THERMAL SPRINGS AS FOLK CURING MECHANISMS
Audrey C. Shalinsky
Water! God's wonderful e l i x i r o f l i f e
Peacefully flowing ne'er sign o f strife,
U p w a r d s f r o m i t s deep b o w l o f h i d d e n w e a l t h
Comes f o r t h H i s message o f b e t t e r h e a l t h .
(Poem on t o u r i s t p a m p h l e t , 1 9 3 0 s , T h e r m o p o l i s ,
Wyoming)
For t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s , people h a v e
s o u g h t t o c u r e a v a r i e t y of p h y s i c a l a n d
mental i l l s t h r o u g h t h e use of s p e c i a l w a t e r
a d m i n i s t e r e d o v e r t h e body o r t a k e n i n t e r n a l ly.
Pious Muslim p i l g r i m s to Mecca s t i l l
d r i n k from t h e s a c r e d well of Zum Zum bel i e v i n g i t promotes well-being.
I n t h e Christian
tradition,
d i f f e r e n t forms of b a p t i s m
w i t h w a t e r symbolize new p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d
s p i r i t u a l well-being.
T a k i n g a c l u e from
t h e s e a n d o t h e r s a c r e d u s e s of w a t e r , t h i s
paper
i n v e s t i g a t e s a p a r t i c u l a r s u b s e t of
t h e u s e of s p e c i a l w a t e r , d r i n k i n g from o r
b a t h i n g i n hot s p r i n g s a s a c u r a t i v e t r e a t ment.
During
1981-83,
ethnographic research
on
thermal
s p r i n g s c u r i n g was c o n d u c t e d
i n t h e w e s t e r n United S t a t e s a n d I s r a e l u s i n g
t h e methods of p a r t i c i p a n t - o b s e r v a t i o n
and
interviewing.
Field
research
in various
l o c a t i o n s focused on two towns with developed
helth resorts or s p a s using thermal s p r i n g s
for
c u r a t i v e purposes
in
their facilities.
Attitudes toward the healing efficacy a n d
l o c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s p r i n g s were collecte d from h i s t o r i c a l documents, c o n t e m p o r a r y
newspaper accounts, a n d local subject interviews a n d b e h a v i o r .
The r e s e a r c h s e e k s
to d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t
thermal s p r i n g water
i s viewed a s h e a l t h f u l b y people who a t
32
33
l e a s t p a r t i a l l y s u b s c r i b e to a folk belief
system w h i c h , i n many r e s p e c t s , i s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o s c i e n t i f i c medicine.
The a n a l y s i s proceeds i n four p a r t s .
First,
a
theoretical
p e r s p e c t i v e b a s e d on
symbolic, s t r u c t u r a l , a n d f o l k l o r i c a n a l y s i s
i n d i c a t e s t h e l i n k a g e of w a t e r , l i f e , a n d
h e a l t h i n t h e t h o u g h t p a t t e r n s of a n c i e n t
Indo-European
a n d Semitic peoples.
The
Galenic humoral medical system b u i l t on t h e
a n d hot/cold i s shown
oppositions wet/dry
t o p r o v i d e t h e framework for hot s p r i n g s
c u r i n g beliefs.
Given t h i s framework, sect i o n 2 d i s c u s s e s mythological a n d h i s t o r i c a l
a c c o u n t s of t h e s p e c i f i c t h e r m a l s p r i n g s a n a lyzed
by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o d e m o n s t r a t e
t h a t t h e r e i s a s u p e r n a t u r a l component l i n k e d
In the t h i r d section,
t o i d e a s of h e a l i n g .
a n a l y s i s of contemporary belief i n t h e r m a l
s p r i n g s documents how c u r i n g a c t i v i t y with
symbolic a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l elements now incorp o r a t e s a s c i e n t i f i c o r r e c r e a t i o n a l idiom.
The f i n a l section o f f e r s h i s t o r i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s for t h e c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e s
t o w a r d t h e r m a l s p r i n g c u r i n g i n terms of
( scientific)
curing
folk
versus
biomedical
traditions.
Medical systems f i n d t h e i r o r i g i n s i n
human a t t e m p t s to c o n t r o l d i s e a s e a n d d e a t h .
may
Folk o r t r a d i t i o n a l c u r i n g systems
be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from s c i e n t i f i c o r modern
biomedical
curing
systems by
four
major
p o i n t s of c o n t r a s t .
Scientific medicine i s
m a t e r i a l i s t i c ; t h a t i s , i t d e s c r i b e s a n d exp l a i n s e v e n t s w i t h i n t h e body i n m a t e r i a l
terms where folk c u r i n g often d e s c r i b e s o r
explains illness in spiritual or mentalistic
(Morley
1980; Berliner
and
Salmon
terms
1980). ( 1)
Scientific medicine i s o b j e c t i v e ;
i t c o n c e p t u a l i z e s i l l n e s s a s a s e t of observable,
physical
events
where
traditional
curing takes the patient's subjective experience a s p r i m a r y (Morley 1978: 15; RomanucciRoss 1983: v i i i - x i 1 .
Scientific medicine is
specific; every disease h a s a unique etiology
where
folk medical systems may p o s t u l a t e
t h a t a l l i l l n e s s i s a r e s u l t of s o u l l o s s ,
w i t c h c r a f t , e t c . , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e s p e c i f i c
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of d i s e a s e (Morley 1978: 2-3).
F i n a l l y , s c i e n t i f i c medicine i s r e d u c t i o n i s t i c ;
i t o p e r a t e s p r i m a r i l y a t t h e l e v e l of t h e
c e l l r a t h e r t h a n t h e l e v e l of t h e e n t i r e p e r s o n
(Morley 1978: 1 4 ; Romanucci-Ross
1983: 15-17).
P e r h a p s t h e most i m p o r t a n t impetus t o t h e
late
nineteenth
century
transformation
of
m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e from a h e a l i n g a r t t o a
s c i e n c e w a s t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e r o l e of t h e
microbe i n d i s e a s e c a u s a t i o n ( G e b h a r d 1976:
87-97).
C l e a r l y , hot s p r i n g s a r e a folk
m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s i n c e e m p h a s i s is on t h e
p a t i e n t ' s f e e l i n g s , t h e e n t i r e body i s immersed
a n d t h e method i s used for a wide v a r i e t y
of i l l n e s s e s .
Hot
Springs
Curing-Theoretical
Perspectives
Balneology,
the
treatment
of
disease
b y b a t h s a n d t h e w a t e r s of m i n e r a l s p r i n g s ,
is
an
ancient
traditional
curing
system.
The word comes from t h e L a t i n , " b a l n e u m , "
bath.
l n g e s t i o n o r immersion i n l i q u i d for
h e a l t h purposes was a p p a r e n t l y a widespread
custom i n t h e a n c i e n t world.
In p a r t , l i q u i d
i t s e l f w a s viewed a s l i f e e n h a n c i n g .
Using a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c , symbolic, a n d
s t r u c t u r a l framework, Alan Dundes a n a l y z e s
t h e e v i l e y e belief system which i s common
among
Semitic
and
Indo-European
peoples
b u t r e l a t i v e l y r a r e i n t h e r e s t of t h e world
(1980:94).
The e v i l eye i s a belief system
b a s e d on t h e i d e a t h a t a n i n d i v i d u a l h a s
t h e power t o c a u s e harm t o a n o t h e r , i l l n e s s ,
death, or destruction.
Dundes notes t h a t
consequences for t h e victim of t h e e v i l e y e
seem to i n v o l v e a d r y i n g o r d e s s i c a t i o n process--"if
t h e object a t t a c k e d i s a cow, i t s
milk may d r y u p ; i f a p l a n t o r a f r u i t t r e e ,
i t may s u d d e n l y w i t h e r a n d die" (1980:93).
He c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e i d e a t h a t l i f e d e p e n d s
on l i q u i d w a s a b a s i c p r i n c i p l e of t h e a n c i e n t
M e d i t e r r a n e a n world.
Bodily f l u i d s , semen,
milk,
blood, b i l e , s a l i v a mean l i f e while
l o s s of s u c h f l u i d s means d e a t h .
To u s e
approach
( 1967:202-228),
wet
Levi-Strauss ' s
a n d d r y a r e a basic b i n a r y opposition i n
Semitic a n d Indo-European t h o u g h t a n d a r e
a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e opposition l i f e a n d
death.
These unconscious c a t e g o r i e s may
manifest themselves i n many d i f f e r e n t customs.
For e x a m p l e , on f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n s , i n many
European t r a d i t i o n s , t o a s t i n g w i t h wine o r
other beverages involves a salutation along
t h e l i n e s of "To your h e a l t h . "
Thus, health
i s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e i n g e s t i o n of a l i q u i d .
The
Eastern
European Jewish t r a d i t i o n of
toasting
may
a l s o b e compared with t h e
Clearly,
Hebrew p h r a s e , l'chairn, "to l i f e . "
t h e r e i s a w i d e s p r e a d a s s o c i a t i o n between
life, health, and taking in a liquid.
F o l k t a l e s a l s o confirm t h e notion t h a t
liquid is life.
Stories of a f o u n t a i n of youth
o r l i f e a r e well known.
The magic l i q u i d
c a n c u r e wounds, b r i n g t h e d e a d b a c k t o
If a g i n g
l i f e , a n d make t h e old young.
c o n s i s t s of t h e diminution of p r e c i o u s f l u i d s ,
i n c l u d i n g w r i n k l i n g o r " d r y i n g " of t h e f a c e ,
l o s s of a b i l i t y to produce b r e a s t milk o r
semen ( l a c k of i n t e r n a l f l u i d ) , t h e n t o r e v e r s e
t h e p r o c e s s , one must i n c r e a s e t h e s u p p l y
of a v a i l a b l e l i q u i d (Dundes 1980: 1 0 8 ) .
Furt h e r confirmation comes from t h e Judeo-Christi a n w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n which e q u a t e s p a r a d i s e
o r t h e promised l a n d , a s one which i s flowing
with
milk
and honey
(Dundes 1980: 1 3 2 ) .
Hell on t h e o t h e r h a n d i s f i e r y a n d d r y .
According to t h e Bible, man w a s c r e a t e d
from d u s t a n d to d u s t h e r e t u r n s a f t e r d e a t h .
Thus d r y n e s s i s e q u a t e d with d e a t h , a n d
l i f e , even e t e r n a l l i f e , with flowing l i q u i d s .
I s l a m makes a s i m i l a r e q u a t i o n .
"Then f e a r
t h e f i r e , whose f u e l i s men a n d s t o n e s prep a r e d for u n b e l i e v e r s . . .Give thou good t i d i n g s
t o those who b e l i e v e . . . t h a t for them a w a i t
gardens
underneath
which
rivers
flow.. ."
( A r b e r r y 1955:32).
Hot s p r i n g s c u r i n g i n c l u d e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of h e a t i n a d d i t i o n to wetness.
It i s
likely
that
a
double
binary
opposition,
w e t / d r y a n d hot/cold, u n d e r l i e s Indo-European
i d e a s about life a n d health.
Confirmation
for t h i s point comes from t h e medical system
of Galen, t h e Greek p h y s i c i a n a n d w r i t e r
who was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f o r m u l a t i n g a medical
system b a s e d p r e c i s e l y on t h e s e o p p o s i t i o n s .
Galen wrote of t h e four humors, blood, yellow
b i l e , b l a c k b i l e , a n d phlegm which m u s t b e
i n p r o p e r b a l a n c e t o e n s u r e t h e h e a l t h of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( P e n k a l a 1980).
Significantly,
blood i s composed of h e a t a n d w e t n e s s ; yellow
b i l e i s hot a n d d r y ; b l a c k b i l e i s cold a n d
d r y ; a n d phlegm i s cold a n d wet.
Blood
t h e r e f o r e seems t o evoke t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
found i n hot s p r i n g s .
Additional confirmation
comes from s o c i e t i e s where t h e Galenic medical
system s t i l l o p e r a t e s .
P e n k a l a ( 1980: 214
h a s r e p o r t e d t h a t a hakim, a h e r b a l p h y s i c i a n
i n A f g h a n i s t a n who used t h e h u m o r a l system
i n diagnosis and treatment, classified the
s t a g e s o i l i f e a s c h i l d h o o d , hot/wet ; y o u t h ,
hot/dry;
maturity, cold/dry; a n d old a g e ,
cold/wet.
Thus c h i l d h o o d , t h e most v i g o r o u s
time of l i f e , i s a s s o c i a t e d i n d i r e c t l y w i t h
blood, a n d , b y i m p l i c a t i o n , with hot s p r i n g s .
Symbolic a n a l y s i s h a s shown t h a t t h e
multi-faceted
m e a n i n g s of symbolic t h o u g h t
may
frequently
invoke
human
biological
37
process ( T u r n e r 1967: 2 8 ) .
For e x a m p l e , redn e s s symbolizing violence o r w a r i n c o r p o r a t e s
t h e metaphor of bloodshed.
In the case
of t h e r m a l m i n e r a l w a t e r , i t seems l i k e l y
t h a t a s t r o n g symbolic connection c a n b e
made between t h a t w a t e r a n d b o d i l y f l u i d s ,
e s p e c i a l l y blood.
These a r e w a r m , h a v e
similar s a l t y t a s t e s a n d opaque appearances
while p u r e w a t e r l a c k s t h e s e q u a l i t i e s .
Dundes a l s o a r g u e s t h a t e v i l eye b e l i e f s
i n c o r p o r a t e a n e q u i l i b r i u m model.
There
i s a limited amount of good i n t h e world
--health,
wealth, etc.
If one p e r s o n h a s
a n a b u n d a n c e , t h a t means a n o t h e r n e c e s s a r i l y
l a c k s a n d s e e k s t o g a i n a t t h e e x p e n s e of the
first,
therefore
p r o j e c t i n g t h e e v i l eye.
If Dundes i s c o r r e c t a b o u t t h i s p r i n c i p l e ,
i n t e r e s t i n g conclusions c a n be made a b o u t
hot s p r i n g s .
S p r i n g s with t h e i r mysterious
a n d never-ending flow would a p p e a r t o c o n t r a d i c t a n e q u i l i b r i u m model of t h e n a t u r a l
A r e s o l u t i o n of t h i s problem might
world.
be
to
impart
supernatural
characteristics
t o s p r i n g s ; o r p e r h a p s t h e y might b e viewed
as
originating
from
supernatural
agency,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e w a t e r h a d a n y o t h e r unu s u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ~ s u c h a s a s p e c i a l smell,
taste, or heat.
Historical a n d Mythological Accounts
Many
of
the
s w - i e s about
thermal
s p r i n g s t e l l of t h e i r m i r a c u l o u s o r i g i n v i a
superhuman
power
or
s u p e r n a t u r a l event.
The c l a s s i c examples of t h i s found i n I s r a e l
a r e Arab o r Bedouin l e g e n d s t h a t a t t r i b u t e
t h e h e a t of t h e r m a l s p r i n g s to King Solomon's
power o v e r j i n n , demons who a r e c r e a t e d
According to
of f i r e ( S h a l i n s k y 1980: 1 9 0 ) .
t h e j i n n performed
t h e Quran XXX1V:ll-13,
l a b o r for Solomon.
The l a r g e s t complex of
hot s p r i n g s i n I s r a e l , n e a r t h e c i t y of
T i b e r i a s , was o r i g i n a l l y a n o r d i n a r y cold
38
s p r i n g u n t i l Solomon o r d e r e d t h e j i n n
to
h e a t i t s u n d e r g r o u n d source ( V i l n a y 1978:1723).
Solomon performed t h i s benevolence when
people complained t h a t h i s wisdom h a d b r o u g h t
them no p r a c t i c a l b e n e f i t s .
In addition,
Solomon made t h e jinn deaf s o t h a t t h e y
would not h e a r of h i s d e a t h a n d c e a s e t o
perform t h e i r l a b o r .
Another hot s p r i n g i n n o r t h e r n I s r a e l ,
Hamat-Gader, w a s s a i d to be b u i l t b y Solomon.
An Arab g e o g r a p h e r of t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y
makes mention of Solomon's b a t h h o u s e t h e r e
.. i t i s l i k e a p a l a c e , a n d i n
a n d notes,
f r o n t of
i t t h e w a t e r s flow from twelve
s p r i n g s ; e a c h one for t h e c u r e of a p a r t i c u l a r
d i s e a s e . . " ( V i l n a y 1978:92 1 .
These
springs have
a p p a r e n t l y been
i n use for a t l e a s t t h r e e t h o u s a n d y e a r s .
Ancient J u d a i c s o u r c e s g i v e a v a r i e t y of
supernatural explanations for the springs'
e x i s t e n c e : the Apocryphal book Enoch a t t r i b u t e s t h e source t o t h e flames of h e l l ; a
rabbi,
Yohannan
ben
third
century A.D.
Nafcha, a t t r i b u t e s t h e s p r i n g s to t h e d a y s
of t h e g r e a t flood; o t h e r a u t h o r i t i e s b e l i e v e d
t h e h e a t t o be a consequence of t h e s i x d a y s
of c r e a t i o n .
The problem for e a c h of t h e s e s o u r c e s
is t h e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n between h e a t
o r f i r e , which i s a d r y i n g p r o c e s s , a n d
flowing w a t e r .
The r e s o l u t i o n of t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n , t h e combination of h e a t a n d w e t n e s s ,
r e s o r t s i n e a c h c a s e t o a s u p e r n a t u r a l exp l a n a t i o n , t h e flood, c r e a t i o n , s u p e r h u m a n
power,
o r Solomon's c o n t r o l of t h e j i n n .
S u p e r n a t u r a l a g e n c y i s working for t h e benefit
of m a n k i n d ; t h e hot s p r i n g s a r e t h e r e p r e c i s e l y s o t h a t t h e y may be u s e d b y people
for h e a l t h r e a s o n s .
Throughout t h e Middle Ages, t h e hot
b a t h s of T i b e r i a s were u s e d for c u r i n g b o i l s ,
".
.
39
l e p r o s y , a n d rheumatism ( V i l n a y 1978). ( 3 )
S c h o l a r s d e b a t e d whether
hot
baths
were
permitted
on t h e S a b b a t h , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
d a y of r e s t .
I t seems t h a t t h e y could not
p r e v e n t people from u t i l i z i n g t h e r e s o u r c e s
a n d were forced to permit t h e p r a c t i c e ( V i l n a y 1978: 170-1 1 .
Two new elements which
h a v e become i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e
twentieth century, scientific validation a n d
r e c r e a t i o n , were a l s o f i r s t d i s c u s s e d b y t h e s e
Jewish s c h o l a r s .
Rabbi Moses ben Maimon
(Maimonides) , a twelfth c e n t u r y p h y s i c i a n ,
offered
the
first
naturalistic
explanation
for t h e hot s p r i n g s ; t h e w a t e r s a r e h o t ,
he s a i d , b e c a u s e t h e y p a s s t h r o u g h l a y e r s
of s u l p h u r a n d s i m i l a r m a t t e r ( V i l n a y 1978:
169).
Maimonides a l s o commended t h e w a t e r s
for
their
purgative
qualities,
indicating
t h a t t h e w a t e r was i n g e s t e d a s well a s used
for b a t h i n g i n t h a t p e r i o d .
Scholars also
wondered why J e r u s a l e m d i d not h a v e hot
springs like Tiberias.
T h e i r a n s w e r was
t h a t p i l g r i m a g e to J e r u s a l e m , i f i t h a d hot
s p r i n g s , would not be merely a h o l y d u t y
b u t would be t a i n t e d with w o r l d l y p l e a s u r e .
The medieval s c h o l a r s t h e r e f o r e recognized
that bathing
in
t h e r m a l s p r i n g s w a s not
o n l y c u r a t i v e , but a l s o b r o u g h t b o d i l y p l e a sure.
I n t h e old b a t h h o u s e i n T i b e r i a s whose
c o n s t r u c t i o n was a p p a r e n t l y completed d u r i n g
T u r k i s h s o v e r e i g n t y over P a l e s t i n e , a c a r v e d
s t o n e lion r e s t s n e a r t h e pool.
Arab l e g e n d s
a t t r i b u t e t h e miracle of f e r t i l i t y t o t h e l i o n
for i f a b a r r e n woman v i s i t s t h e pool a n d
s i t s on t h e lion s h e will conceive ( F r o m m e r ' s
lsrael
1980-81).
Improved
fertility
then
i s a n o t h e r consequence of t a k i n g t h e w a t e r s ,
a p o s s i b l e confirmation of t h e symbolic connections s u g g e s t e d p r e v i o u s l y .
If b a r r e n n e s s
i s p e r c e i v e d a s a k i n d of d r y n e s s , t h e n
s a c r e d w a t e r s h o u l d improve f e r t i l i t y .
Steri l i t y could be c l a s s i f i e d a s a "cold" d i s e a s e
i n t h e Galenic s y s t e m , a n d hot w a t e r would
t h e n be a p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e t r e a t m e n t
Interestingly, in the
( P e n k a l a 1980:218).
modern f a c i l i t i e s
i n T i b e r i a s , s t e r i l i t y is
l i s t e d a s one of t h e c o n d i t i o n s which c a n
be h e l p e d b y t r e a t m e n t s u s i n g t h e w a t e r .
J o u r n e y s to s a c r e d s o u r c e s of h e a l i n g
a r e often p e r c e i v e d a s p i l g r i m a g e s ( T u r n e r
1974:203).
The s a c r e d w a t e r s o u r c e s of Mecca
a n d Lourdes a r e well known.
Tiberias i s
viewed a s a s a c r e d c i t y , a n d many famous
tombs of r a b b i s i n T i b e r i a s a t t r a c t t h e r e l i gious to p r a y a n d give c h a r i t y a t g r a v e s i t e .
At l e a s t one s u c h tomb i s w i t h i n w a l k i n g
d i s t a n c e of t h e hot s p r i n g s .
The r e p u t a t i o n t h a t Thermopolis, Wyoming, g a i n e d e a r l y i n i t s h i s t o r y , a s "the
Mecca for t h e Afflicted" ( P h i l l i p s 1 9 8 2 ) , a l s o
It
i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t is a p i l g r i m a g e s i t e .
may be s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t l o c a l s seldom use
the
various
hot
spring
facilities
there
(Brown 1977:94).
The s i t u a t i o n is c o m p a r a b l e
t o t h a t d e s c r i b e d for Mexico; " . . . w h e n e v e r
a municipal
c o n t a i n s o r is n e a r a major
pilgrimage
center,
its inhabitants,
though
t h e y may p a r t i c i p a t e i n f e s t i v e a n d m a r k e t i n g
a c t i v i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e s a i n t s ' f e a s t
d a y s , tend to go a s pilgrims to d i s t a n t
s h r i n e s r a t h e r t h a n to n e a r ones" ( T u r n e r
1974:191).
S a c r e d s i t e s must r e t a i n a s e n s e
of mystery r e s u l t i n g from a l a c k of f a m i l i a r ity.
There a r e 434 t h e r m a l s p r i n g s l i s t e d
f o r I d a h o , Montana, Wyoming, Colorado a n d
1977 :9 6 ) .
While some
New Mexico ( Brown
h a v e r e m a i n e d i n p r i v a t e h a n d s , many h a v e
been
incorporated into e a r l y townsites a s
t h e s e t t l e r s f e l t t h e y would p r o v i d e a t t r a c t i o n s
for potential visitors. In every case analyzed,
t h e s p r i n g s were s a i d t o h a v e been u s e d
by
Indians
who c o n s i d e r e d them
sacred.
The Cheyenne a n d t h e Dakota Sioux a r e s a i d
to h a v e fought for a hot s p r i n g on t h e t o p
of B a t t l e Mountain. now Hot S p r i n g s , South
Dakota ( B l a c k Hills T r a v e l l e r 1983: 3 0 ) .
After
many d e a t h s , both t r i b e s a g r e e d t h a t t h e
w a t e r s a n d s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a would b e n e u t r a l
g r o u n d a n d t h a t no harm would come t o those
A s a sacred
who were i n t h i s t e r r i t o r y .
no m a n ' s l a n d , t h e s p a c e s u r r o u n d i n g t h e
hot s p r i n g s w a s t h u s p e r c e i v e d a s non-ordinary,
not
amenable to t e r r i t o r i a l claims,
and characterized by
peace a n d harmony
A current travel guide
between peoples.
s a y s t h a t t h e Sioux b e l i e v e d a God dwelt
i n the water a n d drove awav t h e i r p a i n
a n d e v i l s p i r i t s ( Black Hills T r a v e l e r 1983:
37).
White e x p l a n a t i o n s of I n d i a n b e l i e f s
often note t h a t t h e Great S p i r i t i s c r e d i t e d
with g i v i n g t h e r m a l s p r i n g s t o h i s c h i l d r e n .
The Shoshoni t r i b e of t h e Wind River
Reservation i n Wyoming once owned t h e hot
s p r i n g s n e a r p r e s e n t d a y Thermopolis, Wyoming, by t r e a t y b u t ceded t h e s p r i n g s a n d
t h e l a n d s u r r o u n d i n g them i n 1896 (Agreement
1896).
'They r e t a i n e d a hot s p r i n g n e a r
their
tribal
headquarters,
Fort Washakie,
and by treaty retained usage rights in the
s p r i n g s t h e y h a d g i v e n u p (Milek 1975).
A
Wyoming
encyclopedia
writer
described
t h e Shoshoni b e l i e f s a s follows:
F o r many
hundreds o f
y e a r s t h e Shoshone n a t i o n
b r o u g h t t h e i r ill a n d a f f l i c t e d t o t h i s p r o d i g u o u s
( s i c ) spring,
dwelling place o f the mightiest o f
a l l s p i r i t s who i n h a b i t t h e e a r t h .
O l d and young
a l i k e were b a t h e d i n t h e c u r a t i v e w a t e r s o f t h i s
magic s p r i n g where d w e l l e d t h e g r e a t s p i r i t . Recovery
was i n many i n s t a n c e s a l m o s t m i r a c u l o u s a n d t h e
awed I n d i a n s h e l d t h e g r e a t s p r i n g i n d e e p r e v e r e n c e .
I t was t h e m o s t s a c r e d a n d c h e r i s h e d o f a l l t h e i r
possessions (Harris: 1954:78).
According to t h e Shoshoni e l d e r Herman
St. C l a i r , "the warmth of t h e w a t e r s i g n i f i e d
t h a t i t welled from t h e h e a r t of t h e world
(1964).
a s d i d t h e blood of a n a n i m a l "
St. C l a i r makes t h e same k i n d of metaphoric
symbol
discussed previously.
The blood
of a n a n i m a l i s i t s l i f e ; t h e warmth of t h e
s p r i n g w a t e r must a l s o t r a n s f e r a l i f e p r i n ciple.
T h a t t h e Shoshoni a n d t h e A r a p a h o ,
also resident
on t h e Wind River R e s e r v a t i o n
b e l i e v e i n t h e h e a l i n g e f f i c a c y of t h e r m a l
s p r i n g s i s c l e a r l y shown i n t h e i r development
of f a c i l i t i e s , p r i v a t e b a t h s a n d pool, u t i l i z i n g t h e hot s p r i n g t h e y r e t a i n e d .
Big S p r i n g , Thermopolis ' l a r g e s t t h e r m a l
s p r i n g , long c o n s i d e r e d a s o u r c e of h e a l i n g ,
h a s f u r n i s h e d w a t e r u s e d for b a t h i n g a n d
Pamphlets from t h e 1920s
taken internally.
a n d 30s tout t h e s p r i n g ' s c u r a t i v e powers
for:
D i s e a s e s due t o f a u l t y
metabolism--rheumatism
and
gout; diabetes m e l l i t u s ; o b e s i t y .
Diseases o f t h e H e a r t and B l o o d Vessels.
Diseases of t h e Nervous System--Neuritis,neurasthenia,
neuralgia,
locomotor
ataxia,
hysteria,
epilepsy,
c h o l e r a minor, p a r a l y s i s agitama, migraine, occupation
neuroses.
D i s e a s e s of t h e Stomach and I n t e s t i n e s .
Diseases
o f t h e Bladder, P r o s t a t e Gland, Epididynus, etc.,
Chronic P e l v i c I n f l a m m a t i o n s , Nasal and Pharyngeal
Catarrhs, Chronic Gonorrheal Inflammations.
Skin Afflictions--Eczema,
p s o r i a s i s , acne v u l g a r i s ,
furnunculosis,
pityriasis.
ecthyma,
sycosis,
seborrhea
and
Other p a m p h l e t s from t h e same p e r i o d
d i r e c t t h e r e a d e r to " v i s i t t h e w o r l d ' s b i g g e s t
mineral
hot
springs--Thermopolis,
Wyoming
where hope r e t u r n s a n d with i t h e a l t h a n d
happiness."
Another s a y s , " I n some c a s e s ,
t h e r e s u l t s of t h e b a t h s h a v e been s o pronounced a s to seem almost m i r a c u l o u s , b u t
43
i t i s impossible to g i v e a n a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e effects of t h e s e w a t e r s without
seeming
to
be g u i l t y of
over-statement."
Quite e a r l y i n i t s h i s t o r y , t h e town Thermopolis was g i v e n t h e nickname, t h e "Mecca
for t h e Afflicted."
This comparison with
t h e Muslim c e n t e r a n d i t s s a c r e d well reinforc e s t h e point t h a t s p r i n g w a t e r i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y viewed a s a m i r a c u l o u s g i f t of t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l for t h e benefit of m a n k i n d .
Most e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y r e s i d e n t
hotels i n Thermopolis h a d t h e i r own c h i r o p r a c t o r s o r o s t e o p a t h s who used t h e w a t e r s
in
their
treatments.
These p r a c t i t i o n e r s
used
health
conceptual
frameworks
which
were not b a s e d on microbiological views of
disease
but
i n c l u d e d m e c h a n i s t i c concepts
of p r o p e r whole body s t r u c t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n .
They
i n c o r p o r a t e d many folk c o n c e p t s i n
their curing strategies and prescribed the
w a t e r s for e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l b e n e f i t s .
Today many
individuals
likewise maintain
h e a l t h belief
systems which combine i d e a s
a b o u t g e r m s , n u t r i t i o n , body f u n c t i o n , a n d
h e a l t h : concepts which a r e d e r i v e d from diff e r e n t h e a l t h belief systems. Though i n d i v i d u a l s g e t l i t t l e s u p p o r t from medical p r a c t i t i o n e r s , some c o n t i n u e t o f i l l t h e i r j u g s a n d
use t h e w a t e r for d r i n k i n g .
Of those who do not f i n d t h e w a t e r
d i s t a s t e f u l , t h e most commonly r e p o r t e d reaction i s t h a t i t t a s t e s l i k e c h i c k e n soup.
At t h e s t a t e b a t h h o u s e d r i n k i n g f o u n t a i n ,
i n d i v i d u a l s were o b s e r v e d who b r o u g h t t h e i r
own condiments,
salt and pepper, to a d d
e v e n more t o t h i s t a s t e . McLaughlin, t h e
t r e a t y n e g o t i a t o r who o b t a i n e d t h e Thermopolis
s p r i n g s from t h e Shoshoni was t h e f i r s t t o
point out t h e resemblance t o c h i c k e n b r o t h
An i n f o r m a n t s t a t e d
(Agreement 1896:2).
t h a t t h e w a t e r will t a s t e l i k e s o u p o n l y when
s t i r r e d with a f e a t h e r a n d e a t e n with soda
c r a c k e r s . A newspaper column a b o u t old times
i n Thermopolis mentioned a n o l d man d r e s s e d
u p l i k e B i l l Cody (Buffalo B i l l ) who used
to p a s s a r o u n d s a l t a n d p e p p e r s h a k e r s t o
t h e t o u r i s t s who were d i p p i n g t h e i r t i n c u p s
i n t o t h e s p r i n g (Hunter 1982).
Though t h e chicken soup resemblance
i s not accepted by a l l , i t does i n d i c a t e t h a t
t h e w a t e r i s c l a s s i f i e d b y some a s a k i n d
of folk medicine, a homey c u r a t i v e
agent
known to g r a n d m o t h e r s a n d opposed to pres c r i p t i o n d r u g s a n d medical doctors.
In
f a c t , when a Kansas 14.D. was a d v i s e d t h a t
a l o n g - time p a t i e n t was going t o t h e f r e e
b a t h h o u s e a t Thermopolis, t h e doctor quoted
a n old s a y i n g t h a t a l l e g e d l y was coined
about
Hot S p r i n g s ,
Arkansas--"You
go i n
on c r u t c h e s a n d you come out on a s t r e t c h e r . "
T h u s , t h e h e a l t h a s p e c t of t h e s p r i n g s i s
perceived a s t r a d i t i o n a l a n d yet i s a n t i s c i e n t i f i c medicine.
Hot S p r i n g s , South Dakota h a s a s i m i l a r
h i s t o r y t o Thermopolis.
The s p r i n g s t h e r e
had
even g r e a t e r
development s i n c e t h a t
town d a t e s t o 1867 a n d was g i v e n a s o l d i e r s '
home b y t h e f e d e r a l government i n 1889.
The w a t e r s were to be used i n t h e t r e a t m e n t
of t h e s o l d i e r s , s a i l o r s , a n d m a r i n e s "who
h a v e s e r v e d a n d who a r e d i s a b l e d b y d i s e a s e ,
wounds,
old a g e , or otherwise."
Claims
for the w a t e r s t r e s s e d i t s c u r a t i v e powers
for c o n s t i p a t i o n ,
rheumatism, g o u t , k i d n e y
a n d liver conditions, anemia, skin disorders,
(Julin
impotence,
s y p h i l l i s a n d cold feet
1981).
S e v e r a l of these a f f l i c t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n s t i p a t i o n a n d impotence, would seem
to c o n t a i n a d r y e q u a l s d i s e a s e , a n d wet
( c r e a t i n g wetness, feces, semen) e q u a l s healthy
connection.
Note a l s o anemia ( l a c k of blood)
i s c u r e d by hot s p r i n g s .
Some y e a r s a f t e r t h e f o u n d i n g of t h e
s o l d i e r s ' home i n Hot S p r i n g s , medical doctors
began
w i t h d r a w i n g s u p p o r t for c l a i m s of
t h e m e d i c i n a l v a l u e of t h e w a t e r .
Thermopolis
a p p a r e n t l y d i d not enjoy a n i n i t i a l p e r i o d
when
medical
doctors
approved treatments
using waters.
However, t h e e a r l i e s t doctor
to see t h e s p r i n g s t h e r e , D r . Thomas Maghee,
Post Surgeon s t a t i o n e d with t h e Army a t Camp
Brown, Wyoming, who v i s i t e d i n 1876, d i d
(Crosson 1978:44).
u s e them
i n treatment
The s h i f t i n t h e a t t i t u d e s of medical doctors
t o w a r d s hot s p r i n g c u r i n g r o u g h l y c o i n c i d e s
with t h e i r i n c r e a s i n g l y microbiological diagnos i s a n d t r e a t m e n t of i l l n e s s following t h e
d i s c o v e r i e s of Koch a n d P a s t e u r i n t h e 1870s
a n d 80s.
Contemporary Use of Thermal Springs
C u r r e n t f a c i l i t i e s offered b y most t h e r m a l
spring
developments
in the
United
States
a n d I s r a e l usually include p r i v a t e b a t h s ,
soaking
or bathing
pools,
and
swimming
sools.
The l a t t e r is r e c r e a t i o n a l a n d t h e
t h e r m a l m i n e r a l w a t e r is f r e q u e n t l y mixed
with r e g u l a r w a t e r for t h i s p u r p o s e .
The
o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s emphasize t h e h e a l t h f u l a s p e c t s
a n d c u r i n g p o t e n t i a l of t h e w a t e r s . Wyoming
r u n s a f r e e b a t h h o u s e without swimming facil i t i e s , b u t with s o a k i n g pools a n d p r i v a t e
b a t h s v i s i t e d b y over 30,000 people a n n u a l l y .
Contemporary
"miraculous"
cures
are
s t i l l documented for t h e r m a l s p r i n g s i n t h e
United S t a t e s .
The owner of t h e Maytag
well n e a r Thermopolis s a y s t h e w a t e r h a s
produced new growth on h i s p r e v i o u s l y b a l d
h e a d , a c l a s s i c f o u n t a i n of youth example
( S t a t e Geologist 1978). More common a r e rep o r t s a b o u t relief of p a i n o r t r a u m a p a r t i c u l a r l y among t h e o l d .
An e x c e r p t from
a fieldwork i n t e r v i e w d e m o n s t r a t e s t h i s .
T w e l v e y e a r s ago, Mrs. X a n d h e r h u s b a n d w e r e i n
a serious automobile accident.
She was i n a h o s p i t a l
i n Billings,
Montana,
and t h e n i n T h e r m o p o l i s i n
traction.
F o r one y e a r , Mrs. X d i d e x e r c i s e s i n
t h e water i n t h e s t a t e bathhouse.
She d i d t h e m
two o r t h r e e t i m e s a day.
Mrs. X a t t r i b u t e s h e r
c u r r e n t s t a t e o f h e a l t h and freedom f r o m p a i n t o
Heat i s p a r t
t h e I f h e a l i n g power o f t h e water."
o f t h e h e a l i n g and t h e m i n e r a l s are absorbed t h r o u g h
t h e s k i n , she says.
Stories
are
occasionally
reported
in
t h e Wyoming p r e s s to a t t r a c t tourism to t h e
area.
According to one account, a 93 y e a r
old l a d y h a d been plagued by b a d h e a l t h .
Doctors i n her home town of Kearney, Nebrask a , h a d given her fewer t h a n s i x months
to live.
She was not a b l e to keep down
a n y solid food.
After a few months of d r i n k i n g the w a t e r s , she was a b l e to e a t a g a i n .
Her health returned completely a n d she a n d
h e r family moved to Therrnopolis (Maybee 1978:
15).
In the same a r t i c l e , another story
was told of a woman who h a d not been a b l e
to recover a f t e r the b i r t h of t r i p l e t s .
Her
family sent her to Thermopolis where her
h e a l t h was restored within a y e a r (Maybee
1978: 15).
Field interviews revealed some d i v e r s i t y
c u r r e n t beliefs about hot s p r i n g s c u r i n g
(4).
The strongest support came from a
woman who h a d been a n a t t e n d a n t i n the
s t a t e bathhouse for fifteen y e a r s .
In one
interview, with her h u s b a n d p r e s e n t ,
she
told the following s t o r y :
in
I
was l o o k i n g o u t t h e b a t h h o u s e w i n d o w t o w a r d
t e r r a c e s o f t h e s p r i n g o n e w i n t e r when I saw
A l o t o f p e o p l e j u s t abandon dogs i n
dog.
p a r k , b u t t h e r e was s o m e t h i n g s t r a n g e a b o u t
the
the
the
this
one.
I w e n t o u t s i d e t o s e e i f I c o u l d do
That dog
a n d I saw t h a t he was l i m p i n g .
s t o o d i n t h e h o t s p r i n g water by t h e
I saw h i m come b a c k a n d do t h a t d a y a f t e r
I saw t h a t h e w a s n ' t
months.
Finally,
a n y m o r e a n d he s t o p p e d c o m i n g b a c k .
anything
went and
terrace.
day f o r
limping
At t h i s p o i n t , h e r h u s b a n d a d d e d , "Dogs
a n d I n d i a n s know , " r e f e r r i n g t o Shoshoni
u s e of t h e s p r i n g s before t h e coming of t h e
white man.
This couple b e l i e v e s i n hot
s p r i n g c u r i n g b e c a u s e i t is n a t u r a l a n d
known
to " n a t u r e ' s c r e a t u r e s . "
Nature ' s
method
is good enough
for a n i m a l s a n d
I n d i a n s a n d i t s h o u l d be good enough for
N a t u r e , h e r e , is selfu s (Atkinson 1979).
e v i d e n t l y good.
A college s t u d e n t who p r e f e r r e d t o u s e
t h e commercial p l u n g e s where swimming was
allowed commented, "I know i t h e l p s my s k i n .
I guess the minerals a r e absorbed into the
I t h i n k i t may p u r i f y t h e blood."
skin.
T h i s s t u d e n t u s e d t h e pool a s a r e g u l a r
form of e x e r c i s e .
The statement d e m o n s t r a t e s
t h e common belief t h a t m i c r o p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r
within the water i s healthful r a t h e r t h a n
the water itself.
Use of t h e w a t e r a s a v i t a m i n a n d
m i n e r a l supplement was mentioned b y a woman
who o c c a s i o n a l l y collected t h e w a t e r for d r i n k ing.
She s a i d , "You just g e t t h e w a t e r i n
a jug a n d s e t i t i n t h e r e f r i g e r a t o r .
After
a b o u t a week, t h e s u l f u r i c fumes a r e gone.
Then t h a t w a t e r i s t h e b e s t , most h e a l t h f u l
i n t h e world."
Other v i s i t o r s t o Thermopolis
believe heat i s a beneficial a g e n t , another
intrinsic characteristic.
"I
a l w a y s stop
I'm
passing through.
in
'Thermop'
when
The h e a t is good for my b a d b a c k .
When
I'm sitting in the water, i t ' s g r e a t , but
it ' s just t e m p o r a r y r e l i e f . "
There were
also skeptics.
"Doctors
48
s a y i t ' s a l l i n t h e mind."
" I t h i n k i t may
"I w o u l d n ' t t h i n k of p u t t i n g
c a r r y diseases."
my s o r e leg i n t h a t w a t e r . "
Local r e s i d e n t s
a l s o d i s a g r e e a b o u t t h e econornic significance
of t h e s p r i n g s .
Since many of t h e 30,OCO
a n n u a l v i s i t o r s t o the s t a t e b a t h h o u s e a r e
i r o n o u t s i d e of 'Thermopolis, tourism p r o v i d e s
p a r t of t h e economic l i v e l i h o o d for t h e a r e a .
The s t a t e p a r k s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , a n opponent
of u s i n g t h e geothermal s o u r c e t o d e v e l o p
a c i t y heating system, called i n a water
s p e c i a l i s t when, t o h i s e y e , t h e w a t e r l e v e l
i n Big S p r i n g , t h e l a r g e s t i n t h e p a r k , dropp e d s u b s e q u e n t to g e o t h e r m a l t e s t i n g .
He
f e a r e d t h a t Thermopolis would become a "ghost
town" i f t h e r e s o u r c e c e a s e d t o e x i s t . (5)
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , a l e t t e r t o t h e n e w s p a p e r
c r i t i c i z e d t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t for d i s r e g a r d i n g
t h e c o u n t y ' s economic b a s e : r a n c h i n g , farming,
and
energy-related
concerns.
The
w r i t e r , himself i n a n o i l - r e l a t e d i n d u s t r y ,
conducted a n informal survey a n d discovered
t h a t 35 p e r c e n t of t h e community's p o p u l a t i o n
work i n o i l s e r v i c e s o r f o r o i l companies.
The w r i t e r concluded t h a t i t would be t r a g i c
i f Big S p r i n g were lost d u e t o its " a e s t h e t i c
v a l u e " b u t t h a t t h e town would s u r v i v e t h e
d e a t h of t h e s p r i n g s . ( 6 ) Here a c l e a r d i s tinction
i s made
between t h o s e
activities
which e n h a n c e t h e s u r v i v a b i l i t y of t h e town
a n d t h e s p r i n g s which p r o v i d e a e s t h e t i c v a l u e
a n d a r e thus less important.
Free u s e of t h e r e s o u r c e h a s a l w a y s
been controversial.
Some townspeople h a v e
pointed out in l e t t e r s t o the local newspaper
t h a t with f r e e c a m p i n g i n t h e S t a t e P a r k
a n d free b a t h i n g i n the State bathhouse,
some v i s i t o r s do not a c t u a l l y c o n t r i b u t e to
t h e l o c a l economy.
These people f a v o r t h e
a b o l i t i o n of f r e e c a m p i n g , j u s t i f y i n g t h e i r
view t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e was not s p e c i f i e d
49
i n t h e 1896 t r e a t y .
Similarly, there have
been r e c u r r e n t a t t e m p t s to c h a n g e t h e s t a t u s
of t h e b a t h h o u s e s o t h a t o n l y Wyoming r e s i d e n t s would be allowed t o use t h e f a c i l i t i e s
f r e e of c h a r g e .
T h u s , townspeople d i f f e r
on t h e f i n a n c i a l b e n e f i t s t h e hot s p r i n g s
b r i n g t o t h e town.
The s t a t e of Wyoming is s t r i c t i n regul a t i n g t h e u s e of i t s developed hot s p r i n g s .
Bathing s u i t s a r e required a n d a t t e n d a n t s
inform v i s i t o r s of r u l e s a n d s t r i c t l y monitor
p e r i o d s of immersion.
There is l i t t l e e v i d e n c e
of t h e n u d e b a t h i n g a n d t h e " b a c k t o n a t u r e "
a t t i t u d e promoted i n r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s on
hot s p r i n g s (Loam 1980).
There is a l s o l i t t l e
specifically
"curative"
regimen
associated
with
immersion
unless
special
discussion
i s h e l d with t h e a t t e n d a n t s a n d t h e v i s i t o r
h a s made r e p e a t e d v i s i t s for s p e c i f i c probI n t h e p a s t , t h e r e w a s much g r e a t e r
lems.
emphasis
on
particular
treatments.
For
example,
an
advertisement
in a v i s i t o r s '
p a m p h l e t of t h e 1930s s p e c i f i e s t h r e e weeks
with
d a i l y b a t h s a n d moderate q u a n t i t i e s
taken internally a s required to cure a n acute
f l a r e - u p of rheumatism a n d four t o s i x weeks
of b a t h i n g r e q u i r e d for c h r o n i c c o n d i t i o n s .
Visitors with s p e c i f i c problems a r e more l i k e l y
to use p r i v a t e b a t h s for t h e i r d a i l y c u r a t i v e
r e g i m e n s , l e a v i n g t h e b a t h i n g pools t o f i l l
a
relaxation
and
recreational
function.
Commercial swimming e s t a b l i s h m e n t s i n Thermopolis c a t e r e v e n more t o t h e s e l a t t e r funct i o n s a n d h a v e a d d e d modern f a c i l i t i e s l i k e
s a u n a s a n d hot t u b s to augment t h e t r a d i tional massages.
The Holiday I n n of t h e
Waters f e a t u r e s r a c q u e t b a l l c o u r t s , e x e r c i s e
rooms, s a u n a s a n d a n outdoor j a c u z z i m i n e r a l
pool.
Guests a r e i n v i t e d b y a s i g n a t
t h e f r o n t d e s k to i n q u i r e a b o u t "our u n i q u e
w a t e r b e d rooms" (Horizon Magazine 1982:36).
Facilities
such
a s these
s t i l l incorporate
a health component.
Stress management a n d
exercise a r e now viewed by many a s p a r t
of a r e g u l a r h e a l t h regimen.
The holistic
h e a l t h movement of the l a t e 1960s a n d e a r l y
1970s brought these i s s u e s to the fore (BerFacilities a t hot
l i n e r a n d Salmon 1980).
s p r i n g s t h u s combine these new a t t i t u d e s
with the older ideologies about h e a l t h a n d
t h e c u r a t i v e powers of hot mineral water.
In
Israel,
specific
curing
regimens
a r e more developed today t h a n i n t h e western
United States.
The Tiberias hot s p r i n g s
complex
contained
mineral
pools,
baths,
s a u n a s , physio- a n d h y d r o t h e r a p y , a n d mud
treatments.
They h a v e c a r e f u l l y documented
a n d posted improvement r a t e s .
The incorporation of scientific concepts t h u s a p p e a r s
more complete in t h i s c a s e .
Visitors to the T i b e r i a s f a c i l i t i e s experience r i t u a l i z e d a c t i v i t y , but t h e a c t i v i t y
i s highly regulated via clinical rules a n d
In a s t r i k i n g p a r a l l e l with
atmosphere.
t h e s t a t e bathhouse in Thermopolis, v i s i t o r s
to t h e b a t h s check i n with white clothed
a t t e n d a n t s who escort them to the c h a n g i n g
rooms.
P r i v a t e b a t h s a r e equipped with
whirlpools, a n d a t t e n d a n t s escort t h e
visitor
to t h e room, conduct him i n , a n d time the
bath.
An a t t e n d a n t a l s o b r i n g s t h e v i s i t o r
to a cool-down room, wraps him i n a white
sheet a n d times t h a t experience.
The effect
of t h i s regimentation i s to provide a scientific
medical c a s t to t h e experience.
In
Israel,
an
interesting
dichotomy
between v i s i t o r s to the r e c r e a t i o n a l thermal
pool a n d to the p r i v a t e whirlpools may e x i s t .
I n order t o p r e s e r v e modesty, religious Jews
including
Chassidim,
utilize
the
private
baths.
These i n d i v i d u a l s do not justify
t h e i r use of hot s p r i n g s in scientific terms.
As one s t a t e d , "These s p r i n g s a r e from God.
God i s t h e source of healing.
This i s a
g i f t from God."
There i s c u r r e n t l y a g r e a t emphasis
on development of the health resort i n d u s t r y
along the Dead Sea a s well a s T i b e r i a s .
Different resorts specialize i n t h e treatment
of different diseases.
The Zohar s p r i n g s
a r e a , n e a r the Dead Sea, specializes i n rheumatism, s k i n d i s e a s e s , a l l e r g i e s a n d b r o n c h i a l
asthma.
The Dead Sea i t s e l f , another k i n d
of s p e c i a l w a t e r , i s considered beneficial
for post-surgical
trauma,
neurological a n d
metabolic
disturbance,
and
its
medicinal
mud i s used for rheumatic i l l n e s s a n d to
a i d in recovery from p a r a l y t i c i l l n e s s (Cashman 1983).
Investigation i n I s r a e l did not i n d i c a t e
t h a t the water i s d r u n k a s well a s used
for b a t h i n g .
This p a r t of t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e
may have d i s a p p e a r e d .
In the United States,
t h i s aspect while r a r e h a s continued.
In
downtown Hot S p r i n g s , South Dakota, a gazebo
encloses Kidney Springs where locals occasionally take a drink.
There a r e s e v e r a l outdoor
d r i n k i n g fountains i n Thermopolis which have
piped hot mineral water.
I n the Thermopolis
town celebration, a n a n n u a l p a g e a n t r e e n a c t s
t h e "gift of the waters" from t h e Shoshoni
to t h e white man.
The major r i t u a l event
of the p a g e a n t involves one Shoshoni p l a y i n g
the role of "medicine man" receiving a bowl
of the water from the " I n d i a n p r i n c e s s , "
a Shoshoni g i r l .
He d r i n k s the w a t e r , a s
do a l l the Shoshoni p a r t i c i p a n t s subsequently.
However, there does a p p e a r to be a change
i n a t t i t u d e associated with t'he decline i n
ingesting the water.
When the water itself
was c l e a r l y viewed a s s a c r e d , d r i n k i n g a s
well a s b a t h i n g was common.
When t h e emp h a s i s switched to beliefs t h a t i t was t h e
minerals t h a t were h e a l t h f u l a n d t h a t the
water was a medium in which the minerals
were c a r r i e d , or t h a t heat itself was the
beneficial
agent,
external
administration
of the water increased a t the expense of
i n t e r n a l ingestion.
The switch may a t l e a s t
p a r t i a l l y be a t t r i b u t e d to t h e incorporation
i n folk h e a l t h belief systems of n u t r i t i o n a l
concepts about t h e role of vitamins a n d mine r a l s i n the body.
Folk v e r s u s Biomedical Curing
Scientific medicine h a s assumed a domin a n t position i n the diagnosis a n d treatment
of i l l n e s s .
The success of scientific medicine
was due i n some p a r t to microbiological discoveries a n d the improved treatment of infectious d i s e a s e s t h a t resulted from the dis(Gebhard 1976:93).
Furthermore,
coveries
as
scientific medicine
developed,
it
took
on c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a n ideological s y s t e m ,
t h a t i s , i t offered a way for people to view
t h e world a n d to u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
of i l l n e s s , h e a l t h , a n d i t s root, life itself
( Morle y 1980 :5-6
Other ideological systems a l r e a d y existed
which postulated r e l a t i o n s h i p s between these
components.
An ancient folk belief system
involved
connections
between
health
and
water.
The life process was perceived a s
l i q u i d , a n d i t was observed t h a t the human
body teems with liquids--blood,
semen, milk,
b i l e , s a l i v a , tears--and
t h a t the a g i n g process a p p e a r e d to involve the d r y i n g up of
framethese v i t a l heated l i q u i d s .
This
work was a l s o tied into a s u p e r n a t u r a l i s t i c
view of t h e universe: t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l could
d i r e c t l y impinge on the a f f a i r s of mankind
a n d provide t h e good l i f e which might otherwise be unobtainable.
Similarly, hot s p r i n g s
have a l w a y s been used a s c u r a t i v e mechanisms.
I t i s l i k e l y t h a t there was a n empiri-
.
c a l component i n t h l s u s a g e , b u t hot s p r i n g s
also fit
into the
supernatural conceptual
framework.
They p r o v i d e d v e r i f i c a t i o n t h a t
heated l i q u i d i s life.
Scientific
concepts
and
naturalistic
e x p l a n a t i o n s d i d not simply a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y
replace the older conceptualizations i n the
n i n e t e e n t h a n d twentieth c e n t u r i e s .
Instead,
some s c i e n t i f i c i d e a s which most c l o s e l y f i t
with t h e folk belief system were i n c o r p o r a t e d
into it.
T h e n , a s s c i e n t i f i c medicine g a i n e d
i n e x p l a n a t o r y a n d s o c i a l power,
i t was
a d d e d on a s a k i n d of s u r f a c e l a y e r o v e r
t h e o l d e r system s o t h a t a d h e r e n t s of t h e r m a l
s p r i n g s a s c u r a t i v e mechanisms c o u l d j u s t i f y
t h e i r b e l i e f s i n a s c i e n t i f i c idiom.
The c u r a t i v e a s p e c t of t h e w a t e r s w a s now viewed
l e s s a s e m a n a t i n g from s u p e r n a t u r a l s o u r c e s
a n d more a s i n g r e d i e n t s i n t h e w a t e r i t s e l f
i n t h e form of n a t u r a l m i c r o p a r t i c u l a t e m i n e r a l
elements.
T h i s t r a n s i t i o n from one s e t of
justifications
(supernatural)
to
another
( n a t u r a l ) p a r a l l e l s t h e t r a n s i t i o n from pres c i e n t i f i c t o s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n s of h e a l t h ,
body, and illness.
However, i n some c a s e s ,
t h e s u p p o r t e r s of hot s p r i n g s c u r e s were
c h i r o p r a c t o r s a n d o t h e r s p e c i a l i s t s who cons c i o u s l y h e l d h e a l t h c o n c e p t u a l frameworks
which were opposed t o t h e s c i e n t i f i c medical
establishment.
I n t h e l a t e 1960s a n d e a r l y 70s, a n o t h e r
h e a l t h i d e o l o g i c a l system, g e n e r a l l y known
a s t h e "holistic" movement g a i n e d prominence
1978:168-9).
Holistic ideologies
(Atkinson
interpret health a s a positive physical a n d
mental s t a t e , a s a function of l i f e s t y l e ( d i e t ,
e x e r c i s e , s t r e s s management) a n d a s u n d e r
t h e c o n t r o l of l a y i n d i v i d u a l s .
They emphas i z e s e l f c a r e a n d t h e s p i r i t u a l o r mental
s i d e of h e a l t h .
I n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s t h e hol i s t i c movement opposes s c i e n t i f i c m e d i c i n e ' s
promotion of professionalized c a r e , post-hoc
d i s e a s e intervention r a t h e r t h a n prevention,
a n d n a t u r a l i s t i c or m a t e r i a l i s t i c r a t h e r t h a n
mental or s p r i t u a l e x p l a n a t i o n s of h e a l t h
1980).
and
disease
( B e r l i n e r a n d Salmon
The holistic movement t h u s h e a r k e n s back
to the e a r l i e r conceptual framework.
The
a d d i t i o n of s a u n a s , whirlpools, a n d hot t u b s ,
technology from the holistic h e a l t h movement
to thermal s p r i n g s f a c i l i t i e s marks a r e n a i s s a n c e which reinforces these a l t e r n a t i v e conceptualizations of h e a l t h a n d l i f e .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h i s r e s e a r c h was p a r t i a l l y f u n d e d t h r o u g h a U n i v e r s i t y o f Wyoming B a s i c R e s e a r c h G r a n t a n d a Wyoming C o u n c i l
o f the Humanities Fellowship.
In
the
United
States,
t h e i n v e s t i g a t i v e t?am v i s i t e d T h e r m o p o l i s , F o r t W a s h a k i ,
kyoming;
and Hot S p r i n g s ,
South Dakota.
and Saratoga,
I n I s r a e l , t h e m a j o r r e s e a r c h f o c u s was o n T i b e r i a s , t h o u g h
information
on o t h e r
h e a l t h s p a s was a l s o c o l l e c t e d .
D o r i Penny a n d J o s e p h B u n d y c o n d u c t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e
American research,
and t h e a u t h o r would l i k e t o t h a n k
t h e p e r s o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s who a s s i s t e d i n t h e r e s e a r c h .
NOTES
(1)
in
and
i s
the
Yoder
(1972)
c o n t r a s t s l1naturall1 f o l k medicine
which p e o p l e seek c u r e s f o r i l l n e s s i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t
llmagico-religious~~f o l k medicine i n which the recourse
t o t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l . The a n a l y s i s h e r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t
two t y p e s a r e combined i n h o t s p r i n g c u r i n g .
(2)
Gebhard (1976:96) n o t e s t h a t one o f t h e i m p o r t a n t
f o l k b e l i e f s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s llblood i s a v e r y
s p e c i a l k i n d o f sap.It
(3)
I n A f g h a n i s t a n , r h e u m a t i s m i s c l a s s i f i e d as a llcoldll
disease w i t h a p r e s c r i b e d t r e a t m e n t of h o t s p r i n g s b a t h i n g
( P e n k a l a 1980:217).
(4)
Of t h e f i f t e e n i n t e r v i e w s c o l l e c t e d i n T h e r m o p o l i s ,
r e s p o n d e n t s were e q u a l l y d i v i d e d a b o u t t h e h e a l i n g e f f i c a c y
of t h e water.
Of t h e t h i r t y i n t e r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d a t t h e
state
bathhouse
and t h e
commercial pools,
respondents
were more i n c l i n e d t o e i t h e r promote t h e h e a l i n g e f f i c a c y ,
speak o f temporary
relief,
or describe t h e i r a c t i v i t y
a s r e l a x a t i o n . No a t t e m p t was made t o r a n d o m i z e an i n t e r v i e w
s a m p l e , b e c a u s e a l l i n f o r m a n t s i n t h e l o c a l a r e a may a t
l e a s t d e r i v e i n d i r e c t economic b e n e f i t f r o m t h e s p r i n g s '
development.
(5)
Loam ( 1 9 8 0 ) d e p r e c i a t e s t h e l a c k o f t h e u s e o f
g e o t h e r m a l r e s o u r c e s i n Wyoming.
The
Office
of
the
Wyoming S t a t e G e o l o g i s t h a s a r e p o r t o n t h e g e o t h e r m a l
t e s t i n g i n Thermopolis.
(6)
T h i s c o n t r o v e r s y was r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d i n t h e l o c a l
newspaper, t h e I n d e p e n d e n t Record, i n J u l y of 1982.
REFERENCES
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