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Physiological monitoring of the Olympic athlete
a
b
R. C. Richard Davison , Ken A. Van Someren & Andrew M. Jones
c
a
School of Life Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh
b
English Institute of Sport, St. Mary's High Performance Centre, Twickenham
c
School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
Available online: 07 Oct 2009
To cite this article: R. C. Richard Davison, Ken A. Van Someren & Andrew M. Jones (2009): Physiological monitoring of the
Olympic athlete, Journal of Sports Sciences, 27:13, 1433-1442
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Journal of Sports Sciences, November 2009; 27(13): 1433–1442
Physiological monitoring of the Olympic athlete
R. C. RICHARD DAVISON1, KEN A. VAN SOMEREN2, & ANDREW M. JONES3
1
School of Life Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, 2English Institute of Sport, St. Mary’s High Performance
Centre, Twickenham, and 3School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
Downloaded by [University of Exeter] at 01:31 23 February 2012
(Accepted 15 May 2009)
Abstract
As the winning margin in Olympic competition is so small, there is a continuous quest for improvements in the preparation
of athletes at this standard. Therefore, even the smallest physiological improvements that result from modifications in
training strategy, preparation regime or ergogenic aids are potentially useful. Unfortunately, there is a lack of research data
on elite competitors, which limits our interpretation of current literature to the elite sporting environment. This places extra
responsibility on the physiologist to carefully consider the most appropriate physiological variables to monitor, the best
protocols to assess those variables, and the accurate interpretation of the test results. In this paper, we address the key issues
of ecological validity, measurement error, and interpretation for the most commonly monitored physiological variables.
Where appropriate, we also indicate areas that would benefit from further research.
Keywords: Aerobic, anaerobic, strength, flexibility, body composition
Introduction
The physiology of the Olympic athlete is characterized by extreme values at the upper limits of the
physiological range, yet the measurable difference
between competing elite athletes is extremely small.
For this reason, measuring and monitoring changes
in physiological variables in this population present
extra challenges. In addition, within any preparation
cycle towards an Olympic Games, changes in a single
variable are unlikely to make a substantial contribution and it is often the accumulation of many changes
across all the sport science disciplines that leads to
successful performance. The aim of this paper is to
outline the particular issues related to the physiological monitoring of an athlete preparing for Olympic
competition.
Reliability and ‘‘worthwhile change’’
A detailed knowledge of measurement error and
reliability is vital in the assessment and monitoring of
any athlete. We adopt the definition of Atkinson and
Nevill (1998), where reliability is the amount of
measurement error that has been deemed acceptable
for the effective practical use of a measurement tool.
Reliability is particularly relevant in Olympic athletes, where winning margins can be extremely small
and relatively small changes in performance (51%)
result in a worthwhile enhancement of finishing
position (Hopkins, Hawley, & Burke, 1999). This
concept of ‘‘smallest worthwhile change’’ is often at
conflict with traditional statistical techniques, in that
trying to detect changes of 51% are virtually
impossible without low measurement error and a
large sample size, and thus there is a risk of type II
errors. Fortunately, elite athletes are particularly
reliable at reproducing both laboratory and fieldbased performances (Hopkins, Schabort, & Hawley,
2001), but because there is never a large sample size
there is a need to ensure that the methodology
employed is as error-free as possible. While it is
traditional to accept a coefficient of variation below
5% (Atkinson, 2003), successful monitoring of elite
athletes ideally requires lower measurement errors to
determine whether any intervention is having the
desired effect.
Simply believing that a particular physiological test
or procedure is reliable is not acceptable; the
physiologist should have assessed the measurement
error for each test with the equipment to be used in
the monitoring programme. Since it is recommended
that such an investigation requires in excess of 40
participants (Atkinson, 2003), it is unlikely that
Olympic athletes would constitute this sample, but
it would be important to use as many elite athletes as
Correspondence: R. C. R. Davison, School of Life Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh EH10 5DT, UK. E-mail: [email protected]
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/02640410903045337
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1434
R. C. R. Davison et al.
possible to ensure the results were applicable to the
typical values produced by Olympic athletes.
There are a range of methods for assessing
measurement error. Atkinson (2003) recommends
the standard error of measurement (sdiff/Ö2) or the
95% limits of agreement to determine whether
there has been a real change for an individual
athlete. The 95% limits of agreement is particularly
conservative as it covers the full 95% of the
variance, whereas the physiologist may decide it
is more acceptable to choose a confidence interval
that is based around 68% variance or the standard
error of measurement, which covers about 52% of
the error variance. Using the more conservative
options leads to the risk that a meaningful change
(*1%) could be rejected. Regardless, knowledge
of the confidence interval of any measured variable
based on the measurement error enables a valid
judgement to be made on the progress within a
monitoring programme. Additionally, describing
measurement error in absolute values generally
aids interpretation and communication to the
athlete and coach.
Aerobic fitness
The extent to which aerobic fitness might be
considered important in an Olympic event will
depend upon the duration and intensity of exercise.
For example, the contribution of oxidative metabolism to energy turnover in short-lasting high-intensity
events such as diving or the discus throw will be
negligible, and therefore the assessment of aerobic
fitness in such athletes would not be worthwhile. At
the other end of the continuum, oxidative metabolism will be of paramount importance in events such
as the marathon, the cycle road race, and the
triathlon. Between these extremes lie a number of
events in which oxidative metabolism makes an
important contribution to energy supply such that
the aerobic fitness of the competitors might impact
upon the performance outcome. These events
would include all those in which all-out exercise
continued for longer than about 20–30 s and those
which involve a combination of high-intensity and
low-intensity exercise (i.e. most team sports). It is
important to remember, however, that aerobic
fitness might confer other advantages to competitors even when their sport does not demand a high
rate of oxidative energy supply. For example, the
development of some minimal level of aerobic
fitness might be important in enhancing the
capacity for thermoregulation (which will be
important in all sports if the Olympic Games take
place in a hot and/or humid environment), in
reducing resting heart rate (which might be
advantageous in sports such as shooting and
archery), in managing weight and body composition, and for psychological reasons.
The ‘‘parameters’’ of aerobic fitness include:
maximal oxygen uptake (V_ O2max), exercise economy
or efficiency, the kinetics of oxygen uptake in the
transition from rest to exercise, and the metabolic
rates that define the transitions between exercise
intensity domains (i.e. the lactate threshold, and
the maximal lactate steady state or critical power)
(Jones & Carter, 2000). These parameters are
generally well established and can be measured in
an exercise physiology laboratory relatively simply
and with good reliability. The nature of the sport will
again dictate whether aerobic fitness can be acceptably assessed through a single ‘‘general’’ test of, for
example, V_ O2max, or whether a more comprehensive
battery of tests is necessary to encompass the aerobic
demands of the sport in question.
V_ O2max
Maximal oxygen uptake represents the highest rate at
which oxygen can be consumed during maximal
intensity exercise, and is often considered to be the
‘‘gold standard’’ measurement of aerobic fitness.
This is not unreasonable given that V_ O2max reflects
the integrated capacity of the pulmonary, cardiovascular, and muscular systems to transport and
consume oxygen during exercise. For sports in
which aerobic fitness is not a major determinant of
success, the regular assessment of V_ O2max is likely to
be a sufficient indicator of changes in aerobic
training status. It is generally recommended that
V_ O2max is determined using an incremental exercise
test in which the athlete becomes exhausted within
8–12 min (Buchfuhrer et al., 1983), but V_ O2max can,
of course, also be established from a series of
exhaustive constant-work-rate exercise tests of different durations (Day, Rossiter, Coats, Skasick, &
Whipp, 2003). Interestingly, in elite endurance
athletes, there is evidence that the V_ O2max is
relatively insensitive to continued training and is a
poor discriminator of performance capability (Conley & Krahenbuhl, 1980; Coyle, 1995; Jones, 1998).
In these athletes, V_ O2max appears to reach high
values early in the career and then to remain fairly
constant even though performance continues to
improve (Coyle, 2005; Jones, 2006). For this reason,
it is important that such athletes complete a more
comprehensive assessment of the parameters of
aerobic fitness. The units in which V_ O2max is
expressed also requires consideration: in nonweight-bearing sports such as rowing, the absolute
V_ O2max (in litres min71) is most appropriate,
whereas in weight-bearing sports such as distance
running, V_ O2max is better expressed relative to body
mass (Winter, 2007).
Physiological monitoring of the Olympic athlete
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Economy
In endurance sports, in particular, the exercise
economy or efficiency can be an important determinant of performance (Coyle, 1995). The term
exercise ‘‘economy’’ is generally used in relation to
running, whereas the term ‘‘efficiency’’ is more often
applied to cycling; for practical purposes, both refer to
the oxygen requirement for exercise at a certain speed or
power output. A lower oxygen requirement signifies
better economy. An improvement in economy as the
result of an intervention such as training is important
because a lower oxidative metabolic rate for a given submaximal speed or power output would represent a
lower fraction of the V_ O2max and would reduce the
rates of heat production and glycogen degradation.
Several researchers have shown that chronic endurance
training results in continued improvement in exercise
economy and that this appears to be a key factor in
continued performance improvements (Coyle, 1995;
Jones, 1998). It is therefore essential that exercise
economy be monitored in endurance athletes. In this
regard, it is important to remember that economy can
only be accurately assessed at those sub-maximal speeds
or power outputs for which a steady-state V_ O2 is
reached within a few minutes of the onset of exercise.
Sources of possible error in the measurement of oxygen
uptake can be identified and usually controlled such that
exercise economy can be assessed with reasonable
accuracy and reliability (James, Sandals, Wood, &
Jones, 2007).
The interaction of exercise economy and V_ O2max
determines the speed or power output corresponding
to V_ O2max and to any given fraction of V_ O2max, and
knowledge of this speed or power at V_ O2max is useful
in predicting performance and in prescribing training
(Jones, 2007; Jones & Doust, 1998). The speed or
power output attained at the end of a maximal ramp
or incremental exercise test, which will be influenced
by the speed/power at V_ O2max and also by the
anaerobic capacity and neuromuscular factors, can
also be useful in characterizing endurance exercise
performance potential (Noakes, Myburgh, & Schall,
1990). For example, Lucia and colleagues (Lucia,
Pardo, Durantez, Hoyos, & Chicharro, 1998) reported that there was no difference in V_ O2max
between trained and elite cyclists despite major
differences in maximal power output. In addition,
the maximal power achieved at the end of such
maximal tests is an excellent predictor of time-trial
performance power (Balmer, Bird, & Davison, 2008;
Balmer, Davison, & Bird, 2000).
Blood lactate thresholds and exercise domains
‘‘Thresholds’’ linked to the accumulation of lactate
in the blood have long been associated with
1435
endurance exercise performance (Farrell, Wilmore,
Coyle, Billing, & Costill, 1979; Sjodin & Jacobs,
1981), and it is well known that a rightward shift in
blood lactate concentration when plotted against
speed or power output is both characteristic of, and
highly sensitive to, enhanced aerobic fitness (Denis,
Fouquet, Poty, Geyssant, & Lacour, 1982; Jones &
Carter, 2000; Yoshida, Suda, & Takeuchi, 1982).
Unlike V_ O2max, which might properly be termed a
marker of aerobic power, blood lactate thresholds are
sensitive indices of ‘‘sub-maximal’’ endurance fitness. The thresholds will, at least in part, determine
the fraction of V_ O2max that can be sustained during
endurance exercise and they might therefore be
considered to reflect the aerobic capacity. Assessment
of the blood lactate profile during an incremental
exercise test is therefore recommended in the longitudinal physiological monitoring of those athletes for
whom aerobic fitness makes an important contribution to performance (Spurway & Jones, 2007). A
protocol that works well for most sports involves the
athlete completing 6–9 exercise stages, each of 3–
4 min duration, over a range of exercise intensities
spanning 50–95% V_ O2max (Jones, 2007). Such a
protocol enables the identification of the lactate
threshold (i.e. the metabolic rate above which blood
lactate concentration first rises above baseline during
incremental exercise) (Farrell et al., 1979) and the
lactate turn-point (the metabolic rate above which
there is an inflection in blood lactate concentration
and accumulation accelerates and which approximates
the maximal lactate steady-state or critical power)
(Kilding & Jones, 2005; Smith & Jones, 2001).
Although the association between blood lactate
concentration (and even metabolic acidosis) and
fatigue is tenuous (Allen, Lamb, & Westerblad,
2008), blood lactate thresholds are important in that
they demarcate the various exercise domains within
which pulmonary gas exchange, blood acid–base
status, and muscle metabolic processes express
different properties (Jones, Wilkerson, Dimenna,
Fulford, & Poole, 2008; Poole, Ward, Gardner, &
Whipp, 1988; Whipp & Ward, 1992; Wilkerson,
Koppo, Barstow, & Jones, 2004). Sustained ‘‘moderate’’ exercise performed below the lactate threshold is characterized by the achievement of an early
V_ O2 steady-state and a blood lactate concentration
close to that measured at rest (i.e. 1–2 mmol l71).
In contrast, sustained ‘‘heavy’’ exercise performed
above the lactate threshold (but below the maximal
lactate steady-state/critical power) results in a delayed V_ O2 steady-state and blood lactate concentrations that eventually stabilize at perhaps 3–
6 mmol l71. By definition, sustained ‘‘severe’’
exercise above the maximal lactate steady-state does
not enable the attainment of steady-states in either
blood lactate concentration or V_ O2, the latter being
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R. C. R. Davison et al.
due to the emergence of the so-called ‘‘slow
component’’, which will ultimately drive V_ O2 to its
maximum if exercise is continued (Poole et al., 1988;
Whipp, 1994; Wilkerson et al., 2004). The physiological responses, and therefore presumably also the
physiological adaptations to training, differ according
to the domain (moderate, heavy or severe) in which
exercise is performed. Regular assessment of the
blood lactate profile during incremental-type exercise is therefore invaluable not only for assessing
changes in training status but also in setting speed or
power output ranges (or, more often, the corresponding heart rates) that will evoke different
physiological responses and which can be used by
coaches to optimize athlete preparation (Jones,
2007).
Although measurement of the lactate turn-point
enables a working approximation of the maximal
lactate steady-state/critical power (Kilding & Jones,
2005; Smith & Jones, 2001), direct measurement of
the critical power (or critical speed for sports such as
running and swimming) in elite athletes would be
advantageous. This is because determination of the
hyperbolic relationship between power output or
speed and the time-to-exhaustion provides information on the curvature constant of the relationship (or
W0 ) that theoretically represents the total amount of
(chiefly ‘‘anaerobic’’) work that can be performed
during exercise above the critical power (Hill, 1993).
Continuous sports events requiring less than about
30 min of intense exercise are performed at intensities exceeding the critical power; the higher the
power output above the critical power, the more
rapidly W0 will be depleted and the sooner the athlete
will become exhausted. Knowledge of the critical
power and W0 can therefore be invaluable in
predicting the best possible race times for a given
distance and for choosing race tactics that should
optimize the performance outcome (Fukuba &
Whipp, 1999; Jones & Whipp, 2002). Unfortunately,
direct assessment of the critical power has traditionally required a minimum of three exhaustive exercise
bouts, which is rarely practicable when working with
elite athletes. However, the recent development of a
single ‘‘all-out’’ test for the estimation of the critical
power (Vanhatalo, Doust, & Burnley, 2007) appears
to be highly promising.
V_ O2 kinetics
The rate at which V_ O2 rises towards the ‘‘steadystate’’ requirement following the onset of exercise is
an important, but often overlooked, determinant of
exercise performance (Burnley & Jones 2007). The
V_ O2 kinetics determine the magnitude of the oxygen
deficit incurred in the transition from rest to
exercise and thus the extent to which substrate-level
phosphorylation will be accelerated and the intramuscular millieu perturbed (Jones & Poole, 2005).
Faster V_ O2 kinetics, as is observed following
endurance training, for example, will reduce the
oxygen deficit and the extent of any fall in muscle
glycogen concentration, PCr or pH, or of any
increase in muscle inorganic phosphate or adenosine
disphosphate concentrations, all of which have been
associated with the process of muscle fatigue (Allen
et al., 2008). Oxygen uptake kinetics have not been
routinely measured during scientific support work
with athletes, presumably due to the perceived
complexity of the mathematical procedures required
for accurate extraction of the pertinent parameters
(cf. Koga, Shiojiri, & Kondo, 2005). However, this is
likely to change in the future given the potential
importance of V_ O2 kinetics to performance, especially in middle-distance events (requiring 1–15 min
of exercise), and in assessing the potentially ergogenic effects of alterations in warm-up or pacing
strategy (Burnley & Jones 2007).
Strength and power
Strength may be defined as the ability to generate
force; the rate at which force is applied (i.e. force/
velocity) is the power. Many sports require the
application of high force and therefore strength;
however, in most sports, it is the rate at which this
force is applied (i.e. power) that is of greater
importance to performance. Typically, peak power
is achieved at loads of approximately 40–60%
maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) (Izquierdo,
Häkkinen, Gonzalez-Badillo, Ibáñez, & Gorostiaga,
2002); however, this does show some plasticity with
training. Strength and power parameters are correlated with performance in several sports events;
although such relationships are generally stronger
in the sprint and explosive events, a significant
proportion of the variance in performance is
accounted for by strength and power measures in
many middle-distance and endurance events.
The specific relationship between strength and
endurance performance is controversial, with several
poorly designed studies showing improvements
in strength-based variables (Miccola, Rusko,
Nummela, Paavolainen, & Hakkinen, 2007) and
variables associated with endurance performance
(economy, V_ O2 kinetics; Millet, Jaouen, Borrani, &
Candau, 2002), but few researchers have actually
measured and shown any improvements in endurance performance (Paavolainen, Hakkinen, Hamalainen, Nummela, & Rusko, 1999). There is a need
for well-designed and -controlled studies with carefully matched overall training loads of highly trained
athletes to correctly define this relationship. There is
also a need to determine the physiological mechanism
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Physiological monitoring of the Olympic athlete
that would contribute to any improvement in
endurance performance. The relationship may depend on the nature of force production for that
particular sport/event.
Factors determining strength and power include
muscle cross-sectional area, muscle fibre type, the
length–tension relationship, and the force–velocity
relationship of muscle. Although strength and power
are sometimes considered to be attributes of muscle
tissue, it is important to acknowledge that the forcegenerating capacity is also influenced by connective
tissue and most significantly the tendon. It is the
composite unit of muscle and connective tissue
(musculo-tendinous complex) that generates force,
particularly in very dynamic movements. This is
clearly seen in plyometric activities that involve a
stretch–shortening cycle, in which the stretch or
eccentric phase produces elastic energy and the
excitation of proprioceptive organs, both of which
result in increased force generation in the concentric
phase of the movement (Komi, 2003).
Through specific training, the muscle characteristics that determine strength and power may be
developed with consequent improvements in athletic
performance. The purpose of any strength and power
assessment is, in part, to quantify this development
and thus demonstrate the efficacy of the training
programme. Although there is evidence that strength
and power adaptations may be realized at muscle
lengths and velocities that are not specifically trained,
the greatest gains are in the specific conditions in
which the muscle has been trained (Harris, Cronin, &
Keogh, 2007). It is therefore important that both
strength and power training and the assessment of
these attributes are performed during movement
patterns that closely replicate the athlete’s event.
There are many methods by which strength and
power can be assessed; these range from simple
weight-lifting exercises to dynamometric assessment.
Isotonic strength assessment involves the movement
of constant loads; however, given the variable
acceleration of the load throughout the joint range
of motion, this is more accurately defined as
isoinertial assessment. The performance of specific
exercises with a maximum resistance (e.g. bench
press, barbell squat) for a given number of repetitions (e.g. 1-RM, 10-RM) is a commonly used
technique to assess strength. Tests comprising the
movement of body mass (e.g. vertical jump with or
without counter-movement and running tests) are
also popular, and with appropriate equipment allows
for the measurement of peak force, the rate of force
development, and power. Isokinetic dynamometry
may be used to assess isometric or isokinetic strength
and power. Isometric strength assessment provides
for the measurement of the maximum force-generating capacity and the rate of force development. A
1437
possible limitation, however, is that few sports
require the expression of maximum isometric force;
isometric strength is poorly related to sport performance and relatively insensitive to changes in
dynamic strength and athletic performance (Blazevich & Cannavan, 2007). Although isokinetic assessment allows for the assessment of dynamic strength,
it cannot replicate the strength–shortening cycle that
is experienced in many sporting activities.
Flexibility
Flexibility, or the range of motion about a joint or a
series of joints, is improved with a specific developmental stretching programme and, for the purposes
of this paper, is distinct from a pre-event stretching
mobility session. The extent to which flexibility
contributes to successful performance in Olympic
sport varies greatly, but despite this the inclusion of
stretching will be commonplace in virtually every
training programme. Clearly, high degrees of flexibility or range of motion in certain joints are vital for
enhanced performance in both quantitative and
qualitative Olympic disciplines. Traditionally, its
inclusion in training programmes is associated with
the reduction of the risk of injury, yet there is a lack
of well-controlled prospective studies to confirm this
relationship (Witvrouw, Mahieu, Danneels, &
McNair, 2004). Much of the published research
originates from studies with the military, with few
studies using elite athletes and there seems to be no
literature that clearly demonstrates that improved
flexibility enhances athletic performance. There is
some evidence to suggest that hyper-flexibility may
affect the stability of a joint and contribute to injury
and that increased flexibility may also be related to
poorer running economy (Jones, 2002). However,
the recent review by Witvrouw et al. (2004) suggests
that the relationship between flexibility and injury is
influenced by the extent to which a particular sport
utilizes near maximal stretch–shortening cycles.
They suggest that in sports with low intensity or
limited stretch–shortening cycles, increased flexibility may reduce performance.
There is no overall (whole-body) assessment of
flexibility and measurement should be confined to
single-joint complexes. Therefore, it is important
that each sport carefully identifies the most appropriate level of flexibility for each joint that could
contribute to enhanced performance or injury
reduction. In some cases, this may simply allow the
athlete to achieve a body position that is not directly
related to force production or locomotion, but enables the adoption of a position that might, for
example, improve control or possibly aerodynamic
efficiency (i.e. cycling time-trial). There are no internationally standardized measurement techniques
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R. C. R. Davison et al.
for flexibility and many of the techniques are
borrowed from rehabilitation medicine. However,
there are three texts that offer detailed specific advice
for the assessment of athletes (Harvey & Mansfield,
2000; Maud & Kerr, 2006; Phillips, 2007). It should
be noted that the majority of the research and the
published guidelines only address the static assessment of flexibility and thus there is a need for a better
understanding of the influence of the assessment of
flexibility in more dynamic situations. There is thus a
need for caution, as many of the most commonly
used tests of flexibility (i.e. sit-and-reach) are
fundamentally flawed as accurate measures of range
of motion, since they incorporate range of motion in
more than one joint and thus it is not possible to
extract their relative contribution to the overall
measurement.
A vital starting point is the identification of suitable
skeletal landmarks and it is recommended that the
landmarking techniques as described by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK, 2006) be employed. A large range of
goniometers and flexiometers exists to measure
changes in range of motion, generally the choice
being determined by the joint position and the type
of movement involved. However, it is important that
a standardized protocol of warm-up and measurement trials be established to ensure that the
measurement method is adequately reliable.
If it is identified that a certain range of motion
should be improved to enhance performance, there
should be a development stage during which assessment should be completed on a 2–4 weekly basis
followed by a maintenance phase where assessments
can be less frequent.
Anaerobic power and capacity
High-intensity exercise requires the rapid resynthesis
of ATP to provide energy for muscular contraction.
The demand for ATP exceeds the rate of its supply
through oxidative metabolism and, consequently, a
significant proportion of the total energy demand
is derived from anaerobic sources. Anaerobic power
is defined as the rate at which anaerobic energy is
produced; anaerobic capacity is the total amount of
anaerobic energy produced. Although anaerobic
power is a determinant of performance in shortduration explosive events (e.g. javelin, shot-putt,
high jump), it is anaerobic capacity that is important
for many sprint and middle-distance events of
between 10 s and approximately 4 min (e.g. 100–
1500 m running, 50–400 m swimming, 200–1000 m
canoeing and kayaking, 1000–4000 m track cycling).
There is a finite capacity for the anaerobic energy
yield during high-intensity exercise (for reasons
outlined below), which means that athletes in such
events must maximize this capacity through training
and exploit this energy capacity optimally during
competition (i.e. effective pacing) to achieve peak
performance.
Anaerobic capacity is determined by the capacities
of the two anaerobic energy pathways: (1) the
hydrolysis of intramuscular stores of high-energy
phosphates (ATP and PCr) and (2) anaerobic
glycolysis. Intramuscular stores of high-energy phosphates are small, with approximately 5 mmol and
15 mmol per kilogram of muscle for ATP and PCr,
respectively. It is the magnitude of this intramuscular
content that largely determines the capacity of the
high-energy phosphate system. In contrast, it is not
the availability of the energy substrate for anaerobic
glycolysis that determines the capacity of this energy
pathway, but the accumulation of various metabolic
bi-products that inhibit ATP resynthesis and therefore exercise performance. Muscle fatigue during
high-intensity exercise has for a long time been
attributed to the accumulation of Hþ within the
cytosol consequent to the accumulation of lactic
acid; however, more recent work indicates that
acidosis is not the cause of fatigue in such exercise –
rather, it is one of many associated symptoms (Allen
et al., 2008). Other factors that may elicit fatigue and
therefore determine the anaerobic capacity include
the accumulation of inorganic phosphate (Pi) and
potassium (Kþ) and excitation–contraction uncoupling. In repeated sprint exercise, it is the recovery of
the anaerobic energy pathways (i.e. the resynthesis of
PCr, the removal of metabolic bi-products, and the
restoration of ionic homeostasis) that determines the
extent to which exercise intensity can be maintained.
Unfortunately, there have been relatively few wellcontrolled scientific investigations of the physiological adaptations to high-intensity training; however,
there is evidence that anaerobic power and capacity
may be developed through specific training, resulting
in a number of physiological adaptations, including
increases in intramuscular ATP, PCr, and free
creatine content, an increase in the concentration
and activity of specific enzymes (e.g. creatine kinase,
myokinase, PFK, phosphorylase), and an increase in
the intracellular and extracellular buffering capacity
(van Someren, 2006).
The measurement of anaerobic capacity is a
problem that has challenged sports scientists for
many years. In contrast to other physiological
parameters such as aerobic power, which can be
assessed by the direct measurement of oxygen
consumption, there is still no one ‘‘gold standard’’
technique for the measurement of anaerobic capacity. There are two commonly used approaches to
measuring anaerobic capacity. The first is to estimate
the anaerobic energy contribution during exhaustive
high-intensity exercise; techniques used include the
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Physiological monitoring of the Olympic athlete
measurement of intramuscular substrate and enzyme
content before and after exercise, the maximal
accumulated oxygen deficit (Medbo, Mohn, Tabata,
Bahr, & Sejersted, 1988), excess post-exercise
oxygen consumption, and post-exercise blood lactate
concentration. The second approach is to measure
the work performed during a short-duration exercise
test; commonly used tests include the Wingate
anaerobic test, the Cunningham and Faulkner
time-to-exhaustion treadmill test, and many variations of these protocols. Although such tests provide
a simple quantification of mechanical work to
describe the anaerobic capacity, they fail to isolate
the anaerobic energy contribution. A further complication is that a significant contribution of aerobic
energy metabolism to total energy turnover has been
measured or estimated during short-duration exercise in a number of sports (van Someren, 2006).
Multiple-sprint tests are commonly used in the
assessment of field sports players (e.g. soccer,
hockey, rugby). These tests comprise a series of
repeated sprints over a specified distance, separated
by timed recovery periods; the recording of the
fastest time and the fatigue index provide an indirect
estimation of anaerobic endurance. Variations of
such tests include the Bangsbo test (Bangsbo, 1994),
which consists of seven repeated sprints over a 34-m
course that includes a change of direction, and which
are separated by 25 s active recovery.
The quantification of both an ‘‘alactic’’ capacity
(i.e. from high-energy phosphates) and a ‘‘lactic’’
capacity (i.e. from anaerobic glycolysis) has been
attempted via interpretation of specific substrate
depletion, enzyme concentration, and work performed in both short-duration (e.g. 10 s) and longer-duration tests (e.g. 30 s). The concept of alactic
and lactic capacities, particularly in relation to
exercise tests, is, however, confounded by the fact
that the different phosphorylation pathways do not
operate in isolation during exercise tests of any
duration.
Body composition
The influence of body composition will depend on
the nature of the sport, with weight-categorized
sports and sports in which power/weight influences
performance requiring a much greater degree of
monitoring. In both these latter types of sports, the
aim of frequent monitoring would be to achieve the
required weight with minimal change in lean tissue.
The physiologist should set specific targets for each
athlete taking into consideration the importance for
each individual sport.
There are a large range of methods available to
measure and monitor body composition, all of which
have varying degrees of error. Many methods depend
1439
on predictive equations. none of which were created
using elite athletes. Therefore, in addition to the
general reservations of this approach, the lack of
specific prediction equations suggests that any
method with a predictive equation should be
avoided. It is recommended that surface anthropometry, as outlined by the International Society for
the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK,
2006), be used to collect raw anthropometric data
to monitor changes in body composition (Stewart &
Eston, 2007). As the magnitude of error will depend
on the skill of the assessor, measurement type and
site, it is recommended that individuals undergo
appropriate training to ensure an accurate measurement technique and identification of skeletal landmarks to reduce the measurement error. In addition,
each physiologist should assess their own measurement error, which can then be used to make an
accurate assessment as to whether a real change in
body composition (beyond measurement error) has
occurred.
Laboratory- or field-based testing?
An important question in structuring a physiological
monitoring programme for an Olympic athlete is
whether to use laboratory- or field-based testing
methods. There are clearly advantages to both:
laboratory-based testing enables much closer control
over extraneous (mainly environmental) factors that
might influence test results, thus enhancing test
reliability; field-based testing occurs in the athlete’s
natural sporting environment, thus increasing test
validity. There is no simple answer to this question
and a decision must be reached on a sport-by-sport
basis. Where ergometry is available that is acceptably
‘‘sport specific’’, laboratory testing can often play a
key role in the monitoring programme. However, it is
incumbent upon the physiologist to temper data
interpretation in light of limitations to the external
validity of the tests employed. A useful approach is to
combine regular laboratory testing, in which test
protocols are rigidly adhered to, with field-based
testing, which might focus more on ‘‘problem
solving’’, the monitoring of training sessions, and
trials of the effectiveness of interventions.
The physiological support ‘‘package’’
Any physiological monitoring programme should be
based on sound ethical and scientific procedures,
with all parties agreeing to a realistic ‘‘contract’’. An
initial ‘‘needs analysis’’ is useful for identifying areas
in which physiological support might make a
measurable performance impact. The battery of
physiological tests devised by the physiologist
must stem from a sound understanding of the
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1440
R. C. R. Davison et al.
physiological requirements of the sport, including
the absolute and relative contribution of the energy
pathways and the likely causes of fatigue under
various conditions. All tests should be carried out for
the benefit of the athlete and coach, with prime
consideration given to the safety and well-being of
the athlete at all times. The physiologist should be
aware of the validity, reliability, and sensitivity of all
the tests administered. The physiologist should also
be cognisant of the limitations both of the tests
themselves and of all scientific instruments used as
part of those tests, and be able to identify the
principal sources of error and the ways in which these
might be minimized.
The frequency of testing/physiological monitoring
should be agreed in advance and is likely to vary both
between sports and athletes. Formal laboratory
testing usefully occurs approximately every 3 months
and coincides with natural changes in emphasis in
the athlete’s training macrocycle. Quarterly testing
allows enough time for any physiological changes
resulting from a specific training intervention to
become manifest, but is sufficiently frequent to assist
the coach in making changes to the training
programme as and if necessary.
Feedback to athlete and coach should be rapid
(548 h), user-friendly (i.e. jargon-free), and performance focused. The feedback can be written or
verbal or, most often, a combination of the two so
that a dialogue can occur about the recorded data.
Written reports should normally contain: an explanation of the tests performed with an indication of
their purpose; a statement of the values obtained and
ideally a comparison with previous values recorded
by the same athlete in the same tests; and an
interpretation of the values based upon factors such
as the time of year and the training completed in the
previous mesocycle. Indications concerning what the
results might mean for performance and recommendations for training can also be valued by the
athlete and coach provided that the physiologist has
considerable expertise in the physiology of the
sport concerned and of the training methods used
in that sport. In this situation, the coach can receive
valuable information about the implications of the
physiological test data for the design of training
sessions and the emphasis to be placed in the next
phase of training.
It is vital that the physiologist is clear on his or her
role in the overall scientific and medical support
programme surrounding an Olympic athlete. In this
way, he or she can work closely and cooperatively
with professionals in other disciplines (medicine,
physiotherapy, nutrition, psychology, biomechanics,
strength and conditioning science) for the greater
good of the athlete. Physiological monitoring is not
vital for success in Olympic competition, but the fact
that it is now so widespread suggests that it helps – a
lot!
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