Art as Activism: Taller de Gráfica Popular
May 31 - October 5, 2014
Organized by The Baker Museum
Curated by Gisela Carbonell, PhD.
Works from the museum’s permanent collection: 174
Introduction
This exhibition from The Baker Museum’s permanent collection focuses on a period of
social and political upheaval in Mexico following its 1910 revolution. Established in 1937
in Mexico City by a collective of revolutionary artists, the Taller de Gráfica Popular
(People’s Graphic Workshop, TGP) produced incisive images to give a voice to
marginalized and oppressed sectors of society, especially Mexican workers and
peasants. Concerned also with contemporary politics on a global scale, the Taller
denounced the Spanish Civil War and fascism. Its aesthetic was informed by the
Mexican printmaking tradition as well as by the Soviet avant-garde visual rhetoric and
German Expressionism.
Printmakers Luis Arenal, Leopoldo Méndez and Pablo O’Higgins founded the TGP
along with other artists who had been affiliated with the Liga de Escritores y Artistas
Revolucionarios (League of Revolutionary Writers and Artists, LEAR), which had
operated in Mexico City since 1934. The TGP stemmed from LEAR as a center for the
graphic arts, which produced posters, leaflets, illustrations and other materials to
educate the masses, promote awareness of social issues and motivate collective action.
Since its early days, the Taller engaged strategies to modernize Mexico and advance
social causes. Following WWII and the end of fascism in Europe, the Taller’s activities
decreased. Eventually, their political agenda was no longer current, and with each
passing year its relevance declined. Today the TGP survives as a civil organization
offering printmaking classes, yet it struggles to amass the necessary funds to catalog
and preserve the work of its original members.
Displayed at The Baker Museum for the first time, the complete portfolio of the Taller de
Gráfica Popular, 450 Años de lucha: homenaje al pueblo mexicano (Popular Graphic
Workshop, 450 Years of Struggle: Homage to the Mexican People), consists of more
than 140 prints. This exhibition also includes a selection of books and artifacts, such as
a small printing press, paintings and drawings which examine the artistic activities of the
Taller in its broader historical context.
José Guadalupe Posada
The aesthetic of the Taller’s artistic production evoked that of Mexican printmaker José
Guadalupe Posada (1852-1913). His work articulated a satirical social critique which
was easy to convey to a mostly illiterate audience. Since the Revolution, Mexico
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developed a solid practice of printmaking; the use of art as a tool for social change
would be at the core of this historical moment and the decades that followed. Painters
such as Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Alfaro Siqueiros championed
this understanding of social art on a large scale by creating murals for public buildings.
Through their art, they denounced injustice and encouraged a new social order.
Meanwhile, Taller printmakers spread the discourse of a renewed society throughout
urban and rural areas.
2007.3.0855
Leopoldo Méndez
José Guadalupe Posada
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0855. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
In this work, Leopoldo Méndez pays homage to printmaker José Guadalupe Posada
(1852-1913). Considered the father of modern printmaking in Mexico, Guadalupe
Posada moved from his native town of Aguascalientes to Mexico City at an early age.
He joined the printing shop of Antonio Vanegas Arroyo, where he produced engravings
that portrayed daily events. Guadalupe Posada’s imagery, well known for its calaveras
(skulls and skeletons), addressed traditional customs and occurrences. His prints
illustrating the Mexican Revolution served as inspiration for later artists whose work
denounced social injustice. Here, Guadalupe Posada is seen sitting in his workshop
with the tools of his craft while on the right, the mounted police confront an unarmed
group of peasants. His publisher Vanegas Arroyo, artist Leopoldo Méndez on the right,
and activist Ricardo Flores Magón, who holds a manifesto, stand behind Guadalupe
Posada. Above the figure’s head “1902” alludes to Méndez’s birth year, which shows
the latter’s interest in inserting himself in the context of the great Mexican printmaker.
Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821)
Two years before the Mexican War of Independence began, in 1808, Napoleon
Bonaparte occupied Spain, removed King Charles IV from the throne and installed his
brother Joseph Bonaparte as head of state. These events, which gave way to the
Peninsular War, weakened Mexico’s colonial government, then known as the
Viceroyalty of New Spain. Political and social instability undermined its local structure
while opposing factions strengthened. In this volatile political climate, several figures
became icons for the emerging Mexican independence movement, such as Father
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753-1811) and José María Morelos (1765-1815). Aztec
rulers and Mayan revolutionary leaders were often evoked in political discourse as
exemplary figures who died defending their land from greedy conquistadors.
With increasing political upheaval in Spain in the 1820s, conservative groups in Mexico
strived to achieve independence from the metropolis. The Treaty of Cordoba (1821)
marked the beginning of Mexican independence and the first Mexican Empire. Shortly
2
after, the country was declared a republic. Today independence is celebrated on
September 16th, the day in which Father Hidalgo issued the Grito de Dolores in 1810.
2007.3.0911
Celia Calderón
José María Morelos
1960
Offset
15 ¾ x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0911. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
José María Morelos (1765-1815) was a Catholic priest mestizo (a person of combined
European and American Indian descent) who assumed leadership of the independence
movement in Mexico following the capture and assassination of his ideological mentor
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Morelos led a revolutionary campaign in southern Mexico; his
army controlled most of the southwest region at various times. In 1813 Morelos
assembled the Congress of Chilpancingo, which resulted in Mexico’s Declaration of
Independence. Two years later he was captured and assassinated for treason. In this
colorful depiction, Morelos looks directly at the viewer; he appears dignified with a firm
and self-confident expression. Today he is honored as a hero of the War of
Independence. The Mexican state of Morelos was named after him in 1869 and several
portrait sculptures throughout Mexico pay homage to his legacy.
2007.3.0900
Javier Íñiguez
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
1960
Offset
15 ¾ x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0900. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753-1811), a Roman Catholic priest and leader of the War of
Independence, hosted clandestine discussion groups in Guanajuato. These groups
evolved into an organized movement with the objective of overthrowing the reign of the
Spanish crown in Mexico. Hidalgo quickly became one of the notable leaders of the
Mexican War of Independence reaching out to the poor to join his army. On September
16, 1810, Father Hidalgo issued the Grito de Dolores by ringing the bell in the church of
the small village of Dolores to gather his congregation and declare Mexican
independence. Although historical accounts differ as to the exact words pronounced by
Hidalgo, it is believed that he rallied his followers and called them to fight against the
Spanish government. Every year on September 16th Mexico’s President commemorates
this event by ringing the bell of the National Palace, honoring the heroes of the Mexican
War of Independence while the attending crowd chants “¡Viva México!”
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2007.3.0867
Arturo García Bustos
Jacinto Canek
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 ¾ inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0867. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Portrayed here addressing his followers, Jacinto Canek (1731-1761) was a Mayan
revolutionary leader who fought Spanish forces in the Yucatan Peninsula in 1761.
Crowned Mayan king, shortly before his assassination in 1761, Canek and his fellow
revolutionaries were defeated in battle at the Mayan town of Cisteil. It is said that Canek
was then captured and tortured on orders of José Crespo, the Spanish governor of
Yucatan. His body was burned and his ashes scattered. In this image, Canek appears
rallying his followers to defend their land in what seems like a cave or secluded setting.
In the background, a large silhouette of his head, created by the shadows cast from the
torch next to him, makes him look larger than life.
2007.3.0836
Antonio Morales
El primer presidente (The First President)
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 ¾ inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0836. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Guadalupe Victoria (1786-1843), who fought together with Father José María Morelos in
Cuautla (present-day Morelos), became a renowned politician and soldier, and is mostly
noted for being the first elected President of the Mexican Republic. He changed his real
name, Manuel Félix Fernández, to Guadalupe Victoria in honor of the Virgin of
Guadalupe, whose image was appropriated as a symbol of the Revolution. During his
presidency (1824-1829), Victoria abolished slavery, demonstrated a consistent
commitment to improving education and formed diplomatic relationships with the US
and the UK. Antonio Morales depicts here the head of state in military garb, holding his
sword in his right hand and a leaflet printed with the words independencia and libertad
(“independence” and “freedom”), the principles that drove his political and military
career, on his left.
2007.3.0835
Elena Huerta
La Constitución de 1824 (The Constitution of 1824)
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 ¾ inches
4
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0835. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
On October 4, 1824, three years after the end of the War of Independence and Emperor
Agustín de Iturbide’s removal from power, the National Congress ratified the first
Constitution of the United Mexican States. This charter established that the country’s
new governing structure would be a representative confessional republic, with
Catholicism as its official religion. It also reiterated Mexico’s independence from Spain.
2007.3.0833
Francisco Mora
Vicente Guerrero
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0833. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Considered a military hero of the War of Independence, revolutionary General Vicente
Guerrero (1782-1831) fought alongside José María Morelos in the early rebellions
against the Spanish in the state of Oaxaca. He became the second president of Mexico
in 1829. During his term, his most notable achievement was the abolition of slavery.
Born of a mestizo father and an African slave mother, Guerrero came from a humble
background; the causes of the oppressed and discriminated became a priority during
his term in office.
2007.3.0778
Leopoldo Méndez
Cuauhtémoc
1960
Offset
15 ¾ x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0778. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Cuauhtémoc (1495-1525), the last Aztec emperor, is depicted here emerging from a
fiery background. Determined to defend Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, during the
Spanish conquest, Cuauhtémoc fought fiercely against foreign invaders. This crucial
figure in the history of pre-Hispanic Mexico was the cousin (some accounts say
nephew) of his predecessor, Moctezuma II, ruler of the Aztec empire during the arrival
of the Spanish. In the print’s background, an armored conquistador on his knees
struggles with a mythological snake-woman known as Cihuacóatl, who was associated
with childbirth and war. Here, the mythical figure aids Cuauhtémoc in the defense of
Tenochtitlan from the Spanish. Cuauhtémoc was captured and killed in 1525.
5
Franco-Mexican War (1861-1867)
In the late 1850s Mexico’s political arena was divided between liberal reformists, led by
President Benito Juárez (1806-1872), and conservatives. Juárez’s government, which
was recognized by the US in 1859, eventually gained control of Mexico City and
weakened the conservative factions. Because of Mexico’s overwhelming foreign debt at
the time, Juárez decided to stop payment to the country’s debtors —Great Britain,
France and Spain. These governments issued the Treaty of London in 1861, in which
they agreed to invade Mexico to gain control of the country’s resources. The Second
French Empire had the most prominent role in the Franco-Mexican War (1862-1867).
After the conflict Napoleón III appointed Maximilian of Habsburg, Archduke of Austria,
as Emperor of Mexico. Pockets of resistance impeded the conservative emperor from
controlling the entire country. The American Civil War prevented the US from getting
involved in the Franco-Mexican conflict despite President James Monroe’s
pronouncements against European intervention in the Americas. Interested in
maintaining good relations with the US, Napoleon III began withdrawing his troops from
Mexico in 1866. Relations between the allies, the liberals and the conservatives
deteriorated quickly, leading to the Batalla de Puebla (Battle of Puebla), on May 5,
1862. The conflict, which resulted in the withdrawal of the French army, was a triumph
for President Juárez.
2007.3.0850
Sarah Jiménez
Juárez y la reforma (Juárez and the Reform)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0850. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Benito Juárez (1806-1872), five-time President of Mexico, fought against conservative
factions in the War of Reform (1857-1861) and defended his country from foreign
occupation in the Franco-Mexican War (1861-1867). Among his notable achievements
was establishing La Reforma (The Reform), and the enactment of a new constitution in
1857, which asserted the political autonomy of the Republic. President Juárez’s victory
over the French in the Batalla de Puebla (Battle of Puebla) on May 5, 1862, is still
celebrated today.
2007.3.0848
Adolfo Quinteros
La victoria del cinco de mayo (The “Cinco de Mayo” Victory)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0848. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
6
General Ignacio Zaragoza (1829-1862) is remembered as a hero of the confrontation
between Mexico and France at the Battle of Puebla, on May 5, 1862. Zaragoza led the
Mexican army in an aggressive and successful campaign against the French. In this
portrait by Adolfo Quinteros, Zaragoza is depicted looking directly at the viewer in a
dignified pose. In the background of the composition, the Battle of Puebla takes place;
to the left there are Mexican soldiers, some of them wielding machetes and, on the
right, the French army approaches. Mexico’s victory in this battle was a decisive one for
the government of President Benito Juárez.
2007.3.0843
Elena Huerta
Ignacio Ramírez en el Congreso Constituyente (Ignacio Ramírez in the Constituent
Congress)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0843. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Known in literary circles by his pseudonym El Nigromante (The Necromancer), Ignacio
Ramírez (1818-1879) often provoked admiration from audiences for his oratorical skills.
But his ideas, considered radical by some, resulted in his persecution and
imprisonment. Ramírez spoke publicly about his atheism, defended the rights of
indigenous peoples and satirized politicians in his press writings. He participated in the
Mexican Constituent Congress, which drafted the liberal Constitution of 1857
guaranteeing indispensable rights for the less fortunate. Ramírez is seen here
addressing the congressional assembly.
Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
In 1845 the US incorporated Texas as its 28th state, an event that marked the beginning
of increasing tension with Mexico. The latter’s loss of Texas was a geopolitical defeat
that signaled a divided and weakened state. As frictions continued over where to
establish the Texas border, following the annexation of the territory, the MexicanAmerican War (1846-1848) erupted. The victory over Mexico was a triumph for
Democratic President James Polk, whose belief in the Doctrine of Manifest Destiny (the
idea that the United States was meant to expand the entire territory of North America)
guided his ambitious political agenda to annex more land. As a result of the war, Mexico
ceded Arizona, parts of present day California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah
and Wyoming in exchange for $15 million. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848),
which marked the official end of the Mexican-American War, established the conditions
for the annexation of the newly incorporated land, the boundaries between the US and
Mexico and stipulated the protection as well as the civil rights of Mexican nationals living
in the incorporated territories. The devastating defeat in this conflict gave way to a new
period of reforms in Mexico and further internal conflict, leading up to a civil war at the
end of the 1850s.
7
2007.3.0838
Francisco Mora
El Santanismo (Santanism)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0838. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Known as the Napoleón of the West, General Antonio López de Santa Anna (17941876) served as President of Mexico on eleven occasions (between 1833 and 1855 the
country’s presidency changed 36 times). At one point, Santa Anna spearheaded a
military coup against his own government to assert his power; the General’s centralist
ideology did not do much to advance the causes of the people. He is considered by
many as a vile figure for being responsible for the defeat of Mexico in the MexicanAmerican War. In this image, Santa Anna is represented in military garb, receiving
money from Uncle Sam in exchange for the territory of La Mesilla and stepping on the
1846 Constitution educational, congressional and religious reforms, which appear
personified by a bound and gagged prisoner who watches helplessly how the
transaction takes place. In 1855 Santa Anna was overthrown by Benito Juárez, who had
supported the Plan of Ayutla to remove him as Mexico’s dictator, establish a liberal
government and enact a new constitution.
2007.3.0839
Ángel Bracho
Compraventa de naciones (The Buying and Selling of Nations)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0839. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Key political figures of both sides of the Mexican-American War are depicted in this
image by Ángel Bracho. In the foreground, General Antonio López de Santa Anna
points to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), which established the conditions for
the annexation of Texas and other areas to the US. On the bottom right, President
James Polk hands Santa Anna a bag of coins symbolizing the $15 million given to
Mexico in exchange for the land ceded. In the background, the dignified portraits of
former Mexican presidents Pedro María Anaya and Nicolás Bravo honor these leaders’
efforts to defend Mexican land from US occupation.
2007.3.0841
Ignacio Aguirre
La Mesilla (The Territory Mesilla)
1960
8
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0841. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
The purchase of La Mesilla, also known as the Gadsden Purchase (1853-1854), refers
to the acquisition of land in the southern part of present-day Arizona and New Mexico
negotiated by US diplomat, James Gadsden. General Santa Anna is seen in this
depiction of the $10 million land purchase holding the bags of money, while the hand in
the starred cuff, symbolizing the US, delimits the new border and appropriates almost
30,000 square miles of land.
2007.3.0842
Luis Arenal
Juan Álvarez y el Plan de Ayutla (Juan Álvarez and the Ayutla Plan)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0842. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Following a political and military revolution in the town of Ayutla by the liberal movement
in 1854, the Plan de Ayutla (The Ayutla Plan) was issued. Its objectives were clear:
depose General Antonio López de Santa Anna, end the dictatorship, draft a new
constitution, reform the government and establish a democracy. Portrayed here leading
the peasants in revolt, General Juan Álvarez was considered a patriot who defended
the interests of the people; he became interim president for a short period in 1855. The
Plan de Ayutla ended the era of Santa Anna and paved the way for Benito Juárez, who
shifted the country’s political direction.
Porfirio Díaz (1830-1915)
Porfirio Díaz’s political and military trajectory was decisive in the events leading up to
the Mexican Revolution. He had been a commander in Benito Juárez’s army and
became a war hero in the fight against the French occupation in the 1860s. After
leading several revolts in an attempt to seize power, Díaz defeated federal troops in
1876 and declared himself president. He would serve seven terms for a total of 30
years. His presidency was characterized by corruption, violence against the poor,
appropriation of land from peasants and for downplaying the significance of Mexico’s
indigenous cultural heritage. Francisco Madero’s supporters, known as Maderistas, took
arms against Díaz in 1910 and removed him from power in Ciudad Juárez. Madero
spared his life and forced him into exile. Díaz left Mexico for Paris, where he died in
1915 at age 84.
2002.2.036
Guillermo Meza
9
Arrieros somos (Mule Drivers are We)
1944
Oil on canvas
20 x 24 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2002.2.036. Gift of Harry Pollak.
In this surrealist painting, Guillermo Meza depicts four skeletal figures following a
donkey’s walking carcass across a field. The eerie scene emphasizes the hardship
experienced by working peasants for whom the land was the primary mode of
sustenance.
2007.3.0854
Alberto Beltrán
Ricardo Flores Magón
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0854. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
A precursor of the Mexican Revolution, activist and journalist Ricardo Flores Magón
(1874-1922), supported the causes of the workers’ movement. Flores founded the
Partido Liberal Mexicano (Mexican Liberal Party, PLM) in 1905 to oppose the
government of President Porfirio Díaz. Considered a socialist-anarchist party, the PLM
proposed solutions to social and economic problems affecting laborers. It also
condemned the dictatorial style of Díaz and previous administrations. Flores was
imprisoned by US authorities on many occasions, and eventually sentenced to 20 years
in jail for espionage. He died in Leavenworth Prison, Kansas, in 1922. Thousands of
workers displaying red and black flags marched to his burial in Mexico City.
2007.3.0852
Jesús Escobedo
Los palacios y el gran látigo (The Palaces and the Great Whip)
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0852. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
This image depicts the construction of public buildings such as the Congress and the
Palace of Fine Arts, which were part of President Porfirio Díaz’s campaign to modernize
Mexico City in the style of European urban centers. Below the buildings, dozens of
figures are seen carrying heavy structures while the hand of the dictator (notice his
initials on the cuff) lashes them into submission. Bold and direct, the image makes a
clear statement against the Porfirato (pejorative term that identifies the Díaz regime).
10
2007.3.0851
Jesús Escobedo
Con Díaz, la reacción vuelve al poder (With Díaz, the Opposition Returns to Power)
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0851. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
President Porfirio Díaz (1850-1915), who ruled Mexico for a total of 30 years, appears
here at his chair with a worried look. The dictator is portrayed when he receives news
about the uprising that turned into the Revolution of 1910. Even if surrounded by the
country’s powers—clergy, upper class, and foreign investors included in the
composition, his term of office is about to come to an end.
2007.3.0860
Leopoldo Méndez
La situación del campesino (The Peasant’s Situation)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0860. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
This print depicts the harsh reality of laborers in the latifundios, great expanses of land
owned by a few powerful families, and often exploited by foreign investors who paid the
landowners for its use. The latifundio system was the foundation of Mexico’s economy
under President Porfirio Díaz’s regime. The unjust working conditions for the peasants
who worked the land were one of the main causes of the Mexican Revolution. In this
image, a peasant almost disappears in the soil while a landowner and an investor watch
without helping. In the background, two landowners drag a bound worker from the site.
2007.3.0864
Leopoldo Méndez
Despojo de la tierra a los Yaquis (el ejército de Don Porfirio al servicio de las empresas
Yanquis) (Mr. Porfirio’s Army at the Service of Yankee Companies)
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0864. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Under the regime of President Porfirio Díaz, land that was occupied by Yaqui
indigenous peoples for centuries was made available to foreign investors. On the left of
this image, a figure places a sign for the American company Charles Conant Sonora
and Sinaloa Irrigation on a piece of land that no longer belongs to its inhabitants. In the
11
background, Méndez depicts the forced exile of indigenous families. The Mexican
Revolution and the enactment of the Constitution of 1917 set in motion the largest land
redistribution in the Americas, which paved the way for the nationalization of the oil
industry and the agrarian reform in the 1930s.
2007.3.0868
Alfredo Zalce
“¡Mátalos en caliente!” Veracruz, 25 de junio de 1879 (Kill Them Immediately!)
1960
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0868. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda
¡Aprehendidos infraganti, mátalos en caliente! (Caught red-handed, kill them
immediately!) was the order President Porfirio Díaz telegrammed General Luis Mier y
Terán to kill a group of anti-porfirista peasants in Veracruz on June 25, 1879. Dressed
in military garb, Díaz appears here surrounded by his men and holding the telegram on
his left hand. In the register below, blindfolded men await their execution, while others
hang from a tree.
2007.3.0869
Jesús Escobedo
Las Acordadas (The Acordadas, Ruthless Men Working for President Díaz)
1960
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0869. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
This image depicts the actions of Las Acordadas, a sort of secret society of mercenaries
that operated under the presidency of Porfirio Díaz and whose objective was to displace
and ultimately execute those who opposed the regime. As is seen in this print by Jesús
Escobedo, the male members of the family were captured, while the women were left
behind.
2007.3.0873
Alberto Beltrán
Persecución del Partido Liberal por el Régimen Porfiriano (Persecution of the Liberal
Party by the Porfirian Regime)
1960
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0873. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
The Partido Liberal Mexicano (Mexican Liberal Party, PLM), founded by anarchist
Ricardo Flores Magón in 1905, fiercely opposed President Porfirio Díaz. The PLM
organized strikes and uprisings against the oppressive Díaz regime. These actions
12
resulted in the arrest and imprisonment of Party members, including Flores Magón, who
was imprisoned before being sentenced by the regime to 20 years in jail.
2007.3.0875
Alberto Beltrán
Porfirio Díaz hace declaraciones a Míster Creelman sobre las libertades cívicas del
pueblo. 1908 (Porfirio Díaz Makes Declarations to Mr. Creelman Regarding the Civil
Liberties of the People) 1908.
1960
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0875. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
In 1908 journalist James Creelman interviewed President Porfirio Díaz for Pearson’s
Magazine. Speaking of Mexico’s political situation at the time, Díaz stated that the
country was ready for democracy and that he welcomed the emergence of opposing
political parties. Intending to send a message to please the US government, Díaz
declared that he was considering not running for reelection in 1910. This interview was
published shortly after in the Mexican newspaper El Imparcial upsetting Díaz’s
opponents who knew he had no intention of stepping down. As a result, Francisco
Madero (1873-1913) responded with a document titled La Suceción Presidencial (The
Presidential Succession) in which he critiqued the Porfirian government and demanded
democratic elections, among other things. Madero’s supporters, known as maderistas
took arms against Díaz in 1910 giving way to the beginning of the Mexican Revolution.
2007.3.0879
Alfredo Zalce
La dictadura porfiriana exalta demagógicamente al indígena, 1910
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0879. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
This print shows the celebration of the 1st centennial of Mexico’s independence.
President Porfirio Díaz participates with his advisors in a parade for foreign visitors,
which exalts the culture of Mexico’s indigenous peoples. In the foreground, a wounded
peasant lays on the ground symbolizing those who suffer displacement in the
countryside. In reality, Díaz distanced himself from his own indigenous heritage, rebuilt
the country’s capital to resemble a European city and, according to various historical
accounts, he even painted his face to appear whiter.
2007.3.0880
Everardo Ramírez
El Plan de San Luis aterroriza a la dictadura (The San Luis Plan Terrorizes the
Dictatorship)
13
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0880. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
In the 1910 general election, dictator Porfirio Díaz had his toughest opponent, Francisco
Madero, imprisoned. In response to the president’s abusive actions, Madero drafted the
Plan de San Luis, a manifesto that called the Mexican people to convene on November
20 to remove Díaz from power, and establish a democratic government with free
elections. The publication of the manifesto and the uprising that followed mark the
beginning of the Mexican Revolution. This image depicts Díaz as he collapses when
Madero shows him the Plan de San Luis. Behind Madero, the flames symbolize the
power and strength of the Mexican people who were ready to overthrow the dictator.
Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)
The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) set in motion a period of tremendous social,
political and cultural change. President Porfirio Díaz (1830-1915), a dictator who served
as a commander in Benito Juárez’s army against the French, had ruled the country
seven different times between 1876 and 1911. His contested agenda favored a small
class of wealthy landowners, put Mexico’s resources in the hands of foreign investors
and downplayed the country’s indigenous heritage in favor of its Europeanization.
In 1910, Francisco Madero (1873-1913), a Mexican statesman, writer and revolutionary,
led an uprising against President Díaz that quickly became Mexico’s famous Revolution.
Madero’s followers, known as maderistas, took arms against Díaz removing him from
power in 1910. Madero was elected president a year after the Revolution began, and
served until his assassination in 1913. From 1917 the country’s political agenda, would
be regulated by a new constitution that prioritized the nationalization of land, water and
oil, the implementation of a national literacy program, and the improvement of labor
conditions for the nation’s workers.
2002.2.073
Alfredo Zalce
Leñador (Woodcutter)
1971
Duco on Masonite
32 x 26 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2002.2.073. Gift of Harry Pollak.
A founding member of the Taller de Gráfica Popular, Alfredo Zalce was active with
political and progressive groups in Mexico City. He taught fresco painting at the
Academy of San Carlos and also worked as a painter and printmaker. Zalce is regarded
by many as the last great post-Revolutionary muralist. In this painting, the artist depicts
a peasant who strides forward with determination as he balances an enormous bundle
of branches over his shoulders. The expressive brushwork and schematic rendering
suggest the anonymous figure is a symbol for all Mexican laborers.
14
2002.2.060
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Visita al campesino preso (Visit to the Imprisoned Farmer)
1930
Oil on canvas
37 x 29 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2002.2.060. Gift of Harry Pollak.
David Alfaro Siqueiros is perhaps best known for his social-realist murals. Along with
Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco, he established the foundation for Mexican
Muralism in the 1920s. Los Tres Grandes, as they were known, created large-scale
paintings that addressed social and political causes and were placed in public buildings.
They championed the idea that art was a powerful tool for social change.
In this painting, Siqueiros depicts a group of women and a small child visiting an
imprisoned farmer, perhaps their father or one of the women’s husbands. They stand in
a room with bars in the window; a woman stretches her arms with a worried look and
addresses the man as if asking how are they to survive while he is in jail. The figures,
rendered in simplified, flat fields of color, convey the anguish of many peasants who
were separated from their families and imprisoned for their political views. Siqueiros
was no stranger to the harsh conditions of Mexican prisons, having served multiple
prison terms due to his political activism.
2007.3.0905
Francisco Mora
Venustiano Carranza protesta contra la invasión yanqui de 1914 (Venustiano Carranza
Protests Against the Yankee Invasion of 1914)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0905. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
2007.3.0916
Alfredo Zalce
Venustiano Carranza, promotor de la Constitución de 1917 (1859-1920), (Venustiano
Carranza, Promoter of the Constitution of 1917 (1859-1920)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0916. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
2002.2.029
Jorge González Camarena
15
Estudio para el mural "Don Venustiano Carranza y la Constitución de 1917" (Study for
the mural "Don Venustiano Carranza and the Constitution of 1917")
1967
Oil on canvas
16 x 20 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2002.2.029. Gift of Harry Pollak.
(This label for the three works above)
Venustiano Carranza (1859-1920), known as the Primer Jefe (First Chief), fiercely
opposed President Porfirio Díaz, and was a leader of the Mexican Revolution. He joined
the forces led by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata in 1913 to fight the government of
Victoriano Huerta. Shortly after, he became the provisional president of Mexico. In
1917, Carranza called for the Constitutional Convention of Querétaro, which established
guidelines that provided for democratic elections, education and land reform, and new
labor laws to protect workers. Carranza was the first president elected under this new
constitution. In the painting by Jorge González Camarena displayed here, Carranza is
portrayed as a hero, towering over a desk jumbled with the pages of the constitution. A
large eagle symbolizing Mexico hovers prominently in the background; its feathers
depict the faces of the constituents. To Carranza’s right, a cluster of figures represents
the ordinary people of Mexico, who were to benefit from the new constitution.
2007.3.0881
Fernando Castro Pacheco
Aquiles Serdán y su familia inician en Puebla la revolución armada. 18 de noviembre de
1910. (Aquiles Serdán and His Family Begin the Armed Revolution in Puebla.
November 18, 1910.)
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0881. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Considered the first martyr of the Mexican Revolution, Aquiles Serdán Alatriste (18761910), was one of Francisco Madero’s closest supporters. Together they founded the
Partido Antirreeleccionista (Anti re-election Party) in 1909, which advocated for free
elections and limited presidential terms. While waiting for Madero’s instructions to
initiate the revolt in Puebla, federal officials searched Serdán’s house where they found
numerous arms stored in preparation for the uprising. Confronted by the authorities,
Serdán resisted and was mortally wounded. This event precipitated the revolution,
which lasted for ten years.
2007.3.0883
Alfredo Zalce
La revolución y los estragos (The Revolution and the Havoc)
1960
Offset
16
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0883. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
According to historical accounts, General Porfirio Díaz planned an attack on his
detractors by placing toy soldiers on a map to delineate his military strategy. Díaz’s
opponents had issued the Plan de San Luis Potosí, a call to arms against the dictator.
General Díaz is seen here in the company of his military men, moving the toy figures,
while on the left, an armed peasant raises his fist over the group.
2007.3.0885
Alfredo Zalce
El “Ipiranga”: el pueblo despide “30 años de paz.” 31 de mayo de 1911 (The “Ipiranga”:
The Town Says goodbye to “30 Years of Peace.” May 31, 1911.
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0885. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
This print shows a defeated Porfirio Díaz leaving to Europe on the German ship
Ipiranga. On the left of the composition, the bourgeoisie lament his departure from
Mexico, while poor peasants on the right throw stones at him.
2007.3.0886
Leopoldo Méndez
León de la Barra, “El presidente blanco” 1911, (León de la Barra, “The White President”
1911)
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0886. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Following dictator Porfirio Díaz’s fall from power, León de la Barra (1863-1939) served
as interim president for six months. He was known as El presidente blanco (the white
president) because he was a well-travelled intellectual from a wealthy background. De
la Barra is depicted here with Díaz and other intellectuals taking refuge under an
umbrella from peasant revolutionary fire.
2007.3.0913
Alberto Beltrán
La convención de Aguascalientes. 10 de octubre de 1914 (The Aguascalientes
Convention. October 10, 1914)
1960
Offset
17
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0913. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
In 1914, Venustiano Carranza, then Commander of the Constitutional Army, called a
meeting known as the Convention of Aguascalientes that brought together state
governors and military leaders. The objective was to delineate the social agenda of the
Mexican Revolution and the terms of a new constitution. After a heated debate, Eulalio
Gutiérrez was elected interim president and Francisco “Pancho” Villa was appointed
Commander of the Conventionalist Army.
2007.3.0895
Adolfo Quinteros
El gran guerrillero Francisco Villa (1877-1923) (The Great Commander Francisco Villa,
1877-1923)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0895. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Francisco “Pancho” Villa commanded the northern army in the early years of the
Revolution. He financed his military operations by selling stolen cattle across the border
to American farmers, who in turn, provided arms and ammunition. Villa negotiated his
surrender to President Obregón in 1919. He was ambushed and killed in 1923. Today
he is remembered as a key figure in the fight for a constitutional government and
peasant rights. In many towns he is regarded as a hero of the Revolution. He quickly
became an intriguing character; Villa, married more than 20 times, invaded American
territory in more than one occasion, and drew the attention of writers and filmmakers.
Library of Jiquilpán
In 1940 President Lázaro Cárdenas commissioned renowned artist José Clemente
Orozco a series of ten murals in the Gabino Ortíz Public Library in the town of Jiquilpán,
in Michoacán. Cárdenas, who was born in Jiquilpán, wanted to decorate the library with
images alluding to the Mexican Revolution. There are a total of eight murals on either
side of the nave and two color frescoes on its apse and entrance. Once completed,
Clemente Orozco created a series of eight lithographs, exhibited here, which reproduce
the murals he painted at the library. The images depict key aspects of the Revolution,
such as the power of the masses, the unjustified assassination of opposition rebels, and
the violent seizing of land from indigenous groups. With this project, Clemente Orozco
resorted to muralism and printmaking, the two most successful art media in the first half
of the 20th century in Mexico.
Label for small booklet
In 1922 American student Frances Toor (1890-1956) moved to Mexico to become an
anthropologist. As a student at the National University, Toor founded “Mexican
18
Folkways,” a bilingual magazine devoted to Mexican culture for which Diego Rivera
designed some of the covers. In 1943 she published a series of tourist guides in English
that showcased some of the most important cultural sites of the day. This small booklet
contains illustrations of Clemente Orozco’s murals at Jiquilpán as well as of the
frescoes he painted at the Palacio de Justicia. It includes an interpretative essay by
Carlos Mérida (1891-1984), a Guatemalan artist who was part of the Mexican muralist
movement and whose work is known for the combination of avant-garde and folklorist
themes.
Francisco Madero and Victoriano Huerta
Francisco Madero (1873-1913) was a key leader of the revolutionary movement that in
1910 overthrew dictator Porfirio Díaz from power. A political moderate, Madero
advocated for social justice and democracy; he was president of Mexico from 1911 until
his assassination in 1913. His successor, Victoriano Huerta (1850-1916), who served in
Madero’s army and fought against the Zapatistas, supporters of revolutionary Emiliano
Zapata, to protect his government. When the relationship between Madero and Huerta
deteriorated, Huerta organized a coup to overthrow Madero with the help of US
ambassador to Mexico, Henry Lane Wilson, and Porfirio Díaz’s nephew Félix Díaz. This
period of intense instability that began on February 9, 1913, and in which Huerta
assumed power is known as La decena trágica (Ten Tragic Days). Huerta held Madero
and his ex Vice-President Pino Suárez under arrest until February 22, when they both
were assassinated. After seizing control, Huerta dissolved the Congress and became
President. He was ousted in July 1914, by the Constitutionalists Venustiano Carranza,
Emiliano Zapata and Francisco “Pancho” Villa who, with the help of a revolutionary
army, forced him subsequently to exile.
2007.3.0891
Alfredo Zalce
La decena trágica. 9-18 de febrero de 1913. (The Decennial Tragedy. February 9/18,
1913.)
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0891. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
This image depicts La decena trágica (The Ten Tragic Days) between February 9 and
18, 1913, a period in which Victoriano Huerta led the rebels in a fight against the
government of President Francisco Madero. Upon seizing power, Huerta ordered his
men to arrest Madero and his Vice-President Pino Suárez who were assassinated on
February 22, 1913. This event put an end to La decena trágica and paved the way for
Huerta’s presidency.
2007.3.0892
Leopoldo Méndez
19
El embajador Lane Wilson “arregla” el conflicto (Ambasador Lane Wilson “Settles” the
Conflict)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0892. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Henry Lane Wilson, US Ambassador to Mexico between 1909 and 1913, sided with
Victoriano Huerta and aided him in organizing a coup against President Francisco
Madero and Vice-President Pino Suárez. The period of ten days that followed the coup
is known as La decena trágica (Ten Tragic Days) in which Huerta seized power.
Ambassador Wilson is shown here pushing aside Madero and Suárez as if they were
pieces in a chess game.
2007.3.0893
Alfredo Zalce
El criminal Victoriano Huerta se adueña del poder. 19 de febrero de 1913. (The Take
Over of Power by the Criminal Victoriano Huerta). February 19, 1913.
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0893. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
President Victoriano Huerta (1850-1916) had a reputation of being a heavy drinking
ruthless dictator. He is portrayed here sitting on a cathedra, bottle in hand, surrounded
by armed guards. At his feet lay the bodies of President Francisco Madero and his VicePresident Pino Suárez, whom he removed from power and executed in 1913.
2007.3.0897
Fernando Castro Pacheco
Asesinato del diputado Serapio Rendón por Victoriano Huerta. 22 de agosto de 1913.
(Assassination of the Representative Serapio Rendón by Victoriano Huerta. August 22,
1913.
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0897. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Serapio Rendón (1867-1913) was a member of Congress and a strong detractor of the
regime of Victoriano Huerta. He denounced the atrocities committed against President
Francisco Madero during La decena trágica (The Ten Tragic Days) when Huerta seized
control of the government. Rendón’s dissenting voice was abruptly silenced; he was
assassinated on August 23, 1913, by Huerta’s men.
20
2007.3.0898
Ignacio Aguirre
El Senador Belisario Domínguez protesta contra el cuartelazo. 1913. (Senator Belisario
Domínguez Protests Against the Revolt. 1913).
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0898. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Belisario Domínguez (1863-1913) served as congressman and as mayor of Comitan in
the state of Chiapas. In 1913, Domínguez delivered a speech in Congress against
President Victoriano Huerta, which infuriated the dictator. As a result, Huerta had
Domínguez tortured and murdered in Mexico City in 1913.
2007.3.0899
Alfredo Zalce
Victoriano Huerta clausura las cámaras. 10 de octubre de 1913. (Victoriano Huerta
Closes the Legislative House. October 10, 1913)
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0899. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
President Victoriano Huerta ordered the House of Representatives to close on October
10, 1913, put an end to the legislature and ordered the imprisonment of several liberal
representatives for months. Following the dissolution of the House, Huerta established a
military dictatorship until he was ousted from power by the Constitutionalists led by
Venustiano Carranza, Francisco “Pancho” Villa and Álvaro Obregón 1914.
2007.3.0910
Fernando Castro Pacheco
Victoriano Huerta abandona el país. 20 de julio de 1914. (Victoriano Huerta Leaves the
Country. July 20, 1914)
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0910. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
This image shows President Victoriano Huerta leaving Mexico for Europe in July of
1914 following the assassination of his political rival President Francisco Madero, and
Vice-President Pino Suárez. A year later, Huerta traveled to the US where he conspired
21
to return to Mexico and regain power. He became ill and died in El Paso, Texas, on
January 13, 1916.
Emiliano Zapata (1879-1919)
Born in the current state of Morelos, a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution,
Emiliano Zapata (1879-1919) head the Liberation Army of the South, a group of
revolutionary peasants known as Zapatistas who fought for agrarian reform and
opposed land appropriation under the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. Following Francisco
Madero’s ascent to power, Zapata supported the new president’s anti-reelectionist
movement. However, he was loyal to the peasants, who were disenfranchised during
the Porfiriato. Along with Francisco “Pancho” Villa, Zapata strived for advancing the
causes of indigenous peoples. Such pursuit drove both to denounce Madero’s inaction
regarding the agrarian reform and, later, to oppose President Huerta. Zapata’s army
consisted of thousands of peasant-soldiers for whom he was a heroic figure. On orders
of President Venustiano Carranza, Zapata was ambushed and killed on April 10, 1919.
2007.3.0871
Mariana Yampolsky
La juventud de Emiliano Zapata: lección objetiva (The Youth of Emiliano Zapata:
Objective Lesson)
1960
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0871. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
In this image, American artist Mariana Yampolsky represents a young Emiliano Zapata
(1879-1919), in the agrarian fields in Mexico. According to common lore, at a very
young age, Zapata told his father that when he grew up he would reclaim the land taken
from the peasants. Here, Zapata witnesses the abuse endured by peasant workers. In
the background, workers are being whipped; forced labor was the order of the day in the
years leading up to the Revolution.
2007.3.0876
Ignacio Aguirre
Emiliano Zapata hecho prisionero en su lucha en favor de los campesinos. 1908
(Emiliano Zapata is Made Prisoner in His Struggles in Favor of the Peasants. 1908.
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0876. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
In the years leading up to the Revolution of 1910, rebel leader Emiliano Zapata (18791919) was well known in southern Mexico, where he gathered an army of peasants to
fight against Porfirio Díaz. Zapata later confronted the federal forces led by Francisco
Madero and pushed for land reform. In his continued struggle for the rights of the people
to their land, Zapata led a fight against Presidents Victoriano Huerta and Venustiano
22
Carranza. The latter ordered the assassination of the revolutionary leader. In 1919
Zapata was tricked into a meeting with one of Carranza’s generals. He was killed during
the encounter. Zapata is depicted here surrounded by federal army men, towering over
the land for which he fought all his life.
2007.3.0895
Adolfo Quinteros
El gran guerrillero Francisco Villa (1877-1923) (The Great Commander Francisco Villa,
1877-1923)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0895. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Francisco “Pancho” Villa commanded the northern army in the early years of the
Revolution. He financed his military operations by selling stolen cattle across the border
to American farmers, who in turn, provided arms and ammunition. Villa negotiated his
surrender to President Obregón in 1919. He was ambushed and killed in 1923. Today
he is remembered as a key figure in the fight for a constitutional government and
peasant rights. In many towns he is regarded as a hero of the Revolution. He quickly
became an intriguing character; Villa, married more than 20 times, invaded American
territory in more than one occasion, and drew the attention of writers and filmmakers.
Women in Mexico’s Revolutionary History
Women had significant roles throughout Mexico’s revolutionary history. Not only did
they care for the soldiers in their family, they also assumed leadership in moments of
intense conflict. Their presence in the battlefield was critical; many of them fought
alongside the soldiers, while others provided care for the wounded and transported
provisions to those in combat. Women also served as strategists who hosted
clandestine meetings of the insurgent movements in the various wars since the Spanish
conquest, aided in the communications among factions, served as nurses and in some
cases offered their lives to protect the soldiers. Accounts of women’s involvement in
Mexico’s revolutionary history also reveal instances in which they were exploited and
abused as smugglers or prostitutes.
2007.3.0790
Jesús Escobedo
Doña Antonia Nava de Catalán
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0790. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
23
Doña Antonia Nava de Catalán, known as “La Generala” (she was married to General
Nicolás Catalán), was a heroine of the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821).
During the battle of Jaleaca in Tlacotepec, Guerrero, provisions for the soldiers were
scarce. In order to provide sustenance for all, General Catalán ordered the sacrifice of a
few soldiers. Upon learning of this order, “La Generala” offered her life along with three
other women in order to spare the soldiers so that they could continue fighting Spanish
forces. This act of selflessness and patriotism reenergized the soldiers and motivated
them to honor the women’s commitment to their cause by defending their land. General
José María Morelos, a leader of the independence movement, is shown here interacting
with “La Generala” and one of her sons.
2007.3.0812
Elena Huerta
Doña Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0812. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
In this print, Elena Huerta represents Doña Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez, known as “La
Corregidora de Querétaro,” a key figure in the War of Independence. She fought for the
rights of indigenous people, participated in the Querétaro conspiracy for independence
from Spain, gave financial support to the rebels and hosted meetings with the most
important revolutionary leaders. “La Corregidora” is shown here locking the door to her
house, perhaps to protect those who attended secret meetings and organized the
independence movement.
2007.3.0909
Alfredo Zalce
La Soldadera
1960
Offset
10 5/8 x 15 3/4 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0909. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
During the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920), and under the presidency of Victoriano
Huerta, some women were drafted to the federal army to fight against enemy forces.
Many others, especially those who came from poorer backgrounds, served as
“soldaderas.” Unlike female soldiers, “soldaderas” were not allowed or trained to fight,
and performed daily duties in order to assist men in battle. “Soldaderas” cooked for the
soldiers, transported goods and equipment, and served as nurses, among other tasks.
They were often used as smugglers or prostitutes. Alfredo Zalce depicts here a
“soldadera” tending to a wounded soldier near the train tracks. The image does not
focus on the identity of the woman but on the duties she performs during the conflict.
24
2002.2.050
Máximo Pacheco
Niña campesina, almuerzo (Young Peasant Girl, Lunch)
1942
Oil on canvas
32 x 24 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2002.2.050. Gift of Harry Pollak.
2002.2.071
Alfredo Zalce
Yucateca (Woman from Yucatán)
1946
Duco /fibracel
25 x 17 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2002.2.071. Gift of Harry Pollak.
2002.2.072
Alfredo Zalce
Vendedora de patos (Girl Selling Ducks)
1959
Oil on masonite
36 x 47 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2002.2.072. Gift of Harry Pollak.
(This label for the three paintings above)
The paintings by TGP members Alfredo Zalce and Máximo Pacheco in this section
show women in traditional roles such as peasants and street vendors. In Zalce’s
Vendedora de patos a young girl looks sadly at the ducks she is about to sell. Pacheco
depicts a colorful vignette where the figure is surrounded by beautiful plants and flowers
in Niña campesina. In the background, a couple of workers go about their day in the
bright yellow fields. The vibrant and contrasting tones of the landscape give this
picturesque scene a cheerful and serene atmosphere. A dignified portrayal of a peasant
worker, Zalce’s Yucateca emphasizes the woman’s hands, feet and dark skin, alluding
to the strain physical labor in the fields has put on her body.
Cristeros and the Catholic Church
An achievement of the Mexican Revolution, the Constitution of 1917 established the
separation between the Catholic Church and the state, and limited the rights of the
clergy. The Cristero Rebellion (1926-1929) was an attempt by Catholic priests to
overthrow the ideas of the Revolution. A Catholic armed insurrection ensued in 1926 in
which its protagonists fought against the secularization of education, and in favor of
freedom of worship. The revolt was carried out in the name of Cristo Rey or Christ King,
thus the name Cristeros. Thousands were killed during the three years of the conflict.
Following the intervention of the Holy See, the Mexican government and the rebels
reached an amnesty in 1929.
25
2007.3.0782
Fernando Castro Pacheco
Asesinato del General Álvaro Obregón, dirigido por la reacción clerical. 18 de julio de
1928 (Assassination of the General Álvaro Obregón, Directed by the Opposition Clergy.
July 18, 1928).
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0782. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
This image depicts the assassination of General Álvaro Obregón, who was killed while
dining at the restaurant La Bombilla in Mexico City. The shooter was José de León
Toral, a Cristero who posed as an artist to have access to Obregón.
2007.3.0788
Fernando Castro Pacheco
Los Cristeros controlan la enseñanza en el campo (The Cristeros Control Education in
the Countryside).
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0788. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
President Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-1940) passed Education Reform at the beginning of
his term in keeping with the separation between church and state established in the
Constitution of 1917. The Reform stipulated that religion would not be a part of public
education. The Cristeros opposed these changes and after unsuccessful attempts to
overturn Cárdenas decision, took arms against rural teachers. In a series of violent
incidents, several schools were attacked and dozens of teachers were killed or injured.
2007.3.0878
Elena Huerta
Vasco de Quiroga (First Bishop of Michoacán, Mexico)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0878. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
Vasco de Quiroga (1470-1565) was a missionary and first bishop of the state of
Michoacán, known for his work to help indigenous people. De Quiroga defended the
Indians from the injustices inflicted on them by the conquistadors. He also taught them
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basic skills for the production of artisanal objects, musical instruments, and everyday
utensils.
Education
One of the consequences of the Mexican Revolution was the improvement of the
education system in Mexico. In 1921, under the presidency of Álvaro Obregón, the
Ministry of Public Education was established. This ministry launched a literacy
campaign aimed at providing education in rural areas. Subsequent administrations built
on Obregón efforts to eradicate analphabetism well into the 1940s. Presidents Manuel
Ávila Camacho and Miguel Alemán devoted their agendas to implement literacy
programs in rural areas. Alemán was criticized for investing considerably more efforts
and resources to build the National Autonomous University of Mexico than to strengthen
elementary education in poor towns and villages.
Protests and Strikes
The TGP produced posters, leaflets, illustrations and other materials to support the
government’s efforts to eradicate illiteracy and improve existing infrastructure,
objectives that they shared. Realistic and direct, these works were often accompanied
by propaganda slogans; they were pasted on the city’s walls, given to workers at
demonstrations and circulated among the masses. The purpose of such production was
to educate, promote awareness of social issues and, ultimately, motivate collective
action. Contemporary artistic trends such as abstraction and surrealism, they argued,
would not be easily understood by the masses and, as a result, would not have the
didactic effect they expected from their work.
2002.2.043
Pablo O’Higgins
Los obreros (The Workers)
1950
Mixed media
20 x 15 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2002.2.043. Gift of Harry Pollak.
Born in Salt Lake City, Utah, Pablo O’Higgins (1904-1983) migrated to Mexico in 1924.
He assisted Diego Rivera on several mural projects from 1924 to 1928, worked as an
illustrator for various publications and was one of the founding members of the Taller de
Gráfica Popular. In this painting, O’Higgins depicts two men working on a wall surface,
perhaps the façade of a building. The simplified forms and soft colors contrast with the
strong diagonals which emphasize the perilous labor carried out.
2002.2.057
Diego Rivera
Enrielando, Moscú (Sawing Rails, Moscow)
1927
27
Conté crayon on paper
25 x 19 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2002.2.057. Gift of Harry Pollak.
In 1927, Diego Rivera traveled to Moscow to participate in the celebration of the
Russian Revolution’s 10th anniversary. Rivera was a founding member and part of the
official delegation of the Mexican Communist Party. For nine months, Rivera attended
political gatherings, met with Russian artists and taught monumental painting at the
Lenin Academy. This was a crucial trip for Rivera, whose art was committed to socialist
ideals. While in Moscow, he produced more than 40 small works which addressed daily
life in the Soviet Union. Created during this trip, Enrielando, Moscú depicts five heavily
clad workers huddled around a fire to keep warm, as they forge the rails for the railroad.
In this image, the identity of the workers is concealed; the primary focus is on the
affirmation of collective labor.
The Press
During the Porfirio Díaz regime, which lasted almost three decades in the late 19th
century, the government controlled the press. Newspapers and informational flyers were
banned in many indigenous areas to keep their population from accessing information
about current events. The Constitution of 1917, enacted under the leadership of
President Venustiano Carranza, reinstated freedom of press in Mexico for the first time
since the Porfirato.
International Politics
During the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and World War II (1939-1945), an influx of
European artists and intellectual exiles in Mexico invigorated the Taller’s progressive
causes. This international presence was critical to decrying fascism and Nazism. For
instance, German exiles formed the Liga Pro Cultura Alemana (Pro German Culture
League), which censured Nazism in Europe. Under the auspices of Mexican President
Ávila Camacho, they published El libro negro del terror nazi en Europa (The Little Black
Book of Nazi Terror in Europe), which included one of the first images of the Holocaust
produced in the Americas. The Taller also published a portfolio in support of the
Republican faction that confronted General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War.
2007.3.0797
Leopoldo Méndez
México en la Guerra: los Braceros se van a Estados Unidos (Mexico in the War: The
Laborers Go to the United States)
1960
Offset
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0797. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
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This image shows the braceros, or manual laborers, entering the US under the Bracero
Program established by Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Manuel Ávila Camacho in
1942. The program opened the border for Mexican workers to replace American
soldiers during World War II. Approximately three million workers entered the US to
work in the fields between 1942 and the end of the agreement in 1964.
2007.3.0806
Angel Bracho
La sociedad Alemán-Truman (The Alemán-Truman Society)
1960
15 3/4 x 10 5/8 inches
Artis—Naples, The Baker Museum. 2007.3.0806. Gift of Michael F. and Tonya L.
Aranda.
During World War II Presidents Miguel Alemán and Harry S. Truman forged a political
alliance as well as a personal friendship. As a result, Alemán established the “Open
Door Policy” which encouraged American investment in Mexico, and passed laws to
protect Mexican laborers.
Nationalization of Resources
During his six-year term in office from 1934 to 1940, President Lázaro Cárdenas
enforced the basic principles of the Mexican Revolution, especially those concerned
with economic progress and industrialization. Agrarian Reform became a priority for
Cárdenas, who redistributed more than one million acres of land that were expropriated
from American companies. He helped peasants obtain property rights through credit,
offered them technical training, education, and better water and sanitary systems.
These changes contributed to improve the quality of life in rural areas, broaden the
national market and pave the way for significant economic growth.
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