Effect of Fireworks on Ambient Air Quality during
Deepawali in Residential Area in Kolkata - a case
study
BY:
SNEHA MOHANTA
CLASS: M.C.E-II
ROLL NO. –M4CIV12-18
REGISTRATION NO. –116818
SESSION: 2011-2012
UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF:
Prof. SHIBNATH CHAKRABARTY
A Thesis Submitted for the Partial Fulfilment of the Continuous
Assessment of the Course of Master of Civil Engineering of Jadavpur University
for the session 2011-2012
JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
(ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING)
KOLKATA – 700 032
DECLARATION
This Thesis titled “Effect of Fireworks on Ambient Air Quality during
Deepawali in Residential area in Kolkata - a case study” is prepared and
submitted for the partial fulfilment of the continuous assessment of the course of
Master of Civil Engineering in Environmental Engineering of Jadavpur University
for the session 2012-2013.
Date:
Place:
Department of Civil Engineering
Jadavpur University
Kolkata: 700032
Sneha Mohanta
M.C.E (2nd Year)
Roll No. – M4CIV13-18
Section: Environmental Engineering.
Department of Civil Engineering
Jadavpur University
JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
KOLKATA – 700 032
RECOMENDATION CERTIFICATE
It is hereby recommended that this Thesis titled “Effect of Fireworks on Ambient Air
Quality during Diwali in Residential area in Kolkata - a case study” is prepared and
submitted for the partial fulfilment of the continuous assessment of the course of Master of Civil
Engineering in Environmental Engineering of Jadavpur University by Sneha Mohanta, a
student of the said course for the session 2012-2013 under my supervision and guidance. It is
also declared that no part of thesis of said work has been presented or published elsewhere.
_________________________
Prof. Shibnath Chakroborty
(Thesis Supervisor)
Department of Civil Engineering
Jadavpur University
Countersigned by:
_________________________
Controller of Examination
Jadavpur University
________________________
Head of the Department
Department of Civil Engineering
Jadavpur University
JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
KOLKATA – 700 032
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
This is to certify that this thesis is hereby approved as an original work conducted and presented
in a manner satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as a prerequisite to the degree for which it has
been submitted. It is implied that by this approval the undersigned do not necessarily endorse or
approve any statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn therein, but approved the
thesis only for the purpose for which it is submitted.
Final Examination for evaluating of thesis
1)..............................................................
2)..............................................................
(Signature of Examiners)
ACKNOWLADGEMENT
I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Shibnath Chakrabarty, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, who has been the guiding spirit behind
the preparation of this dissertation. This thesis would have never been completed without his
guidance, constant vigil, careful supervision and inspiration at all stages of the work.
I express my gratitude to other respected teachers of the department for the encouragement and
support they provided.
I also express my gratitude to Eden Residency Flat Owners Association for their support and cooperation to complete this project work.
I would like to express my appreciation to Anirban Kundu Chawdhury, Research Scholar,
Department of Civil Engineering, Enviromental Engineering Section, Jadavpur University; for
his inspiration and kind supports in doing the work.
I would also like to express my thanks to Nakibul Hossain Mondal, Sk. Nasim Mondal, Arif
Hossain Mondal for their extensive help throughout the period of the completion of this work.
I also like to thanks all the staffs of Department of Civil Engineering, Libraries and Laboratory
for their kind cooperation during the period of work.
Last, but not the least, I express my gratitude to my classmates, my seniors and my
family for the encouragement and support they provided throughout the work. This thesis
would not have been possible without them.
Date:
Place:
Department of Civil Engineering
Jadavpur University
Kolkata: 700032
Sneha Mohanta
M.C.E (2nd Year)
Roll No. – M4CIV13-18
Section: Environmental Engg.
Department of Civil Engineering
Jadavpur University
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
SECTION
TOPIC
Chapter 1
PAGE
Itroduction
1.0
Introduction
1
1.1
Definition of Air Pollution
1
1.2
Air Pollutants -
1
1.2.1
Criteria pollutant
2
1.2.2
Non Criteria pollutant
2
1.2.3 Effect of Different Air Pollutants on Human Health
1.2.4
 Nitrogen Dioxide
3
 Sulphur Dioxide
3
 Particulate Matter
3
 Ground-Level Ozone
3
 Other Organic Inorganic Substances
3
Residence Time of Pollutants
1.2.5 Transport Distance of Particles
1.3
National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Different
Pollutants
1.4
Fireworks and Air Quality
1.4.1
Fire-Crackers: Substances Used in Preparation
1.4.2
Emission of Different Pollutants from Fireworks
Chapter 2
3-4
5
6
6-7
8
8-9
10-11
Literature
2.0
Air Quality-Global Scenario
2.1
International Studies
2.1.1
Burning of Fireworks during the Lantern
Festival in Beijing
12
13-18
13
CHAPTER
SECTION
TOPIC
PAGE
2.1.2
Chinese New Year’s Firework Events
15
2.1.3
New Year’s Fireworks 2005 in Mainz,
Germany
16
2.2
Indian Scenario
19-28
2.2.1
Fireworks during Deepawali Festival in
Hydrabad
19
2.2.2
Fireworks during Deepawali Festival in
Hisar city (India)
20
2.2.3
Delhi City
22
2.2.4
Burning of Fireworks at Nagpur (2008-2009)
24
2.2.5
Lucknow City
26
2.3
Kolkata-air pollution
28-34
2.3.1
Howrah
29
2.3.2
Impact of Kalipuja-Deepawali-2005 fireworks
33
2.4
Objective and Scope of study
34-35
2.4.1
Objective of the study
34
2.4.2
Scope of the study
35
Chapter 3
Methodology
3.1
Site Selaction
3.2
Monitoring Instrument
36
37-40
3.2.1
Respirable Dust Sampling (APM 460)
38
3.2.2
Preparation of the Filter
39
3.2.3
Gravimetric Analysis
40
3.3
AM510 Personal Aerosol Monitor
3.4
Chemical Analysis
40-41
42
CHAPTER
SECTION
3.4.1
3.4.2
.
Chapter 4
TOPIC
Determination of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
by Modified West & Gaeke Method
PAGE
42-45

Principal
42

Reagents / Chemicals
42

Preparation of Standards
43

Sampling
45

Analysis of Air Samples
45

Calculations
45
Determination of Sulfur Dioxide (NO2) by
Jacob–Hochheiser modified method
46-48

Principal
46

Reagents / Chemicals
46

Preparation of Standards
46

Sampling
48

Analysis of Air Samples
48

Calculations
48
Results and Discussion
4.1
Introduction
49
4.2
Meteorological parameter
49
4.3
Site I; Monitoring of air pollutants – SO2,
NO2, Particulate matters
50
4.3.1
Monitoring of air pollutants
–Gaseous Pollutants
51
4.3.2
Discussion of concentration of
SO2 and NO2
51
4.3.3
Monitoring of air pollutants
–Particulate matters
55
CHAPTER
SECTION
4.3.4
Chapter 5
TOPIC
PAGE
Discussion of concentration of PM10
and TSPM
56
4.4
Site II
59
4.5
Comparison of the results with similar studies
63-72
Conclution
73-74
References
75-77
Monitoring of air pollutant - PM2.5
TABLES
SL.NO.
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
1.1
Residence Time for Different Contaminants in Air
5
1.2
The Settling Velocities for Particles
6
1.3
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (2009)
7
1.4
The different colours in Fireworks that is achieved by
different substance in Black powder
9
1.5
Typical Composition of colour producing Chemical
Substances in Fireworks
9
2.1
The mass contribution of PM10 and associated barium in
different fractions corresponding to respiratory tract region
during Deepawali.
25
2.2
Correlation among metals, PM10, SO2 and NOx
28
2.3
National Ambient Air Quality Standard for SO2, NO2, PM10.
29
2.4
Variation of metals in ambient air on Pre-Deepawali and
Deepawali in Howrah.
32
2.5
Daily averages in microgram per meter cube of the air
pollutants at the monitoring station Ground Floor (GF) and
Forth Floor (4F) of the Bengal Ambuja Housing Estate.
34
3.1
Specification of Respirable Dust Sampler
39
3.2
Specification of AM510 Personal Aerosol Monitor
41
4.1
The meteorological data during and after Deepawali
49
4.2
Results of the monitoring work
50
4.3
Percent change of SO2 concentration with normal day
and with NAAQS
52
4.4
Percent change of NO2 concentration with normal day
and with NAAQS
54
4.5
Percent change of PM10 concentration with normal day
and with NAAQS
56
4.6
Percent change of TSPM with normal day and with NAAQS
57
SL NO.
4.7
LIST OF TABLES
The variation of concentration of PM2.5 in every
PAGE
59
15 minutes during monitoring days
4.8
Percent change of PM2.5 with normal day and with NAAQS
62
4.9
Meteorological condition in different Indian cities during Diawali
64
FIGURES
SL NO.
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
2.1
Variation of SO2, NO2, PM10 during the Spring Festival
Period in 2005 and 2006
13
2.2
Mass Abundance of Primary Species in PM 2.5 and PM10
on the Firework Night
14
2.3
Hourly mean particle number concentrations of different
size bins from 23 to 27 January, 2009
15
2.4
Daily Variation of Hourly Averaged NO, NO2 on 25th and 26th
January, 2009
16
2.5
Mass Concentrations of the Non-Refractory Aerosol
Components in different Time Interval
17
2.6
Composition of the sub-micron aerosol
18
2.7
(a)Variation of Al, Ba, K and Mg
(b) Variation of Fe, Sr, Cu, Na, Ca and Mn
(c) Variation of Bi, Ni, As and V
20
2.8
Variation in SO2 Concentration during Deepawali Festival
21
2.9
Variation in NO2 Concentration during Deepawali Festival
21
2.10
Variation in PM10 Concentration during Deepawali Festival
22
2.11
Variation of concentrations of PM10 during Deepawali Day
and pre Deepawali Month 2006 -2008
23
2.12
Variation of concentrations of SO2 and NO2 during Deepawali
Day and pre Deepawali Month 2006 -2008
23
2.13
PM10 (micrograms per cubic meters) and Ba (nanograms per
cubic meters) mass concentration
24
2.14
(a) Mean concentrations (μg/m3) of NOx in ambient air of
Lucknow City during day and night times of Pre Deepawali
and Deepawali day
(b) Average NOx concentrations (μg/m3) in ambient air of
Lucknow City during Normal Pre Deepawali and Deepawali
day
26
26
SL NO.
2.14
LIST OF FIGURES
(c) Mean concentrations (μg/m3) of PM10 in ambient air of
Lucknow City during day and night times of Pre Deepawali
and Deepawali day
(d) Average PM10 concentrations (μg/m3) in ambient air of
Lucknow City during Normal Pre Deepawali and Deepawali
day
(e) Mean concentrations (μg/m3) of SO2 in ambient air of
Lucknow City during day and night times of Pre Deepawali
and Deepawali day
(f) Average SO2 concentrations (μg/m3) in ambient air of
Lucknow City during Normal Pre Deepawali and Deepawali
day
PAGE
27
27
27
27
2.15
Variation in SO2 concentration during Deepawali festival
30
2.16
Variation in NO2 concentration during Deepawali festival
30
2.17
Variation in PM10 concentration during Deepawali festival
31
2.18
Variation in PM2.5 concentration during Deepawali festival
31
3.1
Location of the Monitoring Site
36
3.2
Photograph of Respirable Dust Sampler (RDS)
38
3.3
AM510 Personal Aerosol Monitor
41
3.4
Standard curve of SO2
44
3.5
Standard Impinger
44
3.6
Standard curve of NO2
47
4.1
The trend of concentration of gaseous pollutants before
and after Deepawali
51
4.2
Daily variation of SO2 with normal day and with NAAQS
52
4.3
Daily variation of NO2 with normal day and with NAAQS
54
4.4
The trend of concentration of particulate matters before and
after Deepawali
55
4.5
Daily variation of PM10 with normal day and with NAAQS
57
4.6
Daily variation of TSPM with normal day and with NAAQS
58
SL NO.
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
4.7
Daily variation of concentration of PM2.5 in Normal days
60
4.8
Daily variation of concentration of PM 2.5 in Deepawali days
60
4.9
Daily variation of PM2.5 with normal day and with NAAQS
62
4.10
Comparison of concentration of SO2 & NO2 of the present
study with the studies in Hisar (1999) and Howrah (2009)
65
4.11
Comparison of concentration of PM10 & SPM of the present
study with the studies in Hisar (1999) and Howrah (2009).
66
4.12
Comparison of concentration of PM 2.5 of the present study
with the studies in Nagpur (2011) and Howrah (2009)
67
4.13
Comparison of concentration of SO 2 of the present study
with the studies in Delhi, Lucknow and in Kolkata in 2005
70
4.14
Comparison of concentration of NO2 of the present study
with the studies in Delhi, Lucknow and in Kolkata in 2005
70
4.15
Comparison of concentration of PM10 of the present study
with the studies in Delhi, Lucknow and in Kolkata in 2005
71
4.16
Comparison of concentration of TSPM of the present study
with the studies in Delhi, Lucknow and in Kolkata in 2005
71
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.0
Introduction
Firework display is a popular way of celebration on special occasions all over the world. One of
the side effects of such celebration is deterioration of short term air quality. These firecrackers
can release gaseous and particulate air pollutants including toxic metals of significant quantity
and degrades the air quality though for a short duration. This short-term degradation of air
quality may escalate to an episodic condition on the date of celebration when the fireworks reach
to its peak. Such degradation of air quality causes adverse health effects on the population.
Deepawali – the festival of light is celebrated every year during October or November when
fireworks are displayed throughout the India. Pollution Control Boards in India are concerned
these days about degradation of air quality and public health on the night of Deepawali. In the
present research an attempt has been made to investigate the deterioration in air quality during
the Deepawali, 2012 in the Nayabad area of Mukundapur near Eastern Metropolitan Bypass,
Kolkata city. In the present chapter a brief discussion is presented on air pollution in general and
its association with fireworks in particular to set the background of the study.
1.1
Definition of Air Pollution
According to USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), air pollution means the
presence of one or more air contaminants in sufficient quantities in the atmosphere which, either
alone or in connection with other emissions, by reason of their concentration and duration, may
be injurious to human, plant or animal life, or cause damage to property or which unreasonably
interferes with the enjoyment of life and property.
1.2
Air Pollutants
Pure Air contains 78.10% nitrogen, 20.15% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, 0.90% inert gasses,
0.5% hydrogen, and water vapours. Pollution arises from the action of emission process, which
increase pollutant concentration, and it reduce by dispersion process in the atmosphere. Pollution
may be natural or man-made. Some pollutants that are not emitted into the atmosphere but are
formed by chemical reaction between other pollutants are termed as secondary pollutant.
1
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) have been issued for certain substances
which are considered harmful for human health. These are Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of
Nitrogen (NOX), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ozone (O3), and Particulate Matters (PM10, PM2.5),
Ammonia (NH3), Benzene (C6H6), Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), Nickel (Ni). Also some sources emit
fly ash, which reduce visibility and contain trace elements like arsenic, cadmium, lead,
manganese, beryllium, fluoride. At elevated concentrations all these are harmful to living beings
including humans. Air pollutants can be further divided into two groups: criteria pollutants and
non-criteria pollutants.
1.2.1 Criteria Pollutant
The Clean Air Act Amendment of 1970 required the USEPA to set National Ambient Air
Quality Standards for certain pollutants which are considered to be hazardous to human health.
The USEPA identified six pollutants such as ozone, carbon monoxide, total suspended
particulates matter (TSPM), sulfur dioxide, lead, and nitrogen oxide. The USEPA set standards
to protect human health and welfare from these pollutants. This is known as criteria pollutants
which basically describe the disadvantages caused by these pollutants. The term, “criteria
pollutants” derives from the requirement that EPA describe the characteristics and potential
health and welfare effects of these pollutants. It is on the basis of these criteria that standards are
set or revised.
1.2.2 Non Criteria Pollutant
Non-criteria air pollutants are synonymous with hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), air toxics or
toxic air pollutants (TAP). The term non-criteria pollutants, refers to all air pollutants except for
the criteria pollutants (SOx, PM, NOx, CO, O3, NH3, C6H6, BaP, Ni, As and Pb. Air toxics are
pervasive in environment worldwide in varying degrees. Uses of these chemicals are varied and
numerous; their emissions are ubiquitous, and they include organic compounds such as
chlorinated hydrocarbons, dioxins, aldehydes, poly-nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, and heavy
metals such as chromium, nickel, cadmium, and mercury. Their ambient concentrations,
persistence, transport and transformation as well as their effects on health and the environment
are relatively little, many of which take decades to emerge.
2
1.2.3 Effect of Different Air Pollutants on Human Health

Nitrogen Dioxide: The toxicity of nitrogen dioxide is generally attributed to its oxidative
capabilities. It penetrates the lung periphery and is primarily deposits in the centriacinar
region. It is also absorbed into the mucosa of the respiratory tract. Because NO 2 is not
very soluble in aqueous surfaces, the upper respiratory track retains only small amount of
inhaled Nitrogen oxides. NO2 can be toxic in certain biological systems and acute
exposure to NO2 affect both cellular and human immune system.

Sulphur Dioxide: There is a strong relationship between higher concentration of SO 2 and
several health effects, like cardiovascular diseases, respiratory health effects such as
asthma. Short-term SO2 pollution episodes are associated with cardiopulmonary ailments,
bronchitis, reproductive and developmental effects such as increased risk of preterm
birth.

Particulate Matter: The short term increase of particulate matter (PM10) lead to increase
respiratory and cardiovascular disease, increase frequency of respiratory symptoms,
asthma, and reduce lung function. In addition to these acute effects, particulate matter is
associated with higher long term mortality, increases in respiratory diseases. Particulate
matter itself is a mixture of organic and inorganic substances.

Ground-Level Ozone (O3): Surface ozone is a harmful pollutant, which is associated
with persistent decrease in lung function, pneumonia, influenza. It causes coughing, chest
tightness, wheezing and can inflame and damage lung tissue. It aggravates asthma and
can even be a cause of asthma. It irritates the respiratory system, reduces lung function
and makes it more difficult to breathe. It also aggravates chronic lung diseases and may
cause permanent lung damage and may reduce yield of agricultural crops and damages
forests and other vegetation.

Other Organic Inorganic Substances: At elevated concentrations all the trace elements
associated with PM10 are harmful to living beings including humans. Fine particulate
matter generated by fireworks are composed of Sr, K, V, Ti, Ba, Cu, Pb, Mg, Al, S, Mn,
Zn, Cd, Cr, Ni, and thus affecting regional air quality. Despite the necessity of some of
3
the metals in all living organisms, certain metals cause various toxic effects if
accumulated in animal tissues (Kulshreshtha, 2004).
There are several reports that high level of Pb can induce severe neurological and
haematological effects on the exposed population especially children, whereas Cd and Ni
are known for inducing carcinogenic effects in humans through inhalation, occupational
level of Cd exposure is a risk factor for chronic lung diseases. Cr is known to have toxic
and carcinogenic effect on the bronchial tree. Mn exposure leads to increased neurotoxin
impairments. The increased level of Cu can lead to respiratory irritancies (S.C.Barman,
2008).
Firework related trace elements have also been found in blood and urine of victims of
firework disasters. Barium (Ba) compounds are extensively used in fireworks for the
production of green flames and in delay and ignition mixture. Poisoning with Ba causes
muscle cramps and interferes with the heartbeat. It causes bronchi constrictor effects
(Camilleri et al., 2010). Baritosis and bronchial irritation in workers chronically exposed
to Ba-containing dust (Camilleri et al., 2010). It was concluded that Ba-rich particulate
matter may be responsible for the significant increase in the number of asthma cases
(Camilleri et al., 2010).
4
1.2.4 Residence Time of Pollutants
The residence time gives us an idea of how long it takes for an air contaminant to be removed
from the atmosphere. For example, the residence times of carbon dioxide and carbon monooxide are 15 years and 65 days respectively. Carbon monoxide is quite reactive, while CO 2 is
much more stable. Table-1.1 gives some typical data.
Table 1.1: Residence Time for Different Contaminants in Air
Type
Contaminants
Major
species
Tracer
species
N2
O2
CO2
CH4
H2
N2O
CO
NH3
NO/NO2
O3(troposphere)
HNO3
SO2
COS carbonyl
Sulphur
Compounds
Approximate Residence
Time
106 yr
10 yr
15 yr
10 yr
10 yr
150 yr
65 days
20 days
1 day
< 1 yr
1 day
40 days
> 0.3 * 105 hrs
sulphide
CS2 Carbon
disulphide
CH3CH Ethylalcohol
> 1.8 * 105 hrs
3 - 13 hrs
(CH3)S
31 hrs
H2S
53 hrs
Source: (http://www.eng.utoledo.edu/~akumar/IAP1/atmosphere.htm)
Exposure is typically measured as some formulation of ambient concentration levels and their
duration which is expressed as “dosage” (integral of the ambient concentration and its duration
as recorded at the monitoring station) or “dose” (that portion of dosage instrumental in producing
the observed effect). The difference between these two quantities may be accounted for by nonuniformity of the pollution field, mobility of subjects, shielding of subjects, and uptake
characteristics. An important concept in the determination of exposure is the dose rate, or the
variation of concentration level with time.
5
1.2.5 Transport Distance of Particles
The transport distance of particles is strongly dependent on particle size and meteorological
conditions. Particles in the accumulation mode size fraction can remain for long periods
(days/weeks) under dry conditions in the atmosphere. Typically, they undergo long range
transport from hundreds to thousands of kilometres. The residence time of coarse particles in the
atmosphere is usually from minutes to days and they usually originate mostly from local sources,
at distances of hundreds of meters to tens of kilometres. However, the smallest (1-5μ) coarse
particles may also travel quite long distances, if they are ejected into high altitudes, because their
gravitational settling velocities are not very high.
Table 1.2: The Settling Velocities for Particles
Aerodynamic
Diameter(μm)
1
Settling
Velocity(m/d)
3
3
25
5
67
10
262
100
21514
(Source: Jarkko Niemi, 2007).
Coarse particles can be lifted to high altitudes (from hundreds of meters to several kilometres) by
strong winds (e.g. desert dust storms) or by high-temperature plumes (e.g. open biomass-burning
fires and volcanoes) (Jarkko Niemi, 2007).
1.3
National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Different Pollutants
The ambient air quality standards are pre-requisite for developing programme for effective
management of ambient air quality and to reduce the damaging effects of air pollution. The
objectives of air quality standard are:

To indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of safety to
protect the public health, vegetation and property.

To establish priorities for abatement and control of pollutant level.

To provide uniform yardstick for assessing air quality at national level.

To indicate the need and extent of monitoring programme.
6
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India has adopted first ambient air quality
standards on November 11, 1982 as per section 16 (2) (h) of Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1981. The air quality standards have been revised by Central Pollution Control
Board. The Revised National Ambient Air Quality Standards (RNAAQS) are depicted in Table1.3.
Table 1.3: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (2009)
7
1.4
Fireworks and Air Quality
On the basis of duration of the exposure of pollutant, air pollution can be categorized into two
main type viz. short-term and long term air pollution. Over recent years there has been increased
focus on short-term air quality degradation events (Steinhauser et al , 2008, Wang et al, 2007 )
and their long-term negative effects on human health(Karakatsani et al., 2003). Therefore, many
studies are currently carried out to characterize anthropogenic emissions especially in urban
areas where large populations live. One of the most unusual anthropogenic activities that create
short-term air pollution and serious health effect is the recreational use of fireworks to celebrate
festivals. The Fireworks and crackers are used worldwide for different occasions in different
countries like New Year celebration.
The celebrations of Deepawali festival with fireworks display are contributing higher
concentration of air pollutants, which are one of the additional major sources of air pollution in
India during Deepawali Months that is November, other than the existing sources. The different
studies in different location provide the scenario of air quality at the time of fireworks
celebrations and increase public awareness about the associated health risks for proper
precautions. The present study attempts to assess the impact of Deepawali celebrations on the air
quality of Kolkata by estimating the short-term variation in the ambient concentration of SO2,
NO2, PM10 and PM2.5 associated with firework events.
1.4.1 Fire-Crackers: Substances Used in Preparation
Pyrotechnics which is used in manufacture of items such as safety matches, oxygen candles,
explosive bolts and fasteners, components of the automotive airbag and gas pressure blasting in
mining, quarrying and demolition, is also used in manufacture of fireworks. It is the science of
using materials capable of undergoing self-contained and self sustained exothermic chemical
reactions for the production of heat, light, gas, smoke and/or sound. Fireworks contain a lot of
different substances like black powder in them. Black powder is a mixture of potassium nitrate
(KNO3,) charcoal, and sulphur. Black powder is highly explosive and is used in guns, fuses,
cannons, and bombs also. By adding different substances to black powder, different colours can
be achieved for fireworks (see Table-1.4).
8
Table 1.4: The Different Colours in Fireworks that is achieved by Different Substance in
Black powder
Colours
Chemical Substances
Red
Strontium/ Lithium
Orange
Calcium
Yellow
Sodium
Green
Barium
Blue
Copper
Indigo
Cesium
Violet
Potassium or Rubidium
Gold
Charcoal, Iron, or Lampblack
White
Titanium, Aluminum, Beryllium, or Magnesium
In general, firecrackers contain 75% Potassium Nitrate (KNO 3), 15% Carbon (C), and 10%
Sulphur (S). Potassium nitrate is a strong oxidizing agent and when burnt with C and S, it
releases gases such as CO2 and SO2. The other chemical substances which are required for
colouring purposes are generally present in fireworks in composition show in Table-1.5.
Table 1.5: Typical Composition of Colour Producing Chemical Substances in Fireworks
Chemicals
Percentage
in
Firecrackers
Colours
Barium Carbonate
30%
Green
Calcium Sulphate
10%
Orange
Sodium
Bicarbonate
Titanium
9%
Yellow
94%
White
Copper Oxide
11%
Blue
Source: http://www.skylighter.com/
9
1.4.2 Emission of Different Pollutants from Fireworks
Firecrackers contain various inorganic and organic chemicals, such as charcoal, sulfur,
potassium, lead, aluminium, iron, and barium nitrate (Steinhauser et al., 2008). Firework displays
can release gaseous pollutants (e.g. SO2, NO2, and O3) and various fine particles (e.g., metals and
organics) (Moreno et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2007). Pyrotechnic displays often cause severe air
pollution, such as those in Beijing, China (Wang et al., 2007); Deepawali (Ravindra et al., 2003)
and New Delhi (Mandal et al., 2011), India; Malta (Camilleri and Vella, 2010) and Canada (Joly
et al., 2010).
These short-term air pollution events often pose serious health hazards, especially for asthmatic
children and other respiratory-sensitive groups of the population. The emission of trace gases and
particulates including metals into the atmosphere, which generate dense clouds of smoke that
contain potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulphur (Kulshrestha et al. 2004; Drewnick et al. 2006).
In the combustion of fireworks, the main component black powder gives rise to the solid reaction
products such as potassium carbonate, potassium sulphate and potassium sulphide, together with
un-reacted sulphur. The reaction products mixtures are consist of metal oxides and, less often,
chlorides.
Bach et al. (1975) found that firework activities on New Year’s Eve on Oahu was responsible for
an increase in TSPM by an average of 300% at 14 locations and by about 700% in the lung
penetrating size ranges at one location. Ravindra et al. (2003) reported that fireworks during
Deepawali Festival, lead to a short term variation of air quality and observed the 2-3 times
increased PM10 and SPM concentration in Hisar City (India). Kulshrestha et al. (2004) reported
that the high level of different trace elements in ambient air of Hyderabad, (India) was due to
fireworks during Deepawali Festival. Deepawali is the festival of lights and fireworks is
celebrated with great enthusiasm all over the India in every year. The metal concentrations on
Deepawali day were found to be significantly different than normal day. These studies generally
showed that concentrations of water-soluble ions (K+, Cl−, and SO4
2−
), organic materials, and
metals (e.g., Mg, K, Sr, Ba, Al, Cu, and Pb) in ambient aerosol particles were elevated during
and shortly after the fireworks.
10
The chemical characterization of firework aerosol is important for two reasons. Firstly, these
events give rise to extremely high levels of atmospheric pollutants that have substantial health
effects. Secondly, these episodes are important from the point of view of atmospheric chemistry
as well. For example, the formation of tropospheric O3 without the participation of NOx due to
burning of sparkles during Deepawali (Kulshreshtha,2004). The cocktail of primary pollutants
released may exhibit varied interactions among themselves, and if aided by favourable
atmospheric conditions, may lead to the formation of secondary pollutants. The study observed
that when fireworks were lighted during the festival of Deepawali, there was a surge in ozone
levels from 8.40 pm to 2.30 am the next morning, which was not linked with nitrogen oxide
levels in the air. Further they observed from laboratory experiments that higher the amount of
flammable materials in the fireworks, higher was the level of ozone that was produced. They
showed precisely that in addition to emitting light in the visible region, metals at high
temperature also emit radiation in the ultraviolet region. Consequences of this are that the high
energy UV radiation are absorbed by molecular oxygen present in the air, resulting in the
splitting of molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen, which in turn reacts with molecular oxygen to
produce ozone.
11
Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.0
Air Quality-Global Scenario
Air pollution is one of the major problems especially affecting the inhabitants of cities and
megacities worldwide. The various anthropogenic sources, such as industry, traffic, combustion
of fossil fuels, and construction activities are the main source of the air pollution. The emission
from both natural and anthropogenic sources, combined with a change in the atmospheric
temperature, may furthermore lead to substantial changes in aerosol emissions, and for the
generation of secondary organic aerosols. Ongoing changes in atmospheric composition may not
only affect climate and atmospheric processes but also lead to measurable impacts on human
health, the hydrological cycle and ecosystems. In the last decade, several studies focused on the
chemical composition of atmospheric particles in different mega-cities worldwide. So, the issue
of improvement of air quality has moved to the top of the global environmental agenda in many
parts of the world.
The short term emission, for example fireworks in different festival, also contributes additionally
to a high concentration of particulate matter (PM) locally. Emissions of short-lived gases and
aerosols, either short term or long term, due to human activities have altered the atmosphere in
way that strongly affects atmospheric composition. Fireworks are one of the most unusual
sources responsible for high concentrations of particles (especially metals and organic
compounds) and gases, and aerosols. It is expected that emissions will continue to stay at an
elevated level in response to fossil fuel burning, tropical deforestation and other industrial
activities. In this chapter recent studies about the air pollution related to firework display are
reviewed and reported.
12
2.1
International Studies
2.1.1 Burning of Fireworks during the Lantern Festival in Beijing
PM2.5 and PM10 aerosols were monitored in Beijing during the lantern festival to study the
influences of fireworks on the ambient air. The effects on air quality was firstly assessed from
the concentrations of various air pollutants that is SO2, NO2, PM2.5, PM10 and chemical
components in the particles, during the lantern festival in 2006. Primary components of Ba, K,
Sr, Cl, Pb, Mg were over five times higher in the lantern days than in the normal days (Wang;
2007). Daily variations of SO2, NO2, and PM10 during the spring festival period in 2005 and
2006 were presented in Figure.2. 1. The red and green arrows in the figure denote the New
Year’s Eve and the lantern day, respectively. Clear elevation of SO2, NO2, and PM10 in these two
days in 2006 and minor changes of them in 2005 were observed. These high levels of pollutants
on the lantern night related to both the heavy source emissions and the calm meteorological
conditions (low wind speed and low mix depth) (Wang; 2007). However, the increase of
suspended particles (PM2.5 and PM10), were much more than the pollution gases (SO2 and NO2),
indicating that changes in the meteorology alone cannot explain the observed changes. (Wang;
2007)
Figure 2.1: Variation of SO2, NO2, PM10 during the Spring Festival Period in 2005 and 2006
13
Figure 2.2: Mass Abundance of Primary Species in PM 2.5 and PM10 on the Firework Night
and in the Normal Days
PM2.5 and PM10 went up over 6 and 4 times in the lantern day compared to the normal days
(Figure-2.2). Particles generated from fireworks are likely to possess unique chemical
compositions, which is different from ambient normal aerosols. In order to present the
composition scheme clearly, six chemically specific categories, i.e. secondary inorganic aerosol,
geologic material, organic matter, firework matter, black carbon, and trace species, were
introduced(Wanget al. 2007). Primary components of Ba, K, K+, Sr, Mg2+, Cl-, Pb, Mg, Cu, Al,
F-, Zn, BC, Mn, Ca, and Na peaked on the burning night and were about 82 to 3 times higher
than those in the normal days in PM10. Secondary components of C5H6O4 2-, C3H2O4 2-, PO4 3-,
C2O4 2-, C4H4O4 2-, SO4 2-, NO3 -, NO2 -, NH4+, Fe, Ca2+, and Na+ peaked after the burning night,
and were about 23, 14, 11, 9, 8, 7, 7, 6, 5, 3, 3, and 2 times higher respectively than those in the
normal days. Nitrate was mainly formed through homogeneous gas-phase reactions of NO2,
while sulfate was largely from heterogeneous catalytic transformation of SO2 on the surface of
atmospheric particles (Wang et al. 2007).
14
2.1.2 Chinese New Year’s Firework Events
Aerosol particle number concentrations and size distributions in the diameter range of 10 nm to
10 mm were measured during the Chinese New Year’s firework event in 2009 in Shanghai,
China. Particle concentrations during the peak hour of firework celebrations were approximately
3 times higher than the day before . Particles in the size range 10nm to10 μm measured in this
work are divided into 7 sub size ranges: 10 to 20 nm, 20 to 50 nm and 50 to 100 nm, 100 to 200
nm, 200 to 500 nm and 0.5 to 1 μm, and 1 to 10 μm. Hourly mean particle number
concentrations of different size bins from 23 to 27 January 2009 are shown in Figure. 2.3. The
figure shows that, prior to the fireworks, particle number concentrations were relatively low with
two peak values around 9:00 and 18:00 rush hours, followed by a minimum during midnight
around 3:00. During the main spectacular episode, which started soon after the dinner on 25
January and ended with the high point after midnight on 26 January, a large increase can be seen
in the number concentration, with a hourly average maximum during the peak hour (0:00 to 1:00
on 26 January). This concentration is almost 3 times higher than average number concentrations
measured the day before at midnight.
Figure 2.3: Hourly Mean Particle Number Concentrations of different Size Bins from 23 to
27 January, 2009
Daily averaged particle density was calculated high which would be one of the parameters that
directly control particle deposition in lungs by inertial and sedimentation processes. The results
15
demonstrate that primary emissions from firework celebrations significantly alter the modal
structure of particle size distributions and particle density. (Zhang et. al, 2010)
Figure 2.4: Daily Variation of Hourly Averaged NO, NO2 on 25th and 26th January, 2009
Besides, the diurnal behavior of the NO concentration is actually an indicator of the traffic
density and high-temperature combustion. Less traffic can be observed on 25 January for the
reason factories were mostly closed and families traditionally stayed together at home. The
maximum concentrations of NO is shown in Figure. 2.4 occurred on the CNY’s Eve between
22:00 and 00:00, which correlated well with firework activities and high particle number
concentrations. (Zhang et. al, 2010)
2.1.3 New Year’s Fireworks 2005 in Mainz, Germany
The chemical composition and size distributions of fine aerosol particles were measured during
the New Year’s 2005 fireworks at a site close to the Rhine river in Mainz, Germany .The
temporal evolution of the fireworks composition also showed a sharp increase in all measured
concentrations just after midnight, followed by a short depression of several minutes, lower
concentrations the largest aerosol and trace gas concentrations were observed with a maximum
for the aerosol concentrations around 00:20 and a maximum of the trace gases about half an hour
later. Other species, which are related to burning processes showed significant increases during
the fireworks (e.g. methanol and acetone). In the aerosol a significant increase in particle number
16
concentration as well as in the mass concentration of several species was found (Drewnick,
2006).
Figure 2.5: Mass Concentrations of the Non-Refractory Aerosol Components in different
Time Interval
Time series of the mass concentrations of the non refractory aerosol species nitrate, sulfate,
ammonium, total organics, chloride and potassium are shown in Figure. 2.5. Because of the large
difference in ambient and firework aerosol intensity, the fireworks aerosol is cut off at 30 μg/m3
to make sure that the variations in ambient aerosol concentrations are still visible (Drewnick
2006). It can be seen from Figure. 2.5, that the variation in ambient aerosol concentration is
episodic rather than diurnal.
Average mass concentrations of the non-refractory species measured with the TOF-AMS. The
Time-of-Flight Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (TOF-AMS) is a second generation instrument for
the real-time measurement of size-resolved aerosol chemical composition. The most intensive
contributions of the fireworks to the aerosol composition are seen in sulfate, total organics and
potassium, resulting in large increases in the mass concentrations of these species. (Drewnick,
2006) (see Figure 2.6).
17
Figure 2.6: Composition of the sub-micron Aerosol as Measured with the TOF-AMS (nonRefractory Species only during Background Periods (a) and (b) and during the Fireworks
aerosol (c). Also the Composition of the Aerosol during the Maximum Concentrations in
the Fireworks is shown (d).
18
2.2
Indian Scenario
In India, Festival of Light (Deepawali) is an important occasion celebrated every year during
October or November. Large quantities of fireworks are displayed during the festival. Burning of
fireworks is not restricted in India; therefore pollution due to this activity occurs in residential
areas. Before firecrackers arrived on the scene, Deepawali was celebrated simply as a time to get
together with the family and celebrate by wearing new clothes and through a special feast and
lighting of lamps. Deepawali time now involves the bursting of firecrackers. New age Deepawali
is have become a time of high air and noise pollution, and a hazard to pedestrians and traffic as
kids burst crackers on roads. Studies about the air quality during such fireworks display have
also been carried out in India. Similar short-term degradation in air quality of episodic nature has
been observed in several studies at different urban locations of India carried out during
Deepawali by Central and State Pollution Control Boards in recent years.
2.2.1 Fireworks during Deepawali Festival in Hydrabad
The locality of Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (IICT) is located in north-east part of
Hyderabad city from where aerosol samples were collected mainly represents residential area.
This study shows that the burning of crackers and sparkles on the occasion of Deepawali is a
strong source of metals in ambient air. The metal concentrations in ambient air were observed to
be very high as compared to background values on previous days. For some metals the
concentrations were observed to be higher than reported at industrial sites.
The order of concentration of metals on the day of festival was observed to be in the order
K>Al>Ba>Mg>Fe>Sr>Na>Ca>Cu>Mn>As>V>Ni>Bi (see Figure 2.7). This study indicated that
burning of crackers and sparkles on Deepawali are a very strong source of air pollution which
contributes significantly high amount of metals in air. Some of the metals are emitted in very
high quantity, as high as 1091 times for Ba, 25 times for K, 18 times for Al and 15 times for Sr
as compared to one day before the festival. But the metal concentrations decrease sharply within
the next 24 h indicating their accumulation in few hours. The concentration of K was observed to
be highest on the day of the festival. Higher concentrations of metals may be due to their use in
crackers and sparkles for giving coloring effects (Kulshrestha,2004)
19
Figure 2.7: (a) Variation of Al, Ba, K and Mg (b) Variation of Fe, Sr, Cu, Na, Ca and Mn
(c) Variation of Bi, Ni, As and V
2.2.2 Fireworks during Deepawali Festival in Hisar city (India), 1999
The effect of fireworks on air quality was assessed during Deepawali festival in Hisar city
(India), in November 1999. The SO2, NO2, PM10 and TSP concentrations show increase, as the
crackers start bursting. Concentration of SO2 at Deepawali increased many times (see Figure
2.8), while the level of other pollutants also approximately doubled to their normal concentration
reported during a typical winter day. Highest concentration of pollutants was noted which seems
to be related with the economic status of the citizens of the locality and dense population.
(Ravindra et al., 2003).
High levels of SO2 are particularly dangerous in the presence of particulate matter, because it
slowly adsorbs on fine atmospheric particles and can be transported very deep into lungs, and
therefore staying there for a long time.
20
Figure 2.8: Variation in SO2 Concentration during Deepawali Festival.
A day before Deepawali, the daily average concentration of NO2 ranged from 14.1 μg/m3to 21.3
μg/m3. On Deepawali, two to three times increase in NO2 concentration was observed at the
various sites, compared to that of a typical winter day concentration. Even a day after Deepawali,
the daily average NO2 concentration showed an increasing trend (see Figure 2.9).
Figure 2.9: Variation in NO2 Concentration during Deepawali Festival
21
Concentration of PM10 at all the sites exceeded the maximum prescribed allowable limit before
and after Deepawali. During Deepawali a slight increase in PM10 concentration was observed to
its pre Deepawali concentration (see Figure 2.10). During Deepawali period, concentration of
suspended particles in air has been found to be double to its concentration on a typical winter
day, although the meteorological conditions were very similar.
Figure 2.10: Variation in PM10 Concentration during Deepawali Festival
2.2.3 Delhi City:
A study was conducted in the residential areas of Delhi, India, to assess the variation
in ambient air quality during pre-Deepawali month (DM), Deepawali day (DD) and postDeepawali month during the period 2006 to 2008. The study illustrated that the celebrations of
Deepawali festival are contributing higher concentration of air pollutants. The study was aimed
to evaluate the following:
• Short-term variation of ambient air quality during DD
• Comparison of ambient air quality during DD and DM
The TSP and PM10 concentration were alarmingly high as compared to NAAQS which could be
attributed due to large-scale construction activity, traffic movement, soil dust and paved road
dust. The use of fireworks during DD showed 1.3 to 4.0 times increase in concentration of
22
respirable particulate matter (PM10) and 1.6 to 2.5 times increase in concentration of total
suspended particulate matter (TSP) than the concentration during DM (see Figure 2.11).
Figure-2.11:Variation of Concentrations of PM10 during Deepawali Day and Pre Deepawali
Month 2006 -2008
There was a significant increase in sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentration but the concentration of
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) did not show any considerable variation (Figure 2.12). (Mandal. P et al.,
2012)
Figure-2.12:Variation of Concentrations of SO2 and NO2 during Deepawali Day and Pre
Deepawali Month 2006 -2008.
23
The mixing height is one of the important meteorological parameters as low mixing height
accumulates the pollutants at lower level thereby increasing the concentration of air pollutants.
(Mandal. P et al., 2012). The concentration of ambient air quality on Deepawali Day during 2006
and 2008 were found to be lower as compared to Deepawali Day during 2007 which could be
due to use of lesser number of fireworks and to some extent the favorable meteorological
conditions, such as increased mixing height and temperature.(Mandal. P et al., 2010)
2.2.4 Burning of Fireworks at Nagpur (2008-2009):
Figure 2.13- PM10 (micrograms per cubic meters) and Ba (nanograms per cubic meters)
Mass Concentration
Influence of burning of fireworks on particle size distribution of PM10 and associated barium
(Ba) were studied at a congested residential cum commercial area of Nagpur city, India. PM10
levels exceeded the limits proposed by Central Pollution Control Board (2009) during the entire
study period the increased levels of PM10 and Ba were noticeably observed when the burning of
fireworks was maximum in the city as compared to the values observed days before Deepawali
(see Figure 2.13). Percent distribution of Ba varied with respect to particle size were in
24
accordance with the intensity of the fireworks used on different days and distance between the
burning of firecrackers from the monitoring site.(Khaparde.V. V et al. 2012).
Table 2.1 The Mass Contribution of PM10 and Associated Barium in different Fractions
Corresponding to Respiratory Tract Region during Deepawali.
The percent contribution of particulates were nearly 47–53% in alveolar fraction (<0.43–1.1 μm)
depending on intensity of burning of fireworks and increased by 4–9% as compared to
percentage observed before Deepawali (Table 2.1). It was decreased to 32% on the 30th when
the activity was lowered. Particulates contributing to tracheobronchial and nasopharyngeal
region were not affected much by the fireworks activity (Khaparde.V. V et al.2012). As per the
findings, Ba was more concentrated in coarse fraction during higher activity near the site
whereas in fine fraction when the fireworks activity was less and away from the site. Thus,
percent distribution of Ba varied with respect to particle size in accordance with the intensity of
the fireworks used on different days around the site and distance between the burning of
firecrackers from the monitoring site.
25
2.2.5 Lucknow City:
The study deals with the effect of fireworks on ambient air quality during Deepawali Festival in
Lucknow City. During Deepawali night, increase of PM10 (446.8%) SO2 (289.3%) and NOx
(121.3%) clearly indicated that fireworks were the source of these pollutants. All the 24 h
average concentrations of PM10, SO2, and NOx were found to be higher than the NAAQS which
are 100, 80 and 80 μg/m3, respectively. The higher level of air pollutants, especially the increase
of PM10 concentration is of great concern with regard to the health effects. Fireworks on
Deepawali night resulted in the increase of the metal level in ambient air and maximum
percentage of increase was found in case of Cu (271.9%), Ni (149.1%), Cr (123.9%), Zn
(122.5%), Cd (90.1%) (Barman et al.2008)
Figure-2.14a: Mean Concentrations (μg/m3) Figure- 2.14b: Average NOx Concentrations
of NOx in Ambient Air of Lucknow
(μg/m3) in Ambient Air of Lucknow
City during Day and Night Times of
City during Normal Pre Deepawali
Pre Deepawali and Deepawali Day
and Deepawali Day
26
Figure-2.14c: Mean Concentrations (μg/m3) Figure- 2.14d: Average PM10Concentrations
of PM10 in Ambient Air of Lucknow
(μg/m3) in Ambient Air of Lucknow
City during Day and Night Times of
City during Normal Pre Deepawali
Pre Deepawali and Deepawali Day
and Deepawali Day
Figure-2.14e: Mean Concentrations (μg/m3)
of SO2 in Ambient Air of Lucknow
City during Day and Night Times of
Pre Deepawali and Deepawali Day
Figure- 2.14f: Average SO2 Concentrations
(μg/m3) in Ambient Air of Lucknow
City during Normal Pre Deepawali
and Deepawali Day
27
Table 2.2 Correlation among Metals, PM10, SO2 and NOx
2.3
Kolkata-Air Pollution:
Kolkata is the most populous city of India after Mumbai. Rapid and unplanned urbanization,
uncontrolled vehicular density on insufficient badly cared for road space, old vehicles,
Industrialization, economic growth and associated increase in energy demands have resulted in a
profound deterioration of urban air quality. At each monitoring site, in a normal day the result of
research work show that the daily average PM10 concentrations exceeded the value of National
Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) as specified by Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), India. The 24 h average NAAQS for PM10 at the residential area is 100 μg/m3(see
Table-2.3), while for the industrial area it is 150 μg/m3. Approximately 85% of the monitored
PM10 data at the residential site and 70% at the industrial site exceeded NAAQS. The high value
of particulate pollution at the residential site may be due to the use of coal as a fuel in nearby
small restaurants, construction activities and emissions from a solid waste dumping site.
28
Table-2.3:National Ambient Air Quality Standard for SO 2, NO2, PM10,CPCB-2009
Parameters National Ambient Air
2.3.1
Quality
Standard for Residential Area(24 h
average)
PM10
100 (μg/m3)
SO2
80 (μg/m3)
NO2
80 (μg/m3)
Howrah:
Similar studies were carried out in Howrah Salkia during festival of lights. There are also
assessing the air quality impacts of fireworks during Deepawali and two days after Deepawali.
All the pollutants showed similar variation pattern during the monitoring period. The
concentrations increased steadily to the peak on Deepawali and declined thereafter. The peak
concentrations of particulates slightly exceeded the NAAQS, India 24 hour standard. The SO 2
concentration remained below the 24 hour residential standard and NO 2 concentration was found
to be slightly higher. The base line concentrations of SPM, PM 10 and PM2.5 at the monitoring
location as observed on a typical winter day were also quite high compared to respective NAAQ,
India 24 hours residential standards. The high baseline concentration of NO 2 due to alternate
source of NO2 in the locality, that is from automobiles. But the temporal variations of SO2 and
NO2 are found to be correlated with SPM, PM10 and PM2.5 indicating that these sources are
probably from the fireworks.
The concentration of SO2 before Deepawali varied from 9.72 μg/m3 to 10.65 μg/m3 and it is
peaked at 12 μg/m3 on the Deepawali day at Salkia, Howrah. It also gradually decreased from12
μg/m3 to 7.09 μg/m3 few days after Deepawali celebration. The variation of SO2 during and after
Deepawali is shown in Figure 2.15. The increase in SO2 concentration on the day of Deepawali
is associated with the burning of fireworks during the night.
29
SO2 CONCENTRATION (μg/m3)
VARIATION IN SO2 CONCENTRATION DURING
DIWALI FESTIVAL
14
12.3
11.37
10.65
12
9.94
9.72
9.94
10
8
7.09
6
4
2
0
Two days One day On Diwali One day Two days Eleven
before
before
after
after
days
after
Fifteen
days
after
SAMPLING DAYS (8 Hrs)
Figure 2.15:- Variation in SO2 Concentration during Deepawali Festival
The variation in NO2 concentration during and after Deepawali is shown Figure 2.16. The
maximum concentration of NO2 was observed on the day of Deepawali. It increased before
Deepawali due to some local effects but decreased gradually after Deepawali. The increase of
NO2 concentration two days before Deepawali may be attributed to burning of fossil fuel close
proximity with the instrument site. The increase in concentration from 25% to 30% of normal
day shows burning of fireworks at the terraces of residential buildings, usually of two storied
with close proximity to the instrumen
NO2 CONCENTRATION (μg/m3)
VARIATION IN NO 2 CONCENTRATION DURING
DIWALI FESTIVAL
120
100
80
97.54
90.08
81.85
81.2
83.1
79.65
76.85
60
40
20
0
Two
One
days
day
before before
On
Diwali
One
day
after
Two
days
after
Eleven Fifteen
days
days
after
after
SAMPLING DAYS (8 Hrs)
Figure 2.16: Variation in NO2 Concentration during Deepawali Festival
The variation of PM10 and PM2.5 during and after Deepawali is illustrated in Figure 2.17 and 2.18
respectively. It gradually increased on the day of Deepawali and decreased back to background
30
concentration, which indicates absorption of particulates by the human being and subsequent
deep penetration into the lungs.
VARIATION OF PM10 CONCENTRATION DURING
DIWALI FESTIVAL
PM10 concentration (μg/m3)
2500
2237.25
2000
1500
1000
583.74
561.96
775.755
500
312.42
501.9
474.405
0
Two days
before
One day
before
On Diwali
One day Two days Eleven
Fifteen
after
after
days after days after
SAMPLING DAYS (8 Hrs)
Figure 2.17: Variation in PM10 Concentration during Deepawali Festival
PM2.5 concentration ((μg/M3)
Variation in PM2.5 concentration during
Diwali festival
1199.74
1200
1000
800
600
575.68
485.45
379.40
290.79
400
235.22
200
0
two
days
before
one day
before
On
Diwali
a day
after
two
days
after
Three
days
after
Sampling Days ( 8 hrs )
Figure 2.18: Variation in PM2.5 Concentration during Deepawali Festival
Variation of different metal levels and organic fraction during Deepawali festival days have been
shown in Table 2.4. It is observed that all the metals concentration has been increased from
background, especially for Ba, Cu, Hg and Pb has a sharp peak on the day of Deepawali, which
is associated with the tremendous amount of crackers and sparkles were burnt on that day. Ba,
Cu, Hg was increased by a factor 4569, 2, 10 respectively, clearly indicates the contribution of
31
burning of fireworks. The highest concentration 4569 μg/m3was observed for Ba followed by Pd,
Cu, Cd, Hg. This concentration was much higher than any Industrial site.
Table 2.4:Variation of Metals in Ambient Air on Pre-Deepawali and Deepawali in Howrah.
Concentration of Heavy Metals (μg/m3)
Heavy
Metals
AT PM2.5
AT PM10
PreDeepawali
Deepawali
PreDeepawali
Deepawali
Ba
BDL
4569
11
924
Na
10.02
BDL
0.235
BDL
K
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
Mg
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
Ca
BDL
BDL
BDL
BDL
Cu
114
273
2
158
Hg
1
7
0.01
0.12
Cd
7
10
0.06
1
598
7
104
Pb
588
BDL - below detectable limit
32
2.3.2 Impact of Kalipuja-Deepawali-2005 Fireworks on Ambient Air Quality:
West Bengal Pollution Control Board (WBPCB) was conducted a study on “Impact of KalipujaDeepawali-2005 fireworks on ambient air quality” for the city of Kolkata. In this study a big
housing complex, such as Bengal–Ambuja Housing Complex, situated at the south-eastern
extreme of the city on North-Eastern by-pass. Air quality was measured for the indicator
pollutants (e.g., SPM, RPM, SO2 & NO2) at the Ground and Fourth floor of this housing, and the
study period spanned both the events of Kalipuja (01 Nov) and Deepawali (02 Nov) for the year
2005.
The air quality data measured by the WBPCB are presented the daily averages in 17 different
locations of the Kolkata Metropolitan City area according to the guidelines of the Central
Pollution Control Board and the time period of the data presented was chosen to be 20th October
to 16the November for the years 2003, 2004 and 2005 to include the days of Kalipuja for those
years. Kalipuja took place on 24th Oct on 2003, 11th Nov on 2004 and 01st Nov on 2005. The
divergence of the data presented and the trend lines were found not to show any special behavior
around those days indicating a little influence of the event on the air quality. The pollutants
monitored were found to behave in normal way during this time of the year. Table 2.5 represent
the air quality data obtained during the study period mentioned. It is found that the data obtained
at the forth floor was less than that at the ground floor for all the parameters which is a natural
consequence of diffusion of the pollutants.
The air quality of the housing was influenced by the playing of fireworks. The housing dwellers
started playing fireworks from 31 October 2005, the day previous to Kalipuja and continued till
the Deepawali day. Consequently the parameters reported very high value on 31 Oct (the start
day of the study) and 01 & 02 November. In this study the heavy metal and organic fraction
analysis from particulate matter are not taken into consideration. Thus the concentration of toxic
pollutant in ambient air was not investigated and the resulting impact on human being was
beyond the scope of the model study.
33
Table 2.5. Daily Averages Air Pollutants (μg/m3) at the Monitoring Station Ground Floor
(GF) and Forth Floor (4F) of the Bengal Ambuja Housing Estate.
The above studies illustrated that during each firework event there is a short term change in
ambient air quality, increase in pollutant concentration, formation of secondary pollutant,
increase in trace metal particle concentration, which further increase the risk of different
pollutional effects in human body also in ecosystem.
2.4
Objective and Scope of Study:
2.4.1 Objective of the Study:
It is represented in many study work that the average concentration level of air pollution in
Kolkata lie above the permissible standard for residential area and most of them (except SO 2)
remain at much high level than the permissible limit continuously for few month of a year. And
major portion of this pollution are contributed by vehicles in India. It is seen (section 2.3) that
the concentration of air pollutants takes worse condition during Deepawali period. Though it stay
short period but from human health stand point it is an important aspect for Kolkata. In present
study the monitoring work is conducted to fulfil following objectives:

To study the air quality of a residential area within Kolkata metropolitan area at the time
of Deepawali for the parameters SPM, PM10, PM2.5, SO2 and NO2.
34

Also conducting the monitoring work in normal days to know the ambient air quality
behavior in normal day during this time of the year when the ambient air quality have not
been impacted by the playing of fireworks.

Compare the results of present study works with other similar kind of study to know the
present condition of air quality during Deepawali period in Kolkata.
2.4.2 Scope of the Study:

Monitoring the normal day’s concentration to know the back ground concentration during
Deepawali time when the ambient air quality has not been impacted by the playing of
fireworks.

Monitoring the eight-hourly average concentrations of air pollutants like SO 2, NO2, PM10,
PM2.5, and TSPM during Kalipuja-Deepawali period in the year 2012 in a residential area
in Kolkata.

Monitoring PM2.5 with 15minutes interval on each monitoring day to get the diurnal
variation and also to locate the peak period.

Collecting meteorological data like wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity, dew
point, precipitation and temperature for Kolkata during the monitoring period to assess
the atmospheric stability.

Compare the results of present study works with other similar kind of study to know the
present condition of air quality during Deepawali period in Kolkata.
35
Chapter 3
Methodology
3.1
Site Selection
Air quality monitoring site is selected at a residential complex in the Nayabad area of
Mukundapur near Eastern Metropolitan Bypass, Kolkata (within Kolkata Municipal Corporation
area) as shown in Figure-3.1. The Kolkata city had been identified within 24 critically polluted
areas in India as per Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). It’s Latitude and Longitude is
22.5697°N, 88.3697°E respectively and the average elevation is 16m above Mean Sea Level
(www.freemeteo.com).
The monitoring site of this study is mainly a developing residential area, far from road side.
Therefore, there is less effect of pollution due to vehicular traffic. However, construction works
are going on in the area throughout the year.
Figure 3.1: Location of the Monitoring Site
36
3.2
Monitoring Instrument
APM-460 respirable dust samplers (RDS) with provision for gaseous sampling APM-411 (Make:
Envirotech) and AM510 Personal Aerosol Monitor (Make: TSI) were used for measuring the
concentrations of PM10, NO2, SO2 and PM2.5 in the air. The sampling instrument APM-460 was
placed at the ground level to measure the concentration of gaseous air pollutant (SO2, NO2) and
Particulate matters (i.e PM10, NRPM, TSPM) and the AM510 was placed at second floor of the
building to measure fine particulate matter PM2.5. The instrument APM-460 was pleased at an
open area near the main entrance of the housing. The area is more or less open and likely to get
the maximum exposure to the fireworks displayed at that area during Deepawali. AM510 was
pleased at a second floor balcony which is also exposed to the outdoor air. The site of the
instrument APM-460 has been considered as Site I and another as Site II.
The APM-460 Respirable Dust Sampler was equipped with a cyclone separator. Atmospheric air
is drawn through a inlet pipe and passes through the cyclone and a 20 * 25 cm2 glass fibre filter
(GFF) paper sheet at a flow rate of 1.1 m3/minute. As the air with suspended particulates enters
the cyclone, coarse non-respirable dust is separated from the air stream by centrifugal forces. The
suspended but no respirable particulate matter (NRPM) falls through the cyclone’s conical
hopper and gets collected in the sampling cup (tare) placed at it bottom. The fine dust comprising
the respirable fraction of TSP passes through the cyclone and gets collected on the GFF paper.
The amount of non-respirable particulate (NRP) and respirable particulate per unit volume of air
passed was calculated on the basis of the difference between initial and final weights of the
sampling cup and that of the GFF paper, and the total volume of the air sucked during sampling.
For gaseous (SO2 and NO2) sampling the impingers containing the absorbing reagents were
exposed for eight hours at an impingement rate of 1 L/minute to get total concentration of two
samples (SO2 and NO2) per day. SO2 was analysed by improved West–Gaeke method (as per the
“Guidelines for Ambient Air Quality Monitoring” of CPCB) and the transmittance of the
analyzed sample was measured on spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 560 nm. NO 2 was also
analyzed employing the Jacob–Hochheiser modified method on the above spectrophotometer at a
wavelength of 540 nm.
37
Because there is a well-defined start time and end time for the burning of fireworks. The
sampling time was regulated accordingly. The HVS were transferred to a room right after
sampling without disturbing the sample (filter paper and impingers). All the filter papers were
weighed before and after sampling with an analytical balance after stabilizing under constant
temperature (20±10C) and humidity (40±2%) for over 24 hr. The differences in the two weights
were divided by the collected sampling volumes to obtain the corresponding concentrations in
mass by volume mode.
3.2.1 Respirable Dust Sampling (APM 460)
The respirable dust sampler is used to monitor the RPM and NRPM. The difference in weight of
conditioned filter paper before and after sampling gives the value of RPM with particle fraction
less than 10 micrometer. And the difference in weight of sampling bottle before and after
sampling gives the value of NRPM with aerodynamic diameter greater than 10 micrometer. A
photograph of respirable dust sampler is represented in Figure 3.2 and the specification of this
instrument also represented in Table 3.1.
Figure 3.2: Photograph of Respirable Dust Sampler (RDS)
38
Table 3.1: Specification of Respirable Dust Sampler
Overall size of
samplers
Particle size
Flow rate
Recommended
filter
Sampling Time
Power
requirements
3.2.2
Approx. 400x300x650mm
A cyclone is used for fractionating the dust into
two fractions. D-50 for the cyclone is at 10
microns.PM10 dust is accumulated on the filter
paper while course dust is collected in a tare placed
under the cyclone.
0.9 to 1.4 m3/min
Whatman GF/A for common and Whatman S type
no. EMP 2000 for special research.
28 hours(maximum)
Nominal 220 V, Single phase 50 Hz, AC
Preparation of the Filter Paper
The respirable dust concentration will be determined by a gravimetric analysis, requiring an
accurate estimation of the change in weight of the filter paper on account of the dust deposited
on it. As such, care should be taken in handling of paper that it does not get damaged during
handling. Almost all the filter papers for High Volume Sampler are made of binder free glass
fibres and are expected to be non-hygroscopic. However, it is required drying of filters in
desiccators’ before taking their weight. The important points should be checked during handling
of filter paper:

Inspect the filters against bright light for pinholes and micro-cracks.

For identification purpose put numbers on a corner of the underside of each filter.

Keep the filter paper in desiccators for at least 16 hours to remove traces of moisture.

Ensure that the desiccators is having active desiccant that is calcium chloride or silica gel.

Weight the filter paper immediately after they are taken out of desiccators.
39
3.2.3 Gravimetric Analysis
The filter papers are desiccated for more than 24 hours to condition the humidity prior to initial
weight. The tare at the bottom of the cyclones are taken out and are weighted accurately as taken
before the start of experiment.
RPM concentration (μg/m3) = (Wf-Wi) × 10 6 / V …………………………………...(Equation 1)
Where,
Wf
Wi
V
t
Qav
=
=
=
=
=
Weight of the exposed filter after sampling in gm
Weight of the fresh filter before sampling in gm
Volume of air sampled in m3 = Qav × t
Sampling periods in minutes
Average flow rate in m3/minute
Weight of particulate fraction (>10μm) in μg/m3 = (W1-W2) × 10 6 / V …………….(Equation 2)
Where,
W1
W2
V
=
=
=
Weight of the sampling bottle after sampling in gm
Weight of the sampling bottle before sampling in gm
Volume of air sampled in m3
Therefore, SPM = RPM + NRPM (>10μm) ………………………………………….(Equation 3)
3.3
AM510 Personal Aerosol Monitor
The SIDEPAK Personal Aerosol Monitor (see Figure3.3) is a miniature battery-operated laser
photometer that measures airborne particle (PM2.5) mass-concentration in units of milligrams per
cubic meter (mg/m3). The flow rate of built in sampling pump is user-adjustable. The rugged
belt-mountable unit is small, quiet, and lightweight. The 12-character x 2 line LCD displays
aerosol concentration and 8-hour TWA (time-weighted average) in realtime. Information can be
stored and later downloaded via a Windows based PC. The specification of this instrument also
represented in table 3.2.
40
Figure 3.3: AM510 Personal Aerosol Monitor
Table 3.2: Specification of AM510 Personal Aerosol Monitor
Overall size of samplers
Aerosol concentration range
Approx. 105 mm × 127 mm × 71
mm
0.001 to 20 mg/m3
Particle size range
0.1to 10 micrometer (μm)
Minimum resolution
0.001 mg/m3
Zero stability
Flow rate
Power requirements
±0.001 mg/m3 over 24 hours using
10-second time-constant
User-adjustable, 0.7 to1.8 liters/min
(lpm)
Input voltage range 100 to 240
VAC, 50 to 60 Hz
Output voltage 9 VDC @ 1.0 A
Battery charge time 6.5 hours
41
3.4 Chemical Analysis
3.4.1 Determination of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) by Modified West & Gaeke Method

Principle: Sulphur dioxide from air is absorbed in a solution of potassium tetrachloro
mercurate (TCM). A dichlorosulphitomercurate complex, which resists oxidation by the
oxygen in the air, is formed. Once formed, this complex is stable to strong oxidants such
as ozone and oxides of nitrogen and therefore, the absorber solution may be stored for
some time prior to analysis. The complex is made to react with para-rosaniline and
formaldehyde to form the intensely red purple colored pararosaniline methylsulphonic
acid. The absorbance of the solution is measured at 560 nm wavelengths by
spectrophotometer.

Reagents / Chemicals:
Absorbing Reagent, 0.04 M Potassium Tetrachloro Mercurate (TCM): 10.86 g,
mercuric chloride, 0.066 g EDTA, and 6.0 g potassium chloride or have been dissolved in
water and bring to the mark in a 1 litre volumetric flask. The absorbing reagent is
normally stable for six months. If, a precipitate forms, discard the reagent.
Sulphamic Acid (0.6%): 0.6 g sulphamic acid has been dissolved in 100 ml distilled
water. It has been prepared fresh daily.
Formaldehyde (0.2%) : 0.5 ml formaldehyde solution (36-38%) has been diluted to
100ml with distilled water. Prepare fresh daily.
Purified Pararosaniline Stock Solution (0.2% Nominal) : 0.500 gm of specially
purified pararosaniline (PRA) have been dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water and keep
for 2 days (48 hours).
Pararosaniline Working Solution: 10 ml of stock PRA has taken in a 250 ml
volumetric flask. Add 15 ml conc. HCL and made up to volume with distilled water.
Standardized Sulphite Solution for preparation of Working Sulphite-TCM Solution:
0.06 g sodium metabisulphite (Na2S2O5) has been dissolved in 100 ml of recently boiled,
cooled, distilled water. Sulphite solution is unstable; it is, therefore, important to use
water of the highest purity to minimize this instability.
42
Working Sulphite-TCM Solution: 2 ml of the standard solution has been measured into
a 100 ml volumetric flask by pipette and bring to mark with 0.04 M TCM. This solution
is stable for 30 days if kept in the refrigerator at 5 oC.

Preparation of Standards:
Step 1: 1.0 ml, 2.0 ml, 3.0 ml and 4.0 ml of working sulphite TCM solution have been
measured by pipette in 25 ml volumetric flask. Then sufficient TCM solution is added to
each flask to bring the volume to approximately 10 ml. A reagent blank with 10 ml
absorbing solution is also prepared.
Step 2: 1 ml 0.6% sulphamic acid has been added and allows reacting for 10 minutes to
destroy the nitrite resulting from oxides of nitrogen. Then 2 ml of 0.2% formaldehyde
solution and 2 ml pararosaniline solution have been added and made up to 25 ml with
distilled water.
Step 3: After a 30 min colour development interval and before 60 minutes, The
absorbance of samples has been measured and record and also the reagent blank by uvvisible range spectrophotometer at 560 nm wavelength.
Step 4: After that a curve absorbance (Y axis) versus concentration (X axis) has been
plotted in Windows Office Excel. And draw a line of best fit and determined the slope
and the reciprocal of slope which gives the calibration factor (CF). (see Figure-3.4).
43
Figure 3.4: Standard Curve of SO2
Figure 3.5: Standard Impinger
44

Sampling: 30 ml of absorbing solution has been placed in two impingers (Figure 3.5)
and sample for more or less six hours at the flow rate of 1 L/min. After sampling the
volume of sample has been measured and transferred to a sample storage bottle. Shield
the absorbing reagent from direct sunlight during the sampling and after sampling.

Analysis of Air Samples: After receiving the samples in the laboratory, checked the
volume of absorbing media and record it. Normally the volume of absorbing reagent is
likely to be reduced as a result of evaporation losses. The evaporation loss has been made
up by adding fresh, boiled and cooled distilled water.10 ml of aliquot from the sample
bottle has been pipette out into 25 ml volumetric flask.
A Blank solution by measuring 10 ml of blank TCM solution into 25 ml. vol. flask has
been prepared, allow to stand for 20 min. then has been added 1 ml of 0.6% Sulphamic
acid solution allow 10 min. for reaction then 2 ml of 0.2% formaldehyde solution and 2
ml. pararosaniline solution have been added. Mix up thoroughly, made up with freshly
boiled and cooled distilled water to the volume. Wait for 30 min. for maximum colour
development, after 30 min. interval the absorbance of the sample after setting has been
determined by the spectrophotometer at 0.00 absorbance with blank at 560 nm wave
length.

Calculations:
C (SO2 μg/m3 )= (As – Ab) x CF x Vs/ Va x Vt………………………............(Equation 4)
Where,
C(SO2) = Concentration of Nitrogen dioxide, μg/m3
As = Absorbance of sample
Ab = Absorbance of reagent blank
CF = Calibration factor
Va = Volume of air sampled, m3
Vs = Volume of sample, ml
Vt = Volume of aliquot taken for analysis, ml
45
3.4.2 Determination of Sulfur Dioxide (NO2) by Jacob–Hochheiser Modified Method

Principle: Ambient nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is collected by bubbling air through a
solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium arsenite. The concentration of nitrite ion (NO -2)
produced during sampling is determined calorimetrically by reacting the nitrite ion with
phosphoric acid, sulfanilamide, and N-(1-naphthyl)- ethylenediamine di-hydrochloride
(NEDA) and measuring the absorbance at 540 nm.

Reagents / Chemicals:
Absorbing Solution: 4.0 g of sodium hydroxide has been dissolved in distilled water, 1.0
g of sodium Arsenite has been added, and diluted to 1,000 ml with distilled water.
Sulphanilamide Solution: 10 g of sulphanilamide has been dissolved in 350 ml of
distilled water. With mixing, 25 ml of 85% phosphoric acid has been added and diluted to
500 ml. This solution is stable for one month, if refrigerated
NEDA Solution: 0.25 g of NEDA has been dissolved in 250 ml of distilled water. This
solution is stable for one month, if refrigerated and protected from light
Hydrogen Peroxide Solution: 0.2 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide has been diluted to 250
ml with distilled water. This solution may be used for one month, if, refrigerated and
protected from light.
Sodium Nitrite: Assay of 97% NaNO2 or greater
Sodium Nitrite Stock Solution (1000 μg NO2/ml): 0.154 gm NaNO2 has been dissolved
in 100ml distilled water.
Sodium Nitrite Working Solution (1 μg NO2/ml): 10ml of stock solution flask has been
dissolved. By adding sufficient absorbing solution to flask to bring the volume to 100 ml.
This Dilution process has been repeated three times to prepare working solution.

Preparation of Standards:
Step 1: 2, 4, 6, 8ml of working standard solution has been pipette out in 50 ml volumetric
flask. Filled up to 20 ml mark with absorbing solution. A reagent blank with 10 ml
absorbing solution has also prepared.
46
Step 2: 10 ml of the collected sample has been added into a 50 ml volumetric flask.
Pipette in 1 ml of hydrogen peroxide solution, 10 ml of sulphanilamide solution, and 1.4
ml of NEDA solution, with thorough mixing after the addition of each reagent and made
up to 50 ml with distilled water.
Step 3: Also a blank has been prepared in the same manner using 10 ml of unexposed
absorbing reagent.
Step 4: After a 10 min colour development interval, the absorbance of samples and
reagent blank has been measured and recorded by uv-visible range spectrophotometer at
540 nm.
Sep 5: Then a curve absorbance (Y axis) versus concentration (X axis) has been plotted
in Windows Office Excel. And draw a line of best fit and determined the slope and the
reciprocal of slope which gives the calibration factor (CF).(see Figure:3.6)
Figure 3.6 : Standard Curve of NO2
47

Sampling: 30 ml of absorbing solution has been placed in two impingers (Figure 3.5)
and sampled for more or less than six hours at the flow rate of 1 L/min. After sampling
the volume of sample has been measured and transferred to a sample storage bottle.
Shield the absorbing reagent from direct sunlight during the sampling and after sampling.

Analysis of air samples: After receiving the samples in the laboratory, checked the
volume of absorbing media and record it. Normally the volume of absorbing reagent is
likely to be reduced as a result of evaporation losses. Make up the evaporation loss by
adding fresh, boiled and cooled distilled water. 10 ml of aliquot from the sample bottle
has been pipette into 50 ml volumetric flask. A blank solution by measuring 10 ml of
blank absorbing solution has been prepared into 50 ml. vol. flask Pipette in 1 ml of
hydrogen peroxide solution, 10 ml of sulphanilamide solution, and 1.4 ml of NEDA
solution, with through mixing after the addition of each reagent and make up to 50ml
with distilled water. Wait for 10 min. for maximum colour development, after 10 min.
interval measure and record the absorbance of the sample by spectrophotometer at 540
nm wave-length against the blank.

Calculations:
C (NO2 μg/m3) = (As – Ab) x CF x Vs/ Va x Vt x 0.82…………………….(Equation 5)
Where,
C(NO2) = Concentration of Nitrogen dioxide, μg/m3
As = Absorbance of sample
Ab = Absorbance of reagent blank
CF = Calibration factor
Va = Volume of air sampled, m3
Vs = Volume of sample, ml
Vt = Volume of aliquot taken for analysis, ml
0.82 = Sampling efficiency
48
Chapter 4
Results and Discussion
4.1
Introduction:
The present study have been undertaken to identify, the impact on ambient air quality during the
Kalipuja-Deepawali days of year 2012, due to burning of fire-works at a residential complex in
the Nayabad area of Mukundapur near Eastern Metropolitan Bypass, Kolkata. The concentration
of four criteria pollutants Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) and Particulate
Matters (PM10 & PM2.5) have been measured, as it is injurious to human health, especially to the
respiratory systems beyond their respective threshold concentration.
4.2
Meteorological Parameter:
Meteorological
information
during
sampling
period
were
downloaded
from
http://www.freemeteo.com and the average values with mean and standard deviation are
presented in Table 4.1. Data was recorded at Dumdum (Lat: 22.650, Long: 88.450, Elevation: 6m
from mean sea level), approx 23 Km from Mukundapur,E.M.Bypass. During the monitoring
period (i.e. evening) the weather was a little hazy. The sky remained more or less clear with a
few scattered clouds sometime. As per Pasquill stability class, local atmosphere remained
slightly stable (E) and neutral (D) sometimes (Turner, 1994). The wind directions were recorded
mostly calm, some days N and NNE or NNW.
Table 4.1: The Meteorological Data during and After Deepawali
49
4.3
Site I; Monitoring of Air Pollutants – SO2, NO2, Particulate Matters:
The instrument at this site has been placed at the car parking area of the housing complex near
the main entrance door. There are buildings in-front and back side of the instrument. The other
two side are opened, the buildings are far away. Results of the monitoring work for the seven
days between 07.11.2012 to 23.11.2012 are presented in Table 4.2. 12-hourly average
concentrations of different particulate species (i.e. SPM, NRPM, and PM 10) and gaseous
pollutants (i.e. SO2 and NO2) are presented in Table 4.2. It can be observed that there is a
gradually increase and decrease in concentration from 2 nd November to 19th November and it
shows peaked on the Deepawali day. The increase in concentration on Deepawali Day shows
burning of fireworks at the building complex. Results of each of the pollutants will be discussed
in the subsequent sections.
Table 4.2: Results of the Monitoring Work:
Pollutant Concentration (μg/m3)
Days
SO2
NO2
PM10
NRPM
TSPM
31/10/2012
7.20
53.15
128.21
95.24
223.45
01/11/2012
5.84
75.69
145.22
135.10
280.32
02/11/2012
7.56
76.32
182.90
85.00
267.90
05/11/2012
5.23
54.92
44.82
111.00
155.82
07/11/2012
5.84
71.72
76.63
61.34
137.97
09/11/2012
7.43
74.11
247.90
135.60
383.50
12/11/2012
9.82
73.44
355.24
216.33
571.57
13/11/2012
22.53
86.75
1033.70
200.82
1234.52
14/11/2012
19.61
78.64
377.32
186.60
563.92
16/11/2012
9.34
33.15
286.60
175.44
462.04
19/11/2012
7.41
73.87
104.41
120.21
224.62
24-hour residential standard as per
NAAQS
Average Concentration in Normal Days
(7days)
80.00
80.00
100.00
-
200.00
6.33
(±0.99)
66.36
(±11.42)
115.62
(±54.99)
97.53
(±27.72)
213.15
(±64.32)
50
4.3.1 Monitoring of Air Pollutants –Gaseous Pollutants:
The gaseous pollutants SO2 and NO2 gradually increased to peak values in Deepawali and
thereafter decreased to baseline level. The daily concentration variation of gaseous pollution i.e.
SO2 and NO2 during festival days are represent in Figure 4.1. From Figure 4.1 it can be observed
that the concentration of NO2 is higher than the concentration of SO2. This is may be because of
vehicular pollution, which is the major source of NOx emission in atmosphere. Whereas The
concentration of SO2 before and after Deepawali is very much lower than the Deepawali day. It
is peaked on the Deepawali day. The increase in SO2 concentration on the day of Deepawali is
associated with the burning of fireworks during night time. The main substance in fireworks is
sulfer, which is responsible for generation of SO2.
Figure 4.1: The Trend of Concentration of Gaseous Pollutants before and after Deepawali
4.3.2 Discussion of Concentration of SO2 and NO2:
In order to study the short term variation in air quality during pre Deepawali, Deepawali and
post-Deepawali, the percentage increase in concentrations over baseline and 24 hour NAAQS,
India standards are reported in Table 4.3.
The SO2 concentration during Deepawali days in present study is below the NAAQS limit i.e.
80μg/m3. But in 24 hr before and after Deepawali day and also in Deepawali day i.e. 13th Nov.
51
the concentration of SO2 is 2 to 3 times higher than the average concentration on normal days
(see Figure 4.2).
Table 4.3: Percent Change of SO2 Concentration with Normal Day and with NAAQS:
DATE
Percent Change of
SO2 Concentration
over NAAQS (%)
Percent
Change of SO2
Concentration
over Normal
Days (%)
31/10/2012
-88
14.29
01/11/2012
-90.27
-7.30
02/11/2012
-87.4
20.00
05/11/2012
-91.28
-16.98
07/11/2012
-90.27
-7.30
09/11/2012
-87.62
17.94
12/11/2012
-83.63
55.87
13/11/2012
-62.45
257.62
14/112012
-67.32
211.27
16/11/2012
-84.43
48.25
19/11/2012
-87.65
17.62
Figure 4.2: Daily Variation of SO2 with Normal day and with NAAQS
52
Though the concentration of SO2 is below the permissible limit of NAAQS, yet, the synergistic
effect of SO2 in the presence of particulate matter, are particularly dangerous because it slowly
adsorbs on fine atmospheric particles and can be transported very deep into lungs, and therefore
staying there for a long time (Ravindra, 2003). In the presence of NO2 as a catalyst, further
oxidation of SO2 creates H2SO4 which plays a role in formation of acid rain. The negative
impacts of acid rain are mostly direct on vegetation, soil, aquatic-life creatures and buildings.
Due to very long residence time and acidic character of SO 2, they can cause serious damage to
the lungs tissue. Among the particles of diverse composition, sulphates have the worst health
impact, which also stay in air for considerably longer period. Normally healthy individuals show
upper respiratory symptoms, whereas asthmatics and person with respiratory hyper-reactivity
exhibit acute responses. These effects are enhanced by exercises that increase the volume of air
respired, as it allows SO2 to penetrate into the respiratory tract of the lungs.
The percentage increase in concentrations of NO2 over average normal day concentration and 24
hour NAAQS, India standards are reported in Table 4.4 and graphical representation in Figure
4.3. The high baseline concentration of NO2 in the present study location does suggest alternate
source of NO2 in the locality that may be the emission from automobiles in the nearby roadways
or in car parking zone, where high temperature combustion may take place. Hence the
concentration on Deepawali day is higher than other days. The increase in concentration on
Deepawali Day shows the effect of burning of fireworks at the building complex. That also
aggravates the concentration of NO2 on Deepawali day at the present study location.
53
Table 4.4: Percent Change of NO2 Concentration with Normal Day and with NAAQS:
Percent Change
of NO2
Concentration
over NAAQS
(%)
Percent
Change of
NO2
Concentration
over Normal
Days (%)
31/10/2012
-11.42
-19.90
01/11/2012
26.15
14.06
02/11/2012
27.20
15.01
05/11/2012
-8.47
-17.24
07/11/2012
19.53
8.08
09/11/2012
23.52
11.68
12/11/2012
22.40
10.67
13/11/2012
44.58
30.73
14/112012
31.07
18.52
16/11/2012
-44.75
-50.05
19/11/2012
23.12
11.32
DATE
Figure 4.3: Daily Variation of NO2 with Normal Day and with NAAQS
54
Accumulation of the pollutant is more evident during weather periods of calm still weather. The
majority of the evidence is weighted toward the adverse health effects of NO 2 mainly on children
and elderly with cardio-respiratory disease. NO2 is a deep lung irritant, which has been shown to
generate biochemical alterations and histological demonstrable lung damage in laboratory
animals as a result of both acute and chronic exposure. NO 2 increases bronchial reactivity, as
measured by the response of normal and asthmatic subjects following exposure to
pharmacological bronco-constrictor agents, even at levels that do not affect pulmonary function
directly in the absence of bronco-constrictor (Ravindra, 2003). NO2 is a relatively waterinsoluble gas and appreciable amounts of inhaled NO2 can penetrate to lung, and elicit biological
responses in, small lung airways. (WHO, Guideline for Air Quality, World Health Organization,
Geneva, 2000).
4.3.3 Monitoring of Air Pollutants –Particulate Matters:
The concentration of particulate matters before and after Deepawali is slightly above the
prescribed allowable limit. The concentration of total suspended particulates is gradually
increased from one to two days before Deepawali. TSP and PM10 concentration on Deepawali
goes to 1234.5μg/m3 and 1033 μg/m3 due to burning of fireworks at Kalipuja night. The trend of
concentration of particulate matters before and after Deepawali is shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4: The Trend of Concentration of Particulate Matters before and after Deepawali
55
4.3.4 Discussion of Concentration of PM10 and TSPM:
The concentration of particulate matters before and after Deepawali is slightly above the
prescribed allowable limit (100 μg/m3).The average concentration and standard deviations in
normal days, that is 7 days before Deepawali, is 115.6±54.99 μg/m3 in case of PM10 where as
for total suspended particulate matter(TSPM) is 213±64 μg/m3. This indicate that there is also
another source of particulate matters in that area, which already increased the background
concentration
above
the
prescribed
allowable
limit
(100
μg/m3
&
200
μg/m3
respectively).Construction sites may be the source the increased background concentration of
particulate matters.
Table 4.5: Percent Change of PM10 Concentration with Normal Day and with NAAQS
Percent Change
of PM10
Concentration
over NAAQS
(%)
Percent Change
of PM10
Concentration
over Normal
Days (%)
31/10/2012
28.21
10.90
01/11/2012
45.22
25.62
02/11/2012
82.90
58.22
05/11/2012
-55.21
-61.25
07/11/2012
-23.37
-33.70
09/11/2012
147.93
114.45
12/11/2012
255.21
207.32
13/11/2012
933.70
794.21
14/11/2012
277.34
226.40
16/11/2012
186.60
147.91
19/11/2012
4.42
-9.70
Date
Particulates, namely TSPM, PM10 have been increased considerably in Deepawali. The PM10
have been found to increase by more than 6 times, over the normal days (i.e.31st October, 1st, 2nd,
5th, 7th November) concentration. And over the NAAQS of India the concentration has been
exceeded by about 10 times. The TSPM have been found to increase by 4 times over the normal
day’s concentration, and 6 times over the permissible limit of NAAQS (see Figure 4.6 and Table
56
4.6). The daily variations of concentration of PM10 with normal day’s concentration and with the
permissible limit of NAAQS are presented in Table 4.5 and also a graphical representation in
Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5: Daily Variation of PM10 with Normal Day and with NAAQS
Table 4.6: Percent Change of TSPM with Normal Day and with NAAQS
Date
31/10/2012
01/11/2012
02/11/2012
05/11/2012
07/11/2012
09/11/2012
12/11/2012
13/11/2012
14/11/2012
16/11/2012
19/11/2012
Percent Change
of TSPM
Concentration
over NAAQS
(%)
Percent Change
of TSPM
Concentration
over Normal
Days (%)
11.73
40.16
33.95
-22.13
-31.04
91.75
185.75
517.25
181.95
131.02
12.33
4.90
31.60
25.82
-26.90
-35.20
80.00
168.31
479.62
164.70
116.92
5.45
57
Figure 4.6: Daily Variation of PM10 with Normal Day and with NAAQS
The concentration of particulate matter is gradually increased from one to two days before
Deepawali Then again it gradually decrease after this occasion. The trend is almost similar for
PM10, NRPM, and SPM. Basically there is no rainfall in study period except 2nd and 5th
November. As a result, the atmospheric aerosol particles are removed due to rainfall. And at 5 th
November minimum aerosol concentrations were recorded because of the washout of particles
from the atmosphere.
58
4.4
Site II Monitoring of Air Pollutant - PM2.5:
Table 4.7 The Variation of Concentration of PM2.5 in Every 15 minutes during Monitoring
Days
59
Figure 4.7 : Daily Variation of Concentration of PM2.5 in Normal Days
Figure 4.8 : Daily Variation of Concentration of PM2.5 in Deepawali Days
60
Daily variation of PM2.5 in Normal days and during Deepawali days are illustrated in Figure 4.7
and 4.8 respectively. Figure 4.7 show the variation of concentration of PM 2.5 in Normal days that
is 7 days before Deepawali (i.e.31st October, 1st, 2nd, 5th, 7th November). The natures of the
curves are more or less linear. The average concentration per day varies from 157 to 495μm/m 3
(see Table 4.7). There is no high concentration within short time.
Figure 4.8 show the variation of concentration of PM2.5 in Deepawali days (i.e. 9th, 12th, 13th,
14th, 16th, 19th November). The 24hrs average concentration of PM2.5 in 13th November that is the
day of Kalipuja is higher than other days (see Table 4.8). The concentration is gradually
increased from three days before Kalipuja i.e. 9th November and after Deepawali it again
decreased.
The diurnal variation of PM2.5 concentration on festival days apparently showed the peak period
of firework burning from about 6:45PM to 12:00PM midnight.
On 13th November, i.e. the Kalipuja Day, PM2.5 concentration started increasing gradually from
about 6:15PM evening when the fireworks also began. The concentration showed a sudden
increase between 7:45PM-9:00PM and reached a peak (2741.48µg/m3) at about 8:15PM. The
concentration went on increasing and a second peak was observed around 11:30PM
(4025.21µg/m3). The concentration showed a decreasing trend then on. The first peak may be
attributed to the primary fine particulates released directly from firework burning especially
within the housing complex. The second peak probably reflects the secondary fine particulates
formed in the atmosphere due to firework burning in the locality. However, further investigations
are necessary to make more conclusive remarks.
The average PM2.5 concentration is varied from 156.52 to 1668.14μg/m3 during monitoring
period. The variation of concentration in every 15 minutes during monitoring days is illustrated
in table 4.7. The average concentration and standard deviations in normal days, that is 7 days
before Deepawali, is 341±121 μg/m3 in case of PM2.5. The variation of concentration over
normal days and also over prescribed limit by NAAQS is illustrated in Figure 4.9. In Deepawali
day the concentration is increased more or less 5 times over normal days, and 31 times over
prescribed limits by NAAQS (60μg/m3) (see Table 4.8).
61
Table 4.8: Percent Change of PM2.5 with Normal Day and with NAAQS
Date
PM2.5(μg/m3)
Percent
Change of
PM2.5
Concentration
over NAAQS
(%)
Percent
Change of
PM2.5
Concentration
over Normal
Days (%)
31/10/2012
341.22(±52)
468.7
0.0059
01/11/2012
371.72(±65)
519.5
8.9
02/11/2012
486.61(±141.8)
711
42.62
05/11/2012
151.24(±23.7)
152.1
-55.7
07/11/2012
355.22(±82.87)
492
4.1
09/11/2012
626.67(±169.8)
944.45
83.7
12/11/2012
801.19(±293.1)
1235.3
134.8
13/11/2012
1906.11(±1518.8)
3076.9
458.6
14/11/2012
677.64(±283)
1029.4
98.6
16/11/2012
19/11/2012
607.66(±172.7)
318.45(±55)
912.8
430.8
78.1
-6.7
Figure 4.9: Daily Variation of PM2.5 with Normal Day and with NAAQS
62
The exposure to particulate matter is reported to have caused chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, alter host defence, damage lung tissue, and lead to premature death and
contribute to cancer. The size of the particle is a main determinant of where in the respiratory
track the particle will come to rest when inhaled. Because of their small size, particles on the
order of 10 micrometers or less (PM10) can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs such as the
bronchioles or alveoli. Larger particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat via cilia and
mucus, but particulate matter smaller than about 10 micrometers, referred to as PM10, can settle
in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. Similarly, particles that smaller than 2.5
micrometers, PM2.5, tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung. Recent
epidemiological studies clearly establish the relation between the harmful effects on human
health and mortality with increased concentration of atmospheric particulates (B.Thakur,
et.al.2009). The WHO air quality guidelines represent the most widely agreed and up-to-date
assessment of health effects of air pollution, recommending targets for air quality at which the
health risks are significantly reduced. The Guidelines indicate that by reducing particulate matter
(PM10) pollution from 70 to 20 micrograms per cubic metre, we can cut air quality related deaths
by around 15% (http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/).
4.5
Comparison of the Results with Similar Studies:
Similar air quality studies have been carried out during Deepawali in Hisar-Hariyana (Ravindra
et al., 2003), Salkia-Howrah (B.Thakur et al., 2009) and many more. Among these studies in
Hisar, and Howrah were reported similar pattern of deterioration of short-term air quality. In
Hisar city (29˚ 10’ N, 75˚ 46’ E, 215.2 m above mean sea level) four sampling sites were
selected on the basis of differential population characteristics. The district civil hospital (CHP)
was selected as a sensitive area, and three different residential locations were selected, Sector-13
(S13), which represents densely populated with a moderately financially rich population, Guru
Jambheshwar University (GJU), primarily institutional and partially residential area and Sector15 (S15) densely populated with a mostly financially rich population. Among these sites the
Sector-13 (S13) and Sector- 15 (S15) are mostly residential sites, which is more or less similar to
present study location .Though the present study location is a developing residential area which
is not very much densely populated. In order to normalize the results of different studies
concentrations of pollutants in Deepawali for each study are considered as 100% and other
concentrations are calculated as its fraction.
63
The meteorological factors have substantial impacts on ambient concentrations. In Deepawali
season, calm condition generally prevails in India that causes to aggravate the air quality status.
For example, the meteorological factors of the present study along with the two referred studies
are presented in Table 4.9, which indicates more or less calm conditions in all sites.
Table 4.9 Meteorological Condition in Different Indian Cities During Diawali :
Study
Location
Deepawali
Day
Wind Speed
km/hr
Stability Class
Hisar
07/11/1999
3.6
G(Strongly Stable)
Howrah
09/11/2007
6.33
G(Strongly Stable)
Kolkata
13/11/2012
4.65
D(Neutral)
It can be observed in Figure 4.10(a) that in case of SO2 concentration Howrah is higher than
Hisar and Kolkata. The reason behind this may be that the study location in howrah was not only
a residential area,but also some small, medium industries are present there. The other two stady
location that is Hisar and Kolkata are mainly residential. But in present study location(Kolkata)
the concentration of SO2 over Deepawali day in day before and after Deepawali is comparatively
higher than Hissar may be because of maximum fireworks display. Where for NO 2
concentration, the pattern is more or less same for three study area (see Figure 4.10(b)). Because
the pollution due to NO2 does not very much aggravate by fireworks display.
64
Figure 4.10: Comparison of Concentration of SO2, NO2of the Present Study with the
Studies in Hisar (1999) and Howrah (2009).
Concentration of PM10, SPM at all the location exceeded the maximum prescribed allowable
limit before and after Deepawali. The level of particles was reported by (Ravindra et al.2003) to
be very high in Hisar city (see Figure 4.11(a,b)), which seems to be related with the fact that it
has semi desert climate with less vegetation cover and fine soil structure. That increased the
background concentration of PM10 of that location on that time. Concentration of PM10 at other
two location does not similar to Hisar, because the climate condition does not like Hisar. The
65
concentration of PM10 in these two locations shows the normal increasing and decreasing nature
of curvature. The concentration in 24 hr before Deepawali and 24hr after Deepawali is 3 to 4
times lower than the Deepawali day in Howrah and in present study location.
Figure 4.11: Comparison of Concentration of PM10, SPM of the Present Study with the
Studies in Hisar (1999) and Howrah (2009)
The pre and post-Deepawali days followed the same trends but the concentration was found
lowest in pre-Deepawali days. A slight increase during the post-Deepawali days occurred due to
66
long atmospheric residence time of fine particulates may be due to stable atmosphere and
fog/smog formation.
In the Hisser study Ravindra et al. mainly assessed the short-term variation in the ambient
concentration of SO2, NO2, TSP and PM10. The measurement of PM2.5 was not conducted in that
study. In order to compare the present study results of PM 2.5 concentration in Deepawali the
Nagpur study by Padma S. Rao. et al., 2011 represent the condition of other state. Nagpur
(Padma S. Rao. et al., 2011), the study region comprises of residential cum commercial area of
NEERI colony (National Environmental Engineering Research Institute), which is situated,
between 20˚30' N–21˚30' N latitudes and 78˚30' E–79˚30' E longitudes. National highway No-7,
Godowns of Food Corporation of India, hotels, bakeries and railway station also exist in the
vicinity of sampling area. Salkia-Howrah (B.Thakur et al., 2009) also a densely populated
residential area located at Howrah within the limits of Greater Calcutta (Kolkata) Metropolitan
Area. Also Howrah is surrounded by a number of small and medium scale industries such as coal
and iron processing industries, iron foundries, re-rolling mills, chemical industries, etc. Results
of the present study are compared with these studies for SPM, PM10, PM2.5, SO2 and NO2.
Figure 4.12: Comparison of PM2.5 of the Present Study with the Studies in Nagpur (2011)
and Howrah (2009).
In order to study the short term variation in air quality during pre Deepawali, Deepawali and
post-Deepawali, the comparison in concentration of PM2.5 of different location have been shown
67
in Figure.4.12. The concentration of PM2.5 were found by Padma.S.Rao, et.al,2011 in Nagpur
during Deepawali days nearly 2–3 times of those in pre Deepawali days. Same result has been
found in present study, that fireworks during festival, lead to a short term variation of air quality
and observed 2–3 times increase in PM concentration in Kolkata. This increased in PM mass
concentration during Deepawali period attributed to both the cracker emissions and stable
atmospheric condition. It were observed by Padma.S.Rao, et.al the concentrations of PM 2.5 in
post Deepawali days was higher than those during pre Deepawali days. That was reported by
Padma.S.Rao, et.al that the finer particulates contributed by cracker burning remain suspended
for long in the stable atmosphere even after Deepawali days.
There are other studies deals with the effect of fireworks on ambient air quality during
Deepawali Festival. Most of them were conducted to assess the variation in ambient air quality
that is variation in concentration of TSPM, PM10, SO2, and NO2 in the air of local area during
festival of light.
A study was conducted in the residential areas of Delhi, India by Papiya Mandal, Mamta
Prakash, J. K. Bassin during the period of 2006 to 2008. In this study the yearly variation in
concentration of air pollutants (i.e. TSPM, PM10, SO2, and NO2) were represented. Papiya
Mandal, et. al, 2006 were found that the use of fireworks during Diwaly day showed 1.3 to 4.0
times increase in concentration of respirable particulate matter (PM 10) and 1.6 to 2.5 times
increase in concentration of total suspended particulate matter (TSP) than the concentration
during Deepawali month. Whereas in present study the concentration in Deepawali day is
compared with average concentration of normal day that is 7 day before Deepawali and here also
found that 3 to 4 times increased in Deepawali concentration than normal days. There was also
found by Papiya Mandal, et. al, 2006 that the significant increase in sulfur dioxide (SO 2)
concentration but the concentration of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) did not show any considerable
variation.
Another study deals with the effect of fireworks on ambient air quality during Deepawali
Festival in Lucknow City by Barman, et.al, 2008. The study was conducted in the ambient air at
four residential areas namely Alambagh, Aliganj, Chowk and Gomti Nagar, for 12 h
continuously, with a population of 2.245 million, (2001 census). In this study, PM10, SO2, NOx
were estimated at four representative locations, during day and night times for Pre Deepawali
(day before Deepawali) and Deepawali day. On Deepawali day 24 h average concentration of
68
PM10, SO2, and NOx was found to be higher at 2.49 and 5.67 times for PM10, 1.95 and 6.59
times for SO2 and 1.79 and 2.69 for NOx, when compared with the respective concentration of
Pre Deepawali and normal day, respectively. On Deepawali day, 24 h values for PM10, SO2, and
NOx were found to be higher than prescribed limit of National Ambient Air Quality Standard
(NAAQS), and exceptionally high (7.53times) for PM10. On Deepawali night (12 h) mean level
of PM10, SO2 and NOx was 4.02, 2.82 and 2.27 times higher than their respective daytime
concentrations and showed strong correlations (p<0.01) with each other. Furthermore, the
daytime concentrations of PM10, SO2 and NOx on Deepawali day was found to be significantly
higher than the previous daytime (Pre Deepawali) concentrations, which was found to be
increased by 49.49, 107.85 and 65.61% for PM10, SO2 and NOx, respectively. In general, there
were no fireworks during daytime and besides due to a public holiday the source of vehicular
pollution might have been less than the Pre Deepawali day. Even then, the increase in
concentration indicated a longer time stay of these pollutants in the ambient air accumulated on
Pre Deepawali night due to fireworks. More or less similar patterns in concentrations of air
pollutants to be obtained from these studies.
But another study was conducted in Kolkata, which is being monitored by the WBPCB through a
network of seventeen (17) fixed monitoring stations distributed in the city in 2005. For this
purpose, a big housing complex, such as Bengal–Ambuja Housing Complex, situated at the
south-eastern extreme of the city on North-Eastern by-pass lived by approximately 3,500 people
(about 700 families) was chosen as a model system. Air quality was measured for the indicator
pollutants (e.g., SPM, RPM, SO2 & NO2) at the Ground and Fourth floor of this housing, and the
study period spanned both the events of Kalipuja (01 Nov) and Deepawali (02 Nov) for the year
2005. Kalipuja took place on 01st Nov on 2005. They found that concentration of SPM on pre
Deepawali day was 165 μg/m3 and on Deepawali day that was 221 μg/m3 , that is 1.3 times
lower than Deepawali day. Whereas for PM10, NO2 in pre Deepawali were 1.7, 0.6 times lower
than in Deepawali day respectively. The variation of concentration between pre Deepawali and
Deepawali day of these three pollutants is not similar with other studies (see Figure 4.14, 4.15,
4.16). This may be because of vehicular pollution, construction work at this location. But the
pattern of variation in SO2 concentration has similarities with other study location (see Figure
4.13).
69
Figure. 4.13 Comparison of Concentration of SO2 of the Present Study with the Studies in
Delhi, Lucknow and in Kolkata in 2005.
Figure. 4.14 Comparison of Concentration of NO2 of the Present Study with the Studies in
Delhi, Lucknow and in Kolkata in 2005.
70
Figure. 4.15 Comparison of Concentration of PM10 of the Present Study with the Studies in
Delhi, Lucknow and in Kolkata in 2005.
Figure. 4.16 Comparison of Concentration of TSPM of the Present Study with the Studies
in Delhi, Lucknow and in Kolkata in 2005.
71
The comparison studies are prepared between the studies which are situated in different state or
different location in India. But each study illustrated that the celebrations of Deepawali festival
are contributing higher concentration of air pollutants, which are one of the additional major
sources of air pollution during Deepawali month other than the existing sources.
72
Chapter 5
Conclusions
The study illustrated that the celebration of Deepawali festival is contributing higher
concentration of air pollutants. Display of fireworks with loud explosives, crackers, etc., during
Deepawali celebration causes enormous though short-lived air pollution. The SO2, NO2, PM10,
PM2.5 and TSPM concentrations are monitored during the celebration of Deepawali festival in a
residential area in Nayabad, Kolkata, India, for assessing the impact of fireworks on ambient air
quality. Following conclusions are drawn from the study:

The monitoring was conducted for six consecutive days before Deepawali, three days
during Deepawali and three days after Deepawali to monitor the background
concentration of the relevant air pollutants. All the pollutants showed similar variation
pattern during the monitoring period. The concentrations increased steadily to the peak
on Deepawali, as the crackers start bursting, and declined thereafter.

Concentration of all the pollutants increased on Deepawali day than average normal days
by several times viz. 257.62% for SO2, 30.73% for NO2, 479.62% for TSP, 794.21% for
PM10 and 458.60% for PM2.5.

Among gaseous pollutants the concentration of SO2 on all the monitoring days including
Deepawali remained lower than the limit prescribed by NAAQS, 24 hour’s residential
standards, India. NO2 concentrations were mostly above the specified standard, and its
little variation even on Deepawali, indicates there might be another source of NO2. It is
likely to be the emission from automobiles on the nearby roadways or in car parking
zone, where high temperature combustion may take place.

Particulates on the other hand showed much higher concentration during Deepawali
compared to their respective standards in NAAQS. This is a serious cause of concern
requiring attention.

A comparison of the obtained results with similar studies elsewhere shows similar trend
of increment in pollution during fireworks display.
The short-term exposure of these pollutants above the permissible allowable limits can increase
the likelihood of acute health effects. Hence, there is a need to determine this proportion and to
73
control this pollution. Following studies in future can improve the existing knowledgebase and
can help in formulating more effective control strategies and policies.

Particulate monitoring may further be enhanced by assessing the proportion of metals, the
variation in different metal levels and the organic fraction during Deepawali festival
days.

To establish a picture of probable impact on public health a parallel health impact study
can be run by collecting data from nearby hospitals.

The assessment of the noise level during fireworks display can be done to get a clear
view about noise levels in addition to the air quality during fireworks display.
74
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