon be applied ta the native carnivores of the
Great Island.
The hunting of game animals is controlled, and in particular is forbidden
during the breeding season. Finally, some animals listed as ‘harmful’
(of which there are very few, at the present time only the river-hog and
the crocodile) are covered by special regulations.
As regards plants, special rules apply to orchids, particularly the
ornamental varieties.
The Appeal j a r International Assistance
I n order to achieve better management of the Nature Reserves, the
National Parks and even the future Tourist Reserves, organisations such
as the I.U.C.N. and the W.W.F. have recently been actively participating
in joint action. Indeed, a developing country like Madagascar cannot by
itself provide all the financial resources needed for the proper running
of these Reserves. Naturally, it must take a large share, but it must be
supported with moral and financial assistance from these organisations.
This moreover is what has already been initiated with a substantial
contribution from the I.U.C.N. This aid has just allowed a Special
Reserve to be established at Nosy Mangabe with the object of introducing
there the Aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) among others. Therefore
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Fig. 3. The Aye-Aye (Dauberztonia madagascarienris Gmelin).
this species, which at the moment is very rare, will be able to find normal
living conditions on this islet and will be saved. I n addition the I.U.C.N.
is to participate in making a complete inventory of all the present Nature
Reserves, so that their botanical and zoological contents will be better
known, and can be improved or modified as necessary.
Mr. J. J. PETTER,assistant Director of the Natural History Museum
of Paris, General Ecology department (at 'Brunoy), has recently been
appointed chairman of the Madagascar group in the I.U.C.N.
The committee of the' Madagascar group is being formed as we write
these words.
The Higher Councilfor Nature Protection in Madagascar
At a purely local level, the Malagasy Republic, by Decree no. 62,321
dated the 3rd July 1962, set up a Council for Nature Protection, including representatives of the various Ministries, organisations and associations affected by the problem of Protection.
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The activity of the Overseas Scient@ and
Technical Research Ofice (O.R.S. T.Q.M.)
For many years the O.R.S.T.O.M. has taken a large share in the
activity towards nature conservation in Madagascar, with its botanical
and zoological park at Tsimbazaza and with the voluntary co-operation
of numerous research workers and technicians.
A . The Mammal aiid Bird Index: With the aim of improving information
for the public, the O.R.S.T.O.M., helped by a contribution from the
New York Zoological Society, started to prepare a card index of birds
and mammals three years ago: already 50 index-cards for mammals and
50 for birds have been printed and distributed. They will be supplemented shortly by another 50 cards for birds and 50 for reptiles, and
certainly by others in the near future. So teachers first of all, and also
all those who wish to have some simple documentation on the fauna of
Madagascar, will have this basic material available for their initial
information.
B. The Tsiinbaza,ca Park: The Tsimbazaza Park, of which the O.R.
S.T.O.M. is in charge, has as its primary objective the education of
as many people as possible about Nature in Madagascar and its uniqueness, so as to make them more appreciative of the protection necessary
for many species. I n addition, by a study of feeding, it is endeavouring
to keep the maximum number of species in captivity, and to make them
breed regularly. At the moment the keepers of the Park have managed
to get all the lemurs to breed, including Lemur variegatus, which has been
breeding regularly for three years. On the other hand they have not
succeeded in keeping the Lepilemurs in captivity for more than a few
months. The Microcebes, by contrast, can be brought up easily. The
Phaners can now be brought up quite easily in captivity, but it is not
yet known if they will breed, as they have been captured only recently.
Like the Lepilemur, the Avahi can only survive a few weeks in captivity.
The Propithecus is quite delicate. The Propithecus verreauxi bred once, in
1967, and it is hoped will do so regularly in future. The Itidri is also very
difficult to keep alive in captivity, and no attempt to do so has been
made for some time. As for the Daubentonin, it should be possible to bring
them up normally, but there is always the problem of catching them. As
this species is moreover very rare, it is better for the time being not to
try to keep theni in captivity.
In addition the O.R.S.T.O.M. research workers have largely contributed to a new layout of the handsome zoology hall. This hall, which is
visited by thousands of people each week, contains the primary collections
of the most interesting animals of Madagascar together with placards
with ample explanatory texts in French and Malagasy. Being sited within
the Tsimbazaza Park, it forms a vital complement to the zoological park.
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F U R T H E R U R G E N T MEASURES
First and foremost it is vital that international aid should increase, so
as to organise the Nature Reserves better; at the moment they are often
too difficult of access, and because of the lack of adequate means, their
protection against brush fires and poaching is still very inadequate.
I n addition, as has been said, Tourist Reserves should be established,
with guides, in areas with easy access, where the most characteristic
animals and plants can be shown in their natural surroundings in a
short time.
These efforts, however, limited to action mainly fi-om abroad, apart
from legislation which has so far been useless in its effects, must be
supplemented by more fundamental action; this means that above all
one must listen to and follow those Madagascans who are themselves
aware of the national interest represented by the nature conservation in
Madagascar.
Underlying everything else must be the education of the girls and boys
of the Great Island about the great interest held by Nature in Madagascar.
I n the present state of things, one cannot find fault with the children of
this country if they harm a national heritage, about which nobody has
told them anything. One must therefore begin at the beginning and give
instruction before imposing fines. Many things must be done in this
respect. A whole range of school literature must be created, with carefully
edited and illustrated books.
All the existing youth organisations, such as students’ societies, scouts,
etc., should be utilised for the purpose of creating within them a movement in favour of Nature. Films, lectures, discussions and placards, all
in Malagasy and presented by Madagascan people, should be widely
distributed.
Good will is certainly not lacking, but for a long time to come this
good will will have to be stimulated and encouraged by financial and
technical aid. But this aid must not be forthcoming in a more or less
distant and doubtful future. If we want to help the Madagascan people
to save what can still be saved, a clean sweep must be made of the
interminable delays due to red tape and hide-bound bureaucracy. When
the house is on fire, one should not send the town clerk to help, but the
fire brigade with all its fire-fighting equipment. Only at this price and
with speedy and effective action will it be possible to help the Madagascan people to save a scientific treasure which is the envy of naturalists
throughout the world.
Authors’ addresses:
P. GRNEAUD,R. ALBIGNAC
O.R.S.T.O.M.
Tananarive, Madagascar
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THE PRQBLE
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