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Russian Geology and Geophysics 48 (2007) 305–311
www.els\e\vier.com/locate/rgg\
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Late Quaternary and current deformation in the western Tunka system
of basins: evidence from structural geomorphology and seismology
A.V. Arzhannikova *, V.I. Melnikova, N.A. Radziminovich
Received 20 December 2005
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Institute of the Earth’s Crust, Siberian Branch of the RAS, 128 ul. Lermontova, Irkutsk, 664033, Russia
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Abstract
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Integrated seismological and structural geomorphological studies of the western Tunka system of basins in the southwestern Baikal rift
show that the historic seismicity reflects the general Late Quaternary evolution trend of structures. Crustal deformation occurs mainly as
transpression. Compression follows block boundaries and the northern mountainous borders of basins, whereas extension acts upon basin inner
parts which remain in “tectonic shadow” during left-lateral strike-slip motions on W-E faults. Principal stresses inferred from earthquake
mechanisms are most often a combination of horizontal NW extension and oblique or vertical compression in the basins and vertical extension
with horizontal NE compression in the bordering ridges and along block boundaries. The general deformation style in the region is dominated
by strike-slip faulting, and compression (shortening) dominates over extension.
© 2007, IGM, Siberian Branch of the RAS. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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Keywords: Structural geomorphology; earthquake mechanisms; deformation style; southwestern flank of Baikal rift system
Introduction
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Late Quaternary (up to present) geodynamics of the Baikal
rift, including its strain regime, has received much recent
attention. The central rift part is known to experience nearly
horizontal rift-orthogonal extension (Solonenko et al., 1993;
Levi et al. 1996) reliably indicated by seismological and
structural data, whereas strain in the southwestern flank of the
rift system (Tunka system of rift basins) remains open to
discussion. Two main alternatives are transpression (Parfeevets and San’kov, 2004) and transtension (Lunina and
Gladkov, 2004a). To solve the problem, we correlated the
available local data on earthquake mechanisms for events of
different magnitudes to structural geomorphology evidence,
with a special focus on the western part of the Tunka system
which has undergone the most active historic seismicity.
Evolution of the Tunka system of basins: an outline
The Tunka system (Fig. 1, A) consists of several en-echelon
basins connected by topographic highs or basin links (listed
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.V. Arzhannikova)
from west to east): Mondy basin, Khara-Daban link, Hoytgol
and Turan basins, Nilov spur, Tunka basin, Elovka spur, Tory
basin, Bystraya link, and Bystraya basin. It borders the Tunka
Bald Mountains in the north and the Khamar-Daban Ridge in
the south, along the Tunka and Baikal-Mondy large faults,
respectively.
The history of the system began in the Oligocene-Miocene
(Logachev, 2003; Mazilov et al. 1993) with westward propagation of the Tunka rift. Basin subsidence in the western flank
began in the Middle Miocene and accelerated in the Middle
Pliocene, which is recorded in the change from fine Miocene
deposits to coarse sediments since the Middle Pliocene evident
in drill sections (Mazilov et al. 1993). The Late Pliocene-Early
Pleistocene stage was associated with continued subsidence
and deposition of channel facies upon Pliocene coarse sediments, mainly under transtension (Lunina and Gladkov, 2004a,
b; Sherman and Dneprovsky, 1989). The Late Pliocene-Early
Pleistocene transtension regime was punctuated by a brief
compression episode at the Miocene-Pliocene boundary
(Logachev, 2003; Parfeevets and San’kov, 2004) when the
flanking faults acted as oblique slip.
The Late Quaternary strain history of the Tunka basins is
ambiguous. Stress patterns inferred from measured orientations of joints (Lunina and Gladkov, 2004b; Parfeevets and
San’kov, 2004) received different interpretations. Parfeevets
and San’kov (2004) suggested dominant NEN transpression
1068-7971/$ - see front matter D 2007, IGM, Siberian Branch of the RAS. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.rgg.2007.03.001
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A.V. Arzhannikova et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 48 (2007) 305–311
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Seismicity and crustal stress-strain fields
The territory of the Tunka basins was shocked by several
large (M > 5) earthquakes in the 19th and 20th centuries
(Golenetsky, 1998; Solonenko, 1977), which most often
originated in the same areas as the greatest part of small
events. Permanent and campaign seismological networks of
Russia and Mongolia in the southwestern flank of the Baikal
rift recorded high seismic activity in the Tunka rift segment
through 1958–1976 (Fig. 1, B), with epicentral error (ERH)
no greater than 5–10 km (Solonenko, 1975). Earthquakes
generally cluster along W-E or NW directions (Fig. 1, B),
which was confirmed by more precise locations of recentmost
events (δ = ±2−5 km) recorded by digital stations (1999–2003
catalogs of the Baikal Affiliate of the RAS Geological
Survey).
The ML = 7.0, K = 16 Mondy earthquake of 4 April 1950
in the westernmost Baikal rift was among largest historic
events in East Siberia (Kondorskaya and Shebalin, 1977;
Solonenko, 1977). It originated in the W-E segment of the
Baikal-Mondy fault that delineates the Mondy basin in the
north. The fault plane solution from first arrivals of P waves
recorded by teleseismic stations of the world seismological
network and reported by Vvedenskaya and Balakina (1960)
in their pioneering study indicated a W-E strike of both
possible horizontal and vertical fault planes. The causative
fault behaved as a reverse slip (upthrown hanging wall and
downthrown footwall) under vertical extension and horizontal
NE compression. Misharina (pers. commun.) suggested a
different solution, with left- and right-lateral strike slip on W-E
and N-S planes under nearly horizontal principal NE compression and NW extension. Unfortunately, both solutions are
approximate because of data shortage. Doser (1991) tried to
update the earthquake mechanism using waveform modeling
of teleseismic waves and suggested a right-lateral strike slip
along a W-E vertical nodal plane, with a small normal
component. Modeling by Delouis et al. (2002) likewise
indicated horizontal motions but with a left-lateral strike slip
direction along the W-E plane.
Focal mechanisms of two relatively large (M = 4.4, K =
12 and M = 5.5, K = 14) events in the Baikal-Mondy fault of
13.01.1993 and 29.06.1995 (Melnikova and Radziminovich,
1998) show a left-lateral strike-slip component along W-E
planes (Fig. 1, B). W-E planes were inferred, from approximate estimates, also for the M = 4.4, K = 12 and M = 5,
K = 13 Kyren earthquakes of 10.08.1958 and 22.10.1958,
respectively (Khovanova, 1960). Thus, the seismic constituent
of tectonic movements in the earthquakes associated with the
Baikal-Mondy fault shows mostly left-lateral strike slip on a
nearly vertical or oblique active W-E plane. Quite different
are the individual mechanisms of the earthquakes in the
southern Hoytgol basin of 02.09.1997, M = 3.8, K = 11
(Melnikova and Radziminovich, 2003) and in the northern
boundary of the basin with the Tunka Bald Mountains of
17.09.2003, M = 5.3, K = 13.6 (Melnikova et al., 2004b),
where normal and reverse slip occurred on NE and NW fault
planes (Fig. 1, B).
Small earthquakes (M < 4.4) for which fault plane solutions
were obtained by group data processing, with ±10° error in
stress azimuth and dip in 72% cases and ±15−25° in the other
cases (Misharina and Solonenko, 1981; Solonenko, 1975),
show a variety of fault plane orientations and slip geometries
(Fig. 2). Of 190 analyzed events, there were 63% strike-slip,
34% reverse-slip, and only 3% normal-slip mechanisms. The
space-time analysis of source parameters obtained for small
earthquakes revealed transient strain change (Dyad’kov et al.
1999). At the same time, the average seismic moment tensor
estimated from integrated data on earthquake mechanisms and
seismic moments of the Tunka earthquakes indicated predominant shear strain in the region, with a greater contribution of
compression relative to extension (Melnikova et al. 2004a).
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and Lunina and Gladkov (2004b) hypothesized transtension at
all evolution stages of the Tunka flank of the Baikal rift,
including the current deformation. Transtension was assumed
to result from major NW extension and complementary NE
compression where compression records only local transient
stress change (Lunina and Gladkov, 2004b). The modern stress
field in both models (Lunina and Gladkov, 2004b; Parfeevets
and San’kov, 2004) was reconstructed from earthquake
mechanism data.
Data from structural geomorphology and seismology
The available seismological evidence was correlated to data
of structural geomorphology in order to see whether the
modern strain regime is transient or inherited from earlier
evolution stages of the Tunka systems of basins. Structural
geomorphological data were obtained by deciphering aerial
and high-resolution satellite images in which we detected
active fault segments from offset elements of surface topography, by examination of river terraces, and field check of the
detected features. We investigated the area within the box in
Fig. 1, A which has experienced the highest historic seismicity.
The Hoytgol basin is bordered by the Tunka Bald Mountains in the north and the Nilov spur in the east and south
(Fig. 1, A). The Nilov spur separates the Hoytgol basin from
the Tura basin in the south and from the Tunka basin in the
east. Its steeper northeastern slope is delineated by an NW
reverse fault (Lunina and Gladkov, 2004b). Generally, the
Nilov spur is a tilted block with its uplifted eastern and
subsided western flanks. The Hoytgol basin is likewise
asymmetric with the deepest subsided basement in its northwestern part (Arsentiev, 1968).
The evolution of the Hoytgol basin has been mainly
controlled by oblique slip on the Tunka fault responsible for
subsidence of the northwestern basin side. The geomorphological map of the Hoytgol basin–Tunka Bald Mountains
junction (Fig. 3) images the Tunka fault as consisting of a
W-E and an NE segments well traceable in aerial photographs.
According to geomorphic data, its central segment is the most
active (see box in Fig. 3). It shows up in the surface
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A.V. Arzhannikova et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 48 (2007) 305–311
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Fig. 1. A. Main structures in Tunka system of basins. Abbreviations stand for names of structures, keyed as: MN — Mondy basin, HT — Hoytgol basin, TUR — Turan
basin, TN — Tunka basin, TOR — Tory basin, BS — Bystraya basin; NIL — Nilov spur, EL — Elovka spur; KDL — Khamar-Daban link, BSL — Bystraya link;
TF — Tunka fault, BMF — Baikal-Mondy fault, MSF — Main Sayan fault. Box frames study area. B. Earthquakes within study area from 1950 to 2003 and individual
mechanisms in lower hemisphere projection. Black quadrants in stereoplots correspond to compression; principal extension and compression stress axes are marked
by white and black circles, respectively. Triangles mark permanent (a) and campaign (b) seismic stations.
topography as clearly cut facets with a rocky landslide and
abundant colluvium at the foot over an area of 10 km2,
possibly, produced by past large earthquakes. The fault plane
turns from the W-E to ENE direction, though the segment has
a general NE strike. This fault part is undergoing current
seismic activity and appears in some small local earthquakes
as an NE normal fault plane dipping to the southeast
(Misharina and Solonenko, 1981). A group of events with
similar mechanisms occurred in the mountains that border the
Hoytgol basin in the west but their causative faults are small
and poorly traceable in the surface topography.
The Tunka Bald Mountains bear signature of numerous
earthquakes with slip on NW reverse fault planes. The related
stresses have a nonrift orientation with vertical extension and
nearly horizontal compression. Events of this kind are the most
representative in the region (Solonenko, 1975). Some earth-
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changes. First-generation Middle and Late Pleistocene large
alluvial fans (Arsentiev, 1968; Ufimtsev et al. 2002) and a
broad swampy valley of the Ikhe-Ukhgun valley within the
Hoytgol basin indicate predominant subsidence in the Middle
and Late Pleistocene. A later incision stage since the middle
Late Pleistocene produced the second terraces (Ufimtsev et al.
2002) of the Ikhe-Ukhgun River and the second-generation
alluvial fans of its left tributaries; the latter became, in turn,
superposed with Early Holocene first terraces (Ufimtsev et al.
2002). New terraces form also in the eastern part of the basin
and in the western slope of the Nilov spur, in the Khongoldoi
and Ikhe-Ger valleys, the tributaries of the Ikhe-Ukhgun. Note
that the Ikhe-Ukhgun tributaries in the west have no terraces.
The new generation of terraces in the southern and eastern
basin parts is evidence of Holocene uplift. Uplift in southern
and eastern Hoytgol basin, together with the Nilov spur, is
confirmed by geomorphic data, namely, a young V-shaped
incision of the Ikhe-Ukhgun valley at its intersection with the
Nilov spur (Shchetnikov and Ufimtsev, 2004). The uplift is
accompanied by ongoing subsidence of the northwestern basin
side. This dynamics is recorded in mechanisms of local small
earthquakes which show normal and oblique slip on NE and
W-E planes, respectively (Fig. 2). Some earthquakes in the
area of the Hoytgol basin and the Nilov spur show different
patterns of principal extension and compression stresses which
cause reverse slip on NW planes or right-lateral strike slip on
N-S planes.
Earthquake mechanisms from the Baikal-Mondy fault zone
and the neighbor area of the Khamar-Daban Ridge show leftand right-lateral oblique slip on NE and NW fault planes,
respectively, under N-S oblique compression and W-E horizontal extension. This deformation is at odds with the
mechanism of the large Mondy earthquake in the BaikalMondy fault (left-lateral strike slip on W-E plane, at NE
compression and NW extension). Perhaps, the large shock
caused redistribution of stresses and their later release in small
events along NE and NW planes.
Thus, the integrated analysis of structural geomorphology
and seismology in the western Tunka rift indicates that historic
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quakes with reverse mechanisms occurred within the Hoytgol
basin, especially the Hoytgol earthquake of 17 September
2003 in its northern part near the bordering Tunka Bald
Mountains, with origin time at 02:59 GMT, MPSP = 4.8,
ϕ = 51.75° N, λ = 101.46° E (Fig. 3) (Melnikova et al. 2004b).
Its focal mechanism showed a nonrift orientation of principal
stresses (nearly vertical extension and nearly horizontal compression), NW striking nodal planes, and reverse slip
(Fig. 1, B). Few earthquakes with similar mechanisms occurred within the Nilov spur, in the zone of an NW reverse
fault. Note that NW faults are abundant in the region. They
show clear geomorphic expression and are predominant in the
block structure of the western Tunka rift (Lunina and Gladkov,
2004b), which indicates their Late Cenozoic activity.
According to geomorphic evidence (Fig. 3), the Late
Cenozoic evolution of the Hoytgol basin was subject to some
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Fig. 2. Fault plane solutions for small (M < 4.5) earthquakes in western Tunka
system of basins from 1962 to 1974 (lower hemisphere projection) obtained by
group method (Misharina and Solonenko, 1981; Solonenko, 1975). Stereoplots
are explained in Fig. 1, B. Abbreviations stand for names of faults: TF — Tunka
fault, BMF — Baikal-Mondy fault, IUF — Ikhe-Ukhgun fault. 1 — normal slip;
2 — reverse slip; 3 — strike slip.
Fig. 3. Generalized geomorphology of junction between Hoytgol basin and Tunka Bald Mountains. 1 — terraces; 2 — V-shaped valleys; 3 — alluvial fans; 4 —
moraines; 5 — landslides; 6 — active segments of normal (a), reverse (b), and uncertain (c) faults; 7 — epicenter of Hoytgol earthquake of 17 September 2003,
MPSP = 4.8. Abbreviations stand for names of faults: TF — Tunka fault, IUF — Ikhe-Ukhgun fault. Box frames central segment of Tunka fault.
A.V. Arzhannikova et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 48 (2007) 305–311
earthquakes mainly follow the general Late Quaternary evolution trend. Mechanisms of small earthquakes provide a
general image of the current stress. Slip in the greatest number
of earthquakes fits the geometry of geomorphically expressed
faults, i.e., the faults have been active through Late Quaternary
time, including the current stage.
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The region of the Tunka basins and their mountainous
borders plays a special part in the stress-strain framework of
the southwestern Baikal rift. Earthquake mechanisms in this
rift flank show an interfingering distribution, with Baikal-type
mechanisms found in the west and Mongolian-type ones in
the east, and thus record transition from rift-related extension
to regional compression typical of Northern Mongolia.
The territory is generally subject to a large-scale compression stress indicated by slip in the great Mondy earthquake of
4 April 1950 (Fig. 1, B). A prominent imprint of stable
horizontal NE compression is also found in mechanisms of
background local earthquakes (Melnikova et al., 2004a).
The Late Quaternary evolution of the Tunka system of
basins has been controlled by transpression. Earlier we
revealed Late Pleistocene-Holocene reverse-oblique slip in the
Ikhe-Ukhgun and Mondy fault zones (Mondy basin) in the
western end of the system (Arzhannikova et al., 2003, 2004).
The activity of the Mondy fault, the western segment of the
Baikal-Mondy fault, is worthy of special attention as it has
been a key agent in the regional geodynamic history, together
with the Tunka fault.
Left-lateral strike slip on the Mondy fault has been
universally accepted (Lukina, 1989; Lunina and Gladkov,
2004b; Sherman et al. 1973; etc.), but there is controversy
about the vertical slip component. Lukina (1989) and Lunina
and Gladkov (2004b) interpret the Mondy fault as a southdipping left-lateral oblique slip. However, the reverse scarp
that marks the fault on the day surface indicates a reverse
rather than a normal slip. Furthermore, reverse slip is consistent with Holocene motions on an NW cross fault subsidiary
to the Mondy fault (Arzhannikova et al. 2005). Arzhannikov,
Chipizubov, and Semenov found signature of a past earthquake on the right side of the Gorhon valley which produced
ductile deformation and reverse-slip dislocation of loam and
pebbly sand and a fossil soil. The age of the deformed soil
(sample GIN 11321, 530±30 yr BP) indicates that the event
occurred 500–560 years ago (Arzhannikova et al., 2005).
Uplift of the Mondy fault southern wall caused active river
incision. Dating buried paleosol from the top of the Irkut River
terrace upthrown for 13 m in the western part of the Mondy
basin suggests that the terrace is 8105–8026 years old and the
Holocene motion on the Mondy fault has been at a rate of
∼1.5 mm/yr (Arjannikova et al., 2004). The geometry of the
motion appears in the mechanisms of the ML = 7.0 Mondy
earthquake of 1950, one of the Kyren earthquakes of 1958
(M = 5) and the M = 4.4 earthquake of 13 January 1993 (all
events originated within the fault axis) as left-lateral strike slip
on steep W-E planes, with a reverse slip component in two
latter cases.
According to our data, the Baikal-Mondy fault (at least its
Mondy segment) behaved as a left-lateral reverse-oblique fault
in Late Quaternary time. Oblique slip inferred from structural
analysis in bedrock exposures (Lunina and Gladkov, 2004a)
most likely acted at an earlier stage of the fault evolution.
Reverse-oblique slip was also found in the Tunka fault zone
within the Tunka and Tory basins (Chipizubov et al., 2003).
Chipizubov et al. (2003) discovered and dated multiple-event
reverse-oblique displacement in the Arshan (northern side of
the Tunka basin) and Tory (northern side of the Tory basin)
seismic fault scarps. Fault scarps of this kind produced by
Holocene earthquakes likewise evidence of transpression
under regional NEN compression stress.
The uplifts in the Tunka system of basins described in
(Shchetnikov and Ufimtsev, 2004) can be likewise attributed
to transpression. According to geomorphological data (Shchetnikov and Ufimtsev, 2004), uplift involves almost entire
Mondy and Bystraya basins, the southern Tory basin (40%),
and partly the Hoytgol and Tunka basins (at their boundaries
with the Nilov and Elovka spurs and the Khamar-Daban
Ridge).
Thus, the Late Cenozoic evolution of the Tunka system of
basins changed its trend in the Late Quaternary: Transtension,
which had been dominant since the Miocene and caused
normal and oblique slip on major faults, basin opening, and
accumulation of thick unconsolidated deposits, gave way to
transpression. This inference agrees with structural evidence
(Parfeevets and San’kov, 2004) of Late Quaternary strain
change.
The Late Quaternary deformation style has been largely
controlled by the position of structures within the Tunka shear
zone. Compression in the west of the system acts mostly along
block boundaries (where the Nilov spur borders the neighbor
basins) and in the northern mountainous borders of the basins
where it reactivates NW faults (Fig. 4). The Hoytgol basin
experiences extension in its inner part which remains in
“tectonic shadow” during strike-slip motions along the Baikal-Mondy fault. Earthquake mechanisms inside the basin
most often show nearly horizontal NW extension combined
with oblique or nearly vertical compression, whereas those on
block boundaries and in ridges are dominated by nearly
vertical extension and nearly horizontal NE compression.
This deformation style can be explained in the context of
the regional geodynamic framework. Northward transfer of
far-field stress associated with the India-Eurasia collision
presses blocks in western Mongolia to the north and causes
their clockwise rotation (San’kov et al., 2002). The Tunka
system of basins makes the northern boundary of one such
block and is subject to left-lateral strike-slip faulting. Redistribution of stress on the boundaries of smaller blocks within
the system produces transient compression and extension
structures.
The paper profited much from constructive criticism by
A.V. Prokopiev and an anonymous reviewer. Seismological
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Discussion and conclusions
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A.V. Arzhannikova et al. / Russian Geology and Geophysics 48 (2007) 305–311
Fig. 4. Block model of surface topography in Hoytgol basin (HT). 1 — compression, 2 — extension; 3 — major active faults; 4— relative motion of blocks.
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data were offered by the Baikal Affiliate of the RAS
Geological Survey.
The study was carried out as part of Program 13 of the
RAS Presidium and was supported by grants 04-05-64460,
03-05-65418, and 05-05-66812-NCNIL from the Russian
Foundation for Basic Research and by the Russian Foundation
for National Science.
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