Seite 1
Alpine Mass Movements:
Implications for hazard
assessment and mapping
Seite 14
Michael Mölk, Thomas Sausgruber, Richard Bäk, Arben Kociu:
Standards and Methods of Hazard Assessment for
Rapid Mass Movements (Rock Fall and Landslide) in Austria
Seite 82
Hugo Raetzo, Bernard Loup:
Geological Hazard Assessment in Switzerland
Seite 94
Cover picture: Großhangbewegung Rindberg, Gde. Sibratsgfäll, Vorarlberg
Source: die.wildbach
BLOCK 2
This publication was implemented within the framework of EU-project
AdaptAlp, Workpackage 5, and is co-financed by the European Regional
Development Fund (ERDF)
Karl Mayer, Bernhard Lochner:
Wolfram Bitterlich:
Internationally Harmonized Terminology for
Wildbachverbauung und Ökologie Widerspruch oder sinnvolle Ergänzung?
Geological Risk: Glossary (Overview)
Stefano Campus:
Landslide Mapping in Piemonte (Italy):
Danger, Hazard & Risk
Seite 102
Cite as:
BMLFUW (2011): Alpine Mass Movements: Implications for hazard assessment
and mapping, Special Edition of Journal of Torrent, Avalanche, Landslide and
Rock Fall Engineering No. 166.
BLOCK 1: Key-note papers
Layout:
Studio Kopfsache, Mondsee
Roland Norer:
Legal Framework for Assessment and Mapping of Geological Hazards
on the International, European and National Levels
Seite 48
Mateja Jemec & Marko Komac:
An Overview of Approaches for Hazard Assessment
of Slope Mass Movements
Editorial Team:
Florian Rudolf-Miklau, Richard Bäk, Christoph Skolaut and Franz Schmid
Coordination:
Barbara Kogelnig-Mayer
Richard Bäk, Hugo Raetzo, Karl Mayer,
Andreas von Poschinger, Gerlinde Posch-Trözmüller:
Mapping of Geological Hazards: Methods, Standards and
Procedures (State of Development) - Overview
Seite 64
Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management,
Marxergasse 2, 1030 Vienna, Austria.
Verein der Diplomingenieure der Wildbach- und Lawinenverbauung,
Bergheimerstrasse 57, 5021 Salzburg, Austria
Seite 70
Imprint / Disclosure
Florian Rudolf-Miklau:
Principles of Hazard Assessment and Mapping
Seite 24
Florian Rudolf-Miklau, Richard Bäk, Franz Schmid, Christoph Skolaut:
Hazard Mapping for Mass Movements: Strategic Importance and
Transnational Development of Standards in the ASP-Project ADAPTALP
Seite
Seite12
6
Seite 3
Seite 2
Inhalt
Seite 118
Claire Foster, Matthew Harrison & Helen J. Reeves:
Standards and Methods of Hazard Assessment for
Mass Movements in Great Britain
Seite 150
Karl Mayer, Bernhard Lochner:
International Comparison: Summary of the Expert
Hearing in Bolzano on 17 March 2010
Seite 158
Pere Oller, Marta González, Jordi Pinyol, Jordi Marturià, Pere Martínez:
Goeohazards Mapping in Catalonia
Seite 130
Didier Richard:
Standards and Methods of Hazard Assessment
for Rapid Mass Movements in France
Seite 142
Karl Mayer, Andreas von Poschinger:
Standards and Methods of Hazard Assessment for
Geological Dangers (Mass Movements) in Bavaria
Seite 108
Seite 5
Marko Komac, Mateja Jemec:
Standards and Methods of Hazard Assessment
for Rapid Mass Movements in Slovenia
BLOCK 2: Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Seite 4
Inhalt
Seite 7
Seite 6
Zusammenfassung:
Massenbewegungen (Steinschlag, Rutschungen, Felsgleitungen) bedrohen den alpinen
Lebensraum und verursachen zahlreiche Risiken. Durch die intensive Raumnutzung in den
Bergtälern besteht ein zunehmender Bedarf an genauen Gefahrenkarten für diese Gefahrenarten. Aufgrund fehlender Daten und zuverlässiger Methoden für die Gefahrenbeurteilung
wurden bisher keine generellen Standards für die Gefahrdarstellung von Rutschungen und
Steinschlägen entwickelt. Die Unsicherheit in der Beurteilung der Gefahren wird durch den
Einfluss des Klimawandels noch erhöht. Das Projekt ADAPTALP zielt darauf ab, diese Lücke
durch die Entwicklung transnationaler Standards für die Gefahrenzonenplanung für Massenbewegungen zu schließen.
“snow avalanches”. However there are no legal
Alpine Space at risk: Importance of hazard maps
FLORIAN RUDOLF-MIKLAU, RICHARD BÄK, FRANZ SCHMID, CHRISTOPH SKOLAUT
Hazard Mapping for Mass Movements:
Strategic Importance and Transnational Development
of Standards in the ASP-Project ADAPTALP
Gefahrendarstellung von Massenbewegungen:
Strategische Bedeutung und länderübergreifende
Entwicklung von Standards im Projekt ADALPTALP
Summary:
Mass movements (rock falls, landslides, rock slides) are major threats for the Alpine living
space and cause various risks. Due to the intensive land use in the mountain valleys, there is
an urgent need for reliable hazard maps for these types of hazards. Missing data and the lack
of reliable methods for the assessment of hazards has obstructed the development of general
standards in hazard mapping for landslides and rock fall. The uncertainties and inaccuracies
of models are increased by the impact of climate change. The project ADAPTALP (within the
Alpine Space Program) aims to close this gap by creating transnational standards for hazard
mapping concerning geological risks (mass movements).
(technical) standards available for the outline
of areas endangered by mass movements (e.g.
In the Alpine countries, natural hazards constitute
landslides, rock fall). The assessment of these
a security risk in many regions. Floods, debris
processes concerning the frequency and intensity
flows, avalanches, landslides and rock falls
of events (disasters) is difficult and demanding
threaten people, their living environments, their
due to the lack of measurements and basic data.
settlements and economic areas, transport routes,
In addition, the knowledge of geotechnical
supply lines, and other infrastructure. They
parameters, physical properties and triggering
constitute a major threat to the bases of existence
mechanisms of the displacement processes still
of the population. The increasing settlement
are fragmentary, although wide progress were
pressure and area consumption, the opening up
achieved by improved monitoring methods and
of transport routes in the Alps as well as strong
the detailed analysis of past events.
growth rates in tourism have brought about a
considerable spatial extension of endangered
in Alpine valleys and the growing vulnerability of
areas. With the rising demands on welfare and
human facilities have significantly increased the risk
quality of life, the need for safety and protection
for natural disasters caused by mass movements.
of the population increased as well.
The growing demand for hazard maps that cover
Hazard maps that show areas at risk by natural
these risky processes has initiated strong efforts in all
hazards are of paramount importance for the
mountainous countries in Europe to develop exact
development of Alpine regions. The maps count
methods and appropriate standards that enable the
among the active planning measures in natural
production of hazard maps for mass movements
hazard management and serve to the safety of
with sufficient accuracy. By bundling these initiatives
existing settlements and their inhabitants as
the ASP (Alpine Space Program/Funding Initiative of
well as to the steering of land-use only outside
the European Commission) project ADAPTALP – in
of endangered areas. Since the beginning of
cooperation with other projects like SAFELAND,
1970’s, these maps have been established in
PERMANET or MASSMOVE – aims at the
several countries (Switzerland, Austria, France)
development of technical standards and provision
for the hazards “flood”, “debris flow” and
of harmonized quality criteria for all member states.
Recently the expansion of settlement areas
Seite 9
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Mass movements: Hazard processes on slopes
damming up bodies of water. Expenses related to
of the particles. Slopes consisting of silt and clay
weathering and erosion help loosen large
landslides include actual damages to structures
particles obtain it from particle cohesion, which is
chunks of earth and start them sliding
A variety of processes exist by which materials
or property, as well as loss of tax revenues on
controlled by the availability of moisture in the soil.
downhill.
can be moved through the slope system. These
devalued properties, reduced real estate values
Rock slopes generally have the greatest internal
processes
mass
in landslide prone areas, loss of productivity of
strength due to the crystalline structures.
loading
movement or mass wasting. Mass movements
agricultural lands affected by landslides, and loss
stockpiling of rock, from waste piles and
per definition are movements of bodies of soil,
of industrial productivity because of interruption
increase in stress. In some cases, the internal
from buildings and other structures.
sediments such as residual soil and bed rock
of transportation systems by landslides. Not only
strength of the materials can be reduced resulting
In the Alps, mass movements occur in a wide
which usually occur along steep-sided slopes and
rapid types of mass movements are harmful.
in the triggering of a mass movement. Failure of
range of processes consisting of bedrock and soil
mountains. Mass movements can be classified
Slow movement of creep does more long term
the slope material can occur over a range of time
or a mixture of both.
due to the rate of movement (rapid or slow), the
economic damage to roads, railroads, building
scales. Some types of mass movement involve
type of movement (falling, sliding or flowing) and
structure and underground pipes.
rather rapid, spontaneous events. Sudden failures
is often dramatic and quick. They involve the
to the type of material involved (soil, sediments or
movement
tend to occur when the stresses exerted on the
downward movement of small rock fragments
rock debris).
processes relies upon the development of
slope materials greatly exceed their strength for
pried loose by gravitational stress, the enlargement
instability in the slope system. The predominant
short periods of time. Mass movement can also
of joints during weathering and/or freeze-thaw
source of stress is the gravitational force. Other
be a less continuous process that occurs over long
processes (rock fall). Larger scale, down slope
factors that affect mass movements are the
periods of time. Slow failures often occur when
movement of rock can also occur along well-
steepness of slopes, the lithological property of
the applied stresses only just exceed the internal
defined joints or bedding planes. This type of
the slope materials, and the amount of water in
strength of the slope system.
movement is called rock slide. Rock slides often
the material. The two most important parameters
occur when a fracture plane develops causing
in mass movement is the angle of friction and the
failure. One of the most common is prolonged
overlying materials to slide down slope.
cohesion.
or heavy rainfall. Rainfall can lead to mass
The magnitude of the gravitational
movement through three different mechanisms.
sediments
force is related to the angle of the slope and the
Often these mechanisms do not act alone. The
movement processes. Two common types of
weight of slope sediments and rock. The following
saturation of soil materials with water increases
mass movements in these cohesive materials are
equation models this relationship:
the weight of slope materials which then leads
rotational slips (slumps) and mudflows. Both of
to greater gravitational force. Saturation of soil
these processes occur over very short time periods.
materials can also reduce the cohesive bonds
Rotational slips or slumps occur along clearly
between individual soil particles resulting in the
defined planes of weakness which generally have
reduction of the internal strength of the slope.
a concave form beneath the earth's surface. These
Lastly, the presence of bedding planes in the slope
processes can be caused by a variety of factors.
material can cause material above a particular
The most common mechanical reason for them
plane below ground level to slide along a surface
to occur is erosion at the base of the slope which
lubricated by percolating moisture.
reduces the support for overlying sediments.
are
generically
known
as
The
operation
of
mass
F = W sin Ø
Fig. 1: Land slide in cohesive soil resulting from slope
instabilities and saturation of material by water.
where
Abb. 1: Rutschung in bindigem Boden resultierend aus
Hanginstabilitäten und Wassersättigung des Bodens.
F is gravitational force,
W is the weight of the material occurring at
Mass
movements
have
direct
and
indirect impact on a number of human activities.
some point on the slope, and
Ø is the angle of the slope.
The stability of a slope depends on the
•Vibrations from machinery, traffic, weight
Instability is not always caused by an
Many factors can act as triggers for slope
from
accumulation
of
snow,
Mass movement on hard rock slopes
Slopes formed from clays and silt
display
somewhat
unique
mass
The steepness and structural stability of slopes
determines their suitability for agriculture, forestry,
relationship between the stresses applied to the
Additionally, a large variety of other
Mudflows occur when slope materials become
and human settlement. Instable slopes can also
materials that make up the slope and their internal
trigger mechanism for mass movement other than
so saturated that the cohesive bonds between
become a hazard to humans if their materials
strength. Mass movement occurs when the stresses
the gravitational are known, such as:
particles is lost. In a mudflow there is enough
move rapidly through the process of mass wasting.
exceed the internal strength. Slopes composed of
Landslides can suddenly rush down a steep slope
causing great destruction across a wide area
of habitable land and sometimes also floods by
which depends on the size, shape, and arrangement
•Earthquake
shocks
cause
sections
of
water to allow the mixture to flow easily, as a
loose materials, such as sand and gravel, derive
mountains and hills to break off and slide
viscous stream. Mudflows can occur on very low
their internal strength from frictional resistance,
down.
slope angles because internal particle frictional
•Human modification of the land or
resistance and cohesion is negligible.
Seite 11
Seite 10
An earth flow is slower moving than a mudflow
to the increasing temperatures. The uncertainties
known by experts but
and involves a mass of material that retains rather
and the increase of natural hazards due to the
may cause problems in
distinct boundaries as it moves. “Debris flow” is
impacts of climate change require concerted
practice when applied
a term used generally for rapid mass movements
management in the Alpine Space. It must be
in a legal framework.
consisting of water and residual soil. The term
managed on a transnational, national, regional
It is not unusual for
implies a heterogeneous mixture of materials
and local scale to effectively save human life,
unsuitable
including a considerable fraction of particles
settlements and infrastructure. Nevertheless, there
hazard maps to be
that are coarser than the particles in mud. Debris
is still a lack of precise data taking climate change
applied for the wrong
flows occur on slopes as well as in laterally
into account. The result is an insufficient accuracy
purposes. For example
confined channels.
of available models and inaccurate prediction of
it is often to find
natural hazard and menacing catastrophic events.
landslide
The impact of climate change increases these
maps used as hazard
Type
Bedrock
Engineering soil
predominantly …
… coarse
… fine
Fall
Rock fall
Rock
avalanche
(Debris fall)
(Earth fall)
Topple
Rock
topple
(Debris
topple)
(Earth topple)
Slide
Rock slide
Debris slide
Earth slide
uncertainties.
of
inventory
or risk maps.
Harmonized
cross-sectoral
hazard
assessment and hazard mapping must be balanced
on a transnational level. The ADAPTALP project
(www.adaptalp.org) focuses on the harmonization
Fig. 2: Transnational standards in hazard mapping are of major importance for the prevention of
catastrophic events according to land use in endangered areas.
When
Abb. 2: Die Entwicklung von länderübergreifenden Standards in der Gefahrendarstellung ist bei
der Prävention von Katastrophenereignissen von großer Bedeutung, da gefährdete Gebiete immer
stärker genutzt werden.
(mass movements) in
of the various national approaches and methods
for the assessment of hazards related to mass
movements.
types
Along
with
the
mapping
geological
hazards
principle we have to
distinguish between two situations:
Hazard maps for mass movements
1.Scientific studies on mass movements with no
harmonization
legal implications (e.g. on land use planning):
of terminology, an important issue tackled by
Hazard zones are designated areas threatened
Typical cases are studies carried out by
ADAPTALP is the provision of reliable data and
by natural risks such as avalanches, landslides or
universities (research institutes). The aim of
models for this kind of processes. The more
flooding. The formulation of these hazard zones is
these studies is to understand the mechanical
reliable the information basis, the more efficiently
an important aspect of spatial planning. The basis
features of instability or to study different ways of
adaptation strategies on local and regional level
for hazard maps is a comprehensive assessment
evolution of the phenomenon (scenarios) in order
can be implemented. The project is based on an
of geological and hydro(geo)logical framework
to assess the susceptibility of investigated areas.
integrated transnational approach. That means
conditions, slope instabilities, relevant triggering
Landslide inventories can be made by means of
that a comprehensive comparison of all available
mechanisms,
standards and methods is carried out covering all
processes, potential risks and the vulnerability
2.Susceptibility/Hazard index/Hazard maps that
ASP-project ADAPTALP: Adaptation of
countries in the Alpine region (Austria, Germany,
of endangered areas (objects). Consequently it is
have direct (obligatory) consequences for land
natural hazard management to climate change
Italy, France, Switzerland, Slovenia) and other
essential to distinguish the three aspects of mass
use planning and building trade at different
European states with a considerable share of
movement assessment and mapping:
scale: The scale used to present the results of
Spread
Flow
Rock
spread
(Rock
flow)
(Debris
spread)
Debris flow
(in channels)
(Earth spread)
Earth flow
Tab. 1: Types of mass movements (classification) after
Raetzo.
Tab. 1: Typen von Massenbewegungen (Klassifikation)
of
a historical or morphological approach.
Assessment
the hazard assessment depends on the desired
product (susceptibility map, hazard index map,
the international harmonization in method and
morphology, inventory of mass movements).
hazard zone map) and must be balanced with
procedure will raise the quality of hazard assessment
•Hazards: Spatial and temporal probability,
the precision requirements according to the
natural hazards including mass movements. A
considerably. A general “state-of-the-art” for hazard
intensity and forecasting of evolution
spatial level of application (supra-regional,
major impact on the intensity of mass movements
mapping concerning mass movements seems to be
(scenarios) are needed.
regional, local). The legal significance of these
at high altitudes (above 2300 m in the Alps) has
within reach.
mountain regions (Great Britain, Spain, Norway).
increasing temperatures and changed precipitation
The transnational exchange of knowledge and
patterns. Any change of these critical factors
has implications on the frequency and extent of
thaw of permafrost and the retreat of glaciers due
(susceptibilities):
displacement
and characterization of threat (typology,
Climate change is, to a large extent, constituted by
•Dangers
properties
•Risks: Interaction between a threat having
particular hazard and human activities.
In principle, these theoretical concepts are well
maps requires technical standards and a “stateof-the-art” concerning formal requirements
(e.g. investigation methods, documentation),
Seite 13
Seite 12
hazard assessment and procedures of the check
a climate change adaptation strategy. The results
and approval of the maps.
will be summarized in a synthesis report.
ADAPTALP (in Work Package 5) will
These fields of research within the
Anschrift der Verfasser / Authors’ addresses:
DI Christoph Skolaut
Wildbach- und Lawinenverbauung,
DI Dr. Florian Rudolf-Miklau
Sektion Salzburg
different
project contain the topics to work out the
Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft,
Torrent and Avalanche Control, District Salzburg
methods of hazard mapping applied in the Alpine
“minimum standards” (minimal requirements) for
Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft,
5020 Salzburg, Bergheimerstraße 57
area. A main emphasis will be on a comparison
the creation of danger (susceptibility) and hazard
Abteilung IV/5, Wildbach- und Lawinenverbauung
Tel.: (+43 662) 871853 – 303
of methods for mapping geological hazards in
maps for landslides. The first step is the evaluation
Federal Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry,
FAX: (+43 662) 870215
the individual countries. A glossary will facilitate
of the “state of the art” in hazard mapping in each
Enviroment and Water Management,
Mail: [email protected]
interdisciplinary and multilingual cooperation as
involved country. Two main questions will be
Department IV/5, Torrent and Avalanche Control
Homepage: http://www.lebensministerium.at/forst
well as support the harmonization of the various
answered by the project:
1030 Wien, Marxergasse 2
evaluate,
harmonize
and
improve
methods. In selected model regions methods
•
What kinds of danger (susceptibility),
Tel.: (+43 1) 71 100 - 7333
to adapt risk analysis to the impact of climate
hazard and risk maps are officially applied
FAX: (+43 1) 71 100- 7399
in each country?
Mail: [email protected]
change will be tested. This should support the
development of hazard zone planning towards
•Which standards are these maps based on?
Homepage: http://www.lebensministerium.at/forst
The second step will be the “harmonization” of
the different methods, which are used in several
Dr. Richard Bäk
countries. Therefore similarities should be worked
Amt der Kärntner Landesregierung, Abt. 15 Umwelt
out and the “least common denominator” in the
Unterabteilung Geologie und Bodenschutz,
methods of hazard mapping should be found.
A – 9020 Klagenfurt, Flatschacher Straße 70
The final step will be the creation of guidelines
Tel: +43 - (0) 50536 - 31510
and recommendation, which include the results
Fax: +43 - (0) 50536 - 41500
of this “harmonization”. They will include
Mob. +43 - (0) 664 - 8053631510
“minimum requirements for the creation of danger
Mail: [email protected]
(susceptibility), hazard and risk maps”.
Other important results – developed in cooperation
DI Franz Schmid
with other projects as MASSMOVE – will be:
Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft,
•Definition of minimal requirements for the
Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft,
collection of the relevant data of endangered
Abteilung IV/5, Wildbach- und Lawinenverbauung
areas and cartographic representation of
Federal Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry,
slides and rock falls.
Enviroment and Water Management, Department
•Specification of minimal requirements for
the spatial description of the dangers.
IV/5, Torrent and Avalanche Control
1030 Wien, Marxergasse 2
•Development of minimal requirements for
Tel.: (+43 1) 71 100 - 7338
the determination of the hazard potential of
FAX: (+43 1) 71 100- 7399
slides and rock falls.
Mail: [email protected]
•Development of tools for the reduction of
the risk potential by consideration of the
Fig. 3: Example for a susceptibility map of the Arlberg region
(Vorarlberg/Austria) after Ruff
hazards during land use planning by the
Abb. 3: Beispiel einer Suszeptibilitätskarte der Arlbergregion
(Vorarlberg/Österreich) nach Ruff
use as well as for the planning of preventive
local administrations and during the land
measures.
Homepage: http://www.lebensministerium.at/forst
Literatur / References:
BATES A. L., JACKSON J. A.:
Glossary of Geology. American Geological Institute, 3rd Edition, 1987.
CAMPUS S., BABERO S., BOVO S., FORLATI F. (EDS.):
Evaluation and prevention of natural risks. Taylor and Francis/Balkema,
2007.
GLADE T., ANDERSON M., CROZIER M. J. (HRG.):
Landslide Hazards and Risk. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 2005.
GRUNER U., WYSS R.:
Anleitung zur Analyse von Rutschungen. Swiss Bull. angew. Geol., Vol.
14/1+2, 2009.
RAETZO, H. , RICKLI, C.:
Rutschungen. In: Bezzola G.R, & Hegg, C. (Hrsg.) 2007: Ereignisanalyse
Hochwasser 2005, Teil 1 – Prozesse, Schäden und erste Einordnung.
Bundesamt für Umwelt BAFU, Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt WSL.
Umwelt-Wissen Nr. 0707, 2007.
RUFF, M.:
GIS-gestützte Risikonanalyse für Rutschungen und Felsstürze in den
Ostalpen (Vorarlberg, Österreich). Georisikokarte Vorarlberg. Diss. Univ.
Karlsruhe, 2005.
SIDLE R. C., OCHIAI H.:
Landslides processes, prediction and land use. American Geographical
Union, water resources monograph 18, Springer Verlag, 2006.
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Key-note papers
Basic concept of hazard assessment
According to the well-established basic concept of
hazard assessment, the procedure can be divided
Effective prevention against natural hazards
in three distinct steps (HÜBL ET AL., 2007 [9.]:
requires a better understanding of the processes
•The survey of basic information (data)
occurring in nature. The primary aim of hazard
•The analysis of hazards (and risks)
assessment is to gain a deep and comprehensive
•The valuation of hazards (and risks)
knowledge of these processes in order to provide
Principles of Hazard Assessment and Mapping
Grundlagen der Analyse und
Bewertung von Naturgefahren
Summary:
The article summarizes the general principles for the assessment of natural hazards. The
main emphasis lies on the basic approaches and methods of hazard assessment with special
attention to the “frequency-intensity-concept” (including the deficits of this approach). The
strategic importance of “preventive” planning with regards to the use and development of
endangered areas in mountain areas is discussed. In addition, a summary of the most important standards and categories of hazard (risk) mapping is provided.
Zusammenfassung:
Der Beitrag fasst die generellen Grundlagen der Analyse und Bewertung von Naturgefahren
zusammen. Der Schwerpunkt liegt im Bereich der grundlegenden Ansätze und Methoden für
die Gefahrenbewertung, wobei das „Häufigkeits-Intensitäts-Konzept“ besondere Beachtung
findet (einschließlich der Defizite dieses Ansatzes). Weiters wird auf die strategische Bedeutung der „präventiven Planung“ hinsichtlich der Nutzung und Entwicklung von gefährdeten
Gebieten im Gebirge eingegangen. Abschließend erfolgt eine zusammenfassende Darstellung der wichtigsten Standards und Kategorien der kartographischen Darstellung von Naturgefahren.
As a rule, the survey of information related to
of hazardous events and the corresponding
natural hazards focuses on the acquisition of
damaging effects. (RUDOLF-MIKLAU in SUDA
basic data on relevant factors in nature. The survey
ET. AL., 2011 [18.]) Another important demand
includes “geo-data” (topography, geology, and
is the prediction of the time of occurrence and
soil), “meteo-data” (climate, weather), “hydro-
duration of a catastrophic event (predictability
data” (precipitation, run-off, and groundwater)
and advanced warning time; Fig. 1) (RUDOLF-
and “eco-data” (environmental parameters). In
MIKLAU, 2009 [14.]). The initial purpose of
addition, data on past (historic) events represent a
hazard assessment is the provision of basic
major source of information. (RUDOLF-MIKLAU,
knowledge
protection
2009 [14.]) For the purpose of risk assessment,
measures (e.g. flood control, avalanche control),
data for natural processes must be combined with
which requires quantitative information about
data related to human activities. These sources of
the order and magnitude of catastrophic events
information include demographic and economic
and their probable damaging consequences on
statistics, data on land use and agriculture,
human health, economic activities, environment,
and records of damages caused by past events
and cultural heritage.
(BRÜNDL ET AL., 2009 [5.]).
for
the
planning
Predictability
FLORIAN RUDOLF-MIKLAU
accurate prognosis of the expected magnitude
of
Drought
Debris flow
Earthquake
Avalanches
Rockfall
Landslides
seconds
minutes
Floods
Volcanism
Storm
Deceases
Wildfire
hours
days
weeks
Advanced warning time(T)
Fig. 1: Predictability of natural hazards (RUDOLF-MIKLAU, 2009 [14.]).
Abb. 1: Vorhersagbarkeit von Naturgefahren (RUDOLF-MIKLAU, 2009 [14.]).
Seite 17
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Key-note papers
Presentation
Validation
Survey
HAZARDS
Hazard analysis
Localization and topography
Triggering mechanism
Displacement processes/scenarios
Frequency/intensitiy
RISKS
regionally measurements and data from
documented events ahead of application.
on extreme value statistics and is appropriate for
•The application of physical models is not
Risk analysis
only performed for one single data set but
Analysis of damages: direct/indirect damage
Damage potential
Damage scenarios
Hazard assessment
Levels of hazard (risk)
Classification of intensity
Intensity criteria: e.g. pressure
for a frequency range of the input values.
Fig. 2: System of
hazard and risk
management
(RUDOLFMIKLAU/SAUERMOSER, 2011
[16.]).
Risk assessment
Validation of risks
Risk acceptance (aversion)
Abb. 2: System
des Gefahrenund Risikomanagements (RUDOLF-MIKLAU/
SAUERMOSER,
2011 [16.]).
Process-/Suszeptibility maps
Hazard (information) maps
Hazard zone maps
Risk map
Cartographical presentation of risks
Risk management
Management
Definition of protection goals
Creation of protection concepts
Management plans
Protection measures
Effectiveness / Efficiancy
•Scenarios are checked concerning their
plausibility.
The frequency-intensity-concept is based
answering two basic questions:
•How often does an extreme event of
defined intensity occur statistically?
•What is the expected extreme value for a
defined time period?
The two established methods to analyse extreme
Approaches to hazard assessment: The “frequency-
events are the “block-maxima-method” and
magnitude-concept” for design events (DE)
the “peak-over-threshold-method” (KLEEMAYR
in RUDOLF-MIKLAU & SAUERMOSER, 2011
According to ONR 24800:2008 [13.] an event
[16.]). For the statistic analysis, random and
represents the entirety of all processes occurring
representative samples (data sets) are needed
in a temporal, areal and causal relationship and
(e.g. time series of extreme precipitation). By
corresponds to a specific probability of recurrence
means of statistical methods, it is attempted to
and intensity. The extreme event represents the
conclude from properties of the sample to the
maximum magnitude observed in the concerning
rules of the “total population”. In technical terms,
catchment or risk area. The design event (DE)
an unknown stochastic distribution function (e.g.
is applied as reference value (criteria) for the
Gumbel, Fréchet, Weibull) is derived from an
The analysis of hazards is subdivided into several
method for most natural hazards in order to value
planning of protection measures and hazard
empirical distribution of measured values. The
tasks: the survey and localization of hazard
their effects (see below). (HÜBL, 2010 [8.])
maps and represents the striven level of safety
most common field of application of the extreme
sources, the identification of triggering factors,
(acceptable risk). (RUDOLF-MIKLAU, 2009 [14.])
value statistics is the prediction of weather
the description of the triggering and displacement
environment are a complex system consisting
The underlying concept of intensity and
extremes, extreme discharge in rivers and torrents
process and the potential effects (impact) on
of process chains with multiple interactions
frequency was originally established by WOLMAN
of the extreme run-out distance of falls, slides or
objects. The results of the hazard analysis are
and dependencies. Thus the assessment of a
& MILLER (1960) [19.]. Intensity in colloquial use
falls (mass movements or avalanches). The key
usually mapped in specific types of hazard maps
hazard is not a mono-causal procedure but
refers to strength or magnitude of a process or
problem of the method is the limited availability of
(e.g. susceptibility maps, intensity maps).
must take into account a large variety of more
event. Intensity of natural events (hazards) can be
measurements (data sets) that cover a sufficiently
Natural
hazards
in
the
Alpine
The analysis of natural hazards provides a
or less probable courses. (RUDOLF-MIKLAU
expressed by physical criteria like discharge, flow
long period of time. In most cases the available
comprehensive image of the processes, their causes
in BOLLSCHWEILER ET AL., 2011 [3.]) The
depth, pressure (process energy) or area (mass)
data represents
and effects, but requires additional information
“scenario analysis” was established in risk
of deposited debris. (GEBÄUDEVERSICHERUNG
concerning the order of magnitude of the relevant
management as an appropriate method to
GRAUBÜNDEN, 2004 [7.]) In general the
event. (RUDOLF-MIKLAU in BOLLSCHWEILER
solve the complexity of comprehensive hazard
frequency represents the period of recurrence
ET AL., 2011 [3.]) Consequently, the valuation of
assessment. Scenarios implicate that not only a
between two events with comparable magnitude.
or both. Besides this major disadvantage, the
hazards aims at the description of magnitude in a
single process but all relevant developments of
Frequency is often expressed as return period,
method of extreme value statistics shows other
graded manner. Hazards scales, physical intensity
an event within a defined period of recurrence
which is equal to the reciprocal of the exceedance
considerable short comings.
criteria or intensity classifications count among
are taken into account. (MAZZORANA ET AL.,
probability of extreme precipitation or discharge
Especially for torrential processes, the frequency-
the established methods to present the magnitude
2009 [12.]) In practice this means:
of events. Usually the intensity of a hazardous
•Several
assessment
process is functionally related to the frequency
morphologic,
of its occurrence. In practice this “frequency-
applied.
intensity-concept” is the preferentially applied
•Models
have
historic,
to
be
methods
stochastic)
calibrated
•either a too short observation (measuring)
period,
•or is fragmentary
values. As a rule the DE is determined according
intensity-function shows an “emergent” behavior
(e.g.
to a defined return period (e.g. flood with return
implying a limited predictability of discharge
are
period of 100 years). Frequency and intensity are
from extrapolations of measurement data when
functionally correlated. (RUDOLF-MIKLAU in
a certain threshold value is exceeded. The event
BOLLSCHWEILER ET AL., 2011 [3.])
disposition of a catchment or risk area, defined
with
Seite 19
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Key-note papers
as the entirety of all conditions essential for the
floods can approximately be related to a certain
hazard assessment is the compliance of a high
emergence of hazardous processes, consists of the
return period. A causal supplement of information
redundancy in the procedures and methods applied
is based on the identification of triggering/
basic disposition (susceptibility) comprising all
is gained if observed floods are analyzed with
(KIENHOLZ, 2005 [10.]). Two principle approaches
displacement processes and the spatial distribution
factors immutable over a long range of time (e.g.
respect to their emergence regarding the weather
are eligible for hazard assessment (Fig. 3):
by means of “silent witnesses” (AULITZKY, 1992
geology, soils) and the variable disposition, which
conditions, the behavior of precipitation, and the
is the sum of all factors subject to a short-term or
disposition of the catchment area.
seasonal change (e.g. precipitation, saturation of
soil with water, land use). If the variable disposition
of the design flood requires the specification of
of a catchment or risk area is altered in the course
the expected value of discharge by means of flood
of an event (e.g. exceedance of the water storage
statistics and additional hydrological methods.
indication).
In a first step, the determination procedure
capacity of soil), the debris potential increases
From this basic design discharge, the design
erratically, resulting in a possible transition of the
flood can be derived by taking into account solid
predominant displacement process and a non-
transport, transient flow conditions and influences
linear increase of discharge. (HÜBL, 2010 [8.])
of stream morphology.
The practical procedure of specification
•The analysis of past events (retrospective
Morphological Method: This method
[1.]) in the morphology (deposition area) and at
the vegetation (e.g. trees). Dendromorphology
•The prognosis of future events (foresighted
indication).
counts among these methods, which (besides
other dating methods (BOLLSCHWEILER ET. AL.,
2011 [3.])) provides
Historical Method
chronicles, witnesses
Morphological Method
Retrospective Indication
is based on the assumption, that an occured event
will reoccur with comparable course and effects.
intensity-concept is strongly limited for all types of
example of a “design flood” (RUDOLF-MIKLAU &
hazards for which measurements or observation
SEREINIG, 2010 [15.]): Generally, a design flood
data of extreme events are insufficiently or
[discharge in m³/s] with a return period of 100
generally not available. In addition, it has to be
years represents the striven level of safety for flood
taken into account that the period of recurrence of
(torrent) control measures in European countries.
a triggering event can significantly differ from the
Expected values for a rainfall and flood events of a
frequency of the impact (damage) event. Recently,
defined return period (including a corresponding
alternative concepts for the assessment of
confidence interval) can be derived from the
magnitude of events are sought that could replace
hydraulic extreme value statistics. Flood statistics
the “frequency-intensity-concept”. This holds
Statistical Method
extreme value statistics, triggering
mechanism
This method includes
analysis
of
Physical/Mathematical
Method
Numerical/empirical models
Pragmatic Method
Expert opinion (estimation)
observation
(monitoring) data by
means
is based on the identification and analysis of factors
and processes, which represent evidence for
existing hazards according to gained experiences.
The method presupposes knowledge about the
triggering mechanism, the displacement process
and the effect (impact) and includes the
investigation of probability of recurrence
(return period).
especially true for the assessment of extreme mass
movements and avalanches where frequency
behavior of the watershed. However, extreme
hardly can be determined with sufficient accuracy.
Abb. 3: Grundlegende Vorgehensweisen bei der Gefährdungsanalyse
(nach KIENHOLZ, 2005 [10.]; geändert).
of
stochastic
methods (e.g. extreme
value
statistics).
Nevertheless,
the
derivation of reliable
(significant)
and
requires
period is representative for the long-term runoff
Methods of hazard assessment
Method:
and
Foresightes Indication
are based on the assumption that the observation
that are not represented by the measured data
Statistical
measurements
Fig. 3: Principle approaches to hazard assessment (after KIENHOLZ, 2005 [10.]; modified).
flood events are qualified as “statistical outliers”
time
series of past events.
the
„silent witnesses“, dendromophology
The applicability of the frequency-
of a design event can be lucidly explained by the
comprehensive
trends
prognoses
a
sufficient
quantity of data for
a
time
representative
(observation)
According to these principles, the following
period. (KLEEMAYR in RUDOLF-MIKLAU &
procedures can be chosen and should be
SAUERMOSER, 2011 [16.])
Physical/Mathematical Method: These
applied corresponding to the rule of redundancy
but nevertheless contribute valuable information
The aim of hazard assessment is the determination
(HÜBL et al., 2007 [9.]):
methods are mainly based on numerical or
on hydrological extremes. Consequently, the
of relevant scenarios and the related return period
Historical Method: The method is based
empirical models, which provide information
statistically deduced design criterion should be
for the purpose of providing a prognosis of the
on the (qualitative and quantitative) analysis of
(physical criteria) for the intensity of an event
supported by additional information of temporal,
substantial process, the extension and intensity of
reports, testimonies and chronicles of past events
for a defined return period. In practice models
spatial or causal reference. Especially the dating
an event as well as for the magnitude of hazard
(catastrophes). This data provides evidences
are the preferred tool for the determination of
of historic flood events from chronicles or traces
(BRÜNDL ET AL., 2009 [5.]).
for the frequency of events, the triggering
design events in natural hazard engineering. Due
in nature (flood marks, “silent witnesses”) can
Normally neither the physical properties
mechanism and the extension of the process as
to the limited accuracy of numerical models, the
provide precious additional information on
of hazard processes are completely clarified, nor
well as the damages occurred. As a rule, historic
application always presupposes a calibration of
return periods, levels of flooding, or peak flood
is sufficient data on extreme events available.
sources tend to be fragmentary and distorted due
regional measurements (data) and the validation
discharge. By dating historic events, extreme
Consequently, the most important principle of
to subjective perception.
of the results with expert opinions. In addition,
collection (due to limited observation periods),
Seite 21
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Key-note papers
models should not only be applied for a single
Preventive planning: principles and function
storm, forest fire, snow load), preventive planning
and local level. In the Alpine countries in general
is limited to rough-scale maps showing a general
the following categories of maps for the outline of
distribution of input parameters. A comprehensive
“Prevention by planning” today is qualified as
gradation of risks. (RUDOLF-MIKLAU, 2009 [14.])
hazards and risks can be distinguished:
summary of available models for torrential
the most effective measure in natural hazard
processes is given in BERGMEISTER ET AL. (2009)
management. Planning in relation to natural
importance for the application of hazard maps.
•Hazard (indication) maps
[2.], for avalanches in RUDOLF-MIKLAU &
hazards and risks can also unfold active as
Consequently,
•Hazard zone maps
SAUERMOSER (2011) [16.].
passive protection effects. Planning procedures
understood as a part of development planning.
Pragmatic Method: This method is
concerning natural hazards are not limited to the
In order to regulate the use and development of
The following definitions are valid only with
based on the “expert opinion” of experiences
cartographic outline of endangered areas (areas
endangered areas, the intervention of the state
restrictions since terminology of hazard mapping
practitioners and local experts. The pragmatic
at risk), but also provide the passivity to reduce
is essential. The primary goal of development
substantially
method is applied if other methods are not
hazards/risk by keeping endangered areas free
planning concerning natural hazards is to keep
scientific branches.
applicable or do not meet the goal of satisfying
from buildings or limiting the use of these zones
the endangered areas free from buildings (passive
hazard
data set but for a range of scenarios as well as for a
The environmental planning is of major
preventive
planning
can
•Process maps (susceptibility, intensity)
be
•Risk maps
differs
between
countries
and
A hazard (indication) map roughly
this
(e.g. inundation areas). Thus preventive planning
protection function). The active protection function
indicates in which areas natural hazard have to be
method serves as a redundancy and is used for
is the basis for the protection strategy “prevention
of preventive planning lies in the reservation
taken into account in land use and development
the validation of results of “exact” assessment
by area”. (RUDOLF-MIKLAU, 2009 [14.])
(provision) of areas for the spreading of hazardous
activities. The character of the map is only
methods (mentioned above).
In addition, the cartographic depiction of
processes (e.g. inundation areas) or in the provision
demonstrative, while no concrete information
(risk)
assessment.
In
addition,
always
hazard zones provides the essential information
of standards (limits) for the use of endangered areas
about the magnitude of the danger is provided.
suffer from major restrictions concerning their
(process intensity, magnitude of impact forces)
in order to reduce the risk potential.
In many countries hazard zone maps are not
meaningfulness and accuracy. For the interpretation
for the technical protection of existing buildings.
and validation of results, it is essential to know
Also the suitability of planned building sites
the sources of uncertainties and methodical
concerning the risk by natural hazards can be
short-comings. Some of these deficiencies are
efficiently judged on the basis of hazard maps.
summarized below (KIENHOLZ, 2005 [10.]):
In development planning, the localization of new
•Limited availability of data
•Limited observation (measuring) period
•Lack
Hazard
assessment
methods
available, leaving hazard indication maps as the
Mapping hazards in Alpine environment
only source of spatial information.
Process maps show hazards by the
The cartographic outline of endangered areas
spatial
distribution
according to KIENHOLZ (2005) [10.] includes the
(criteria) describing the triggering, displacement
settlements can be steered away from impending
elaboration of scientific and technical bases and
and impact processes. These maps are most often
hazards. (BUWAL/BRP/BWW, 1997 [6.])
the depiction in hazard (indication) maps. In a
the result of numerical or empirical modeling. In
of
physical
parameters
In principle, in the Alpine environment
second step, the geographic information provided
some countries, process maps are transformed
velocity of mass propagation during events;
the usability of land for building purposes is
on triggering disposition and impact intensity of
into intensity maps showing the process criteria
impact pressure)
limited according to the expansion of hazards.
hazardous processes is used for the provision
graded according to the levels of impact intensity
In mountainous regions, the total avoidance
of hazard zone maps and their implementation
(e.g.
of hazard zones for spatial development is not
in the process of development planning. As a
LOAT, 2005 [11.]). Susceptibility is defined as the
possible.
of
“direct”
measurements
(e.g.
•Incomplete or false documentation of past
events
planning
rule, hazard maps have no legal liability but are
extent to which an area suffers from the risk of
defines limits (border lines) for areas that are
defined as “spatial expert opinions with prognosis
emergence of a hazardous process if exposed to a
monitoring, documentation) standards
appropriate for building. Within these limits,
character”, while the hazard zones become
triggering factor, without regard to the likelihood
hazard maps provide bases for standards and
legally binding only by incorporating them into
of exposure. Analogously, susceptibility maps
regulations for a hazard-adapted construction
development planning documents (land use
show the disposition of an area for these events,
practice.
maps). Thus legal liability of hazard zones may
but does not provide information about the
•Uncertainties in the selection of relevant
scenarios
•Misjudgement of the effeminacy and
preventive
frequency-intensity-matrix;
due to variable measuring (observation,
•Inconsistent quality of information and data
Consequently,
Switzerland:
condition (usability) of existing protection
arise on the local level depending on the national
frequency and expected intensity.
measures
planning lies in the sector of hazards spatially
legal framework.
“delimited” in action, such as floods, avalanches,
Consequently, it is essential to adapt the
processes according to its magnitude (intensity,
mass movements. For natural hazards that do not
standards of hazard mapping to the requirements
frequency) on the scale of the local cadastre
allow an “exact” delimitation (e.g. earthquake,
and goal of development planning on the regional
(1.2000
•Misjudgement concerning the “residual risk”
Logically, the main emphasis of preventive
Hazard zone maps show the impact of
–
1.5000).
Consequently,
these
Seite 23
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Key-note papers
Overlaying this information makes feasible a
Literatur / References:
comprehensive assessment of risks for human
[1.] AULITZKY H. (1992):
Die Sprache der "Stummen Zeugen". Tagungsband der Internationalen
Konferenz Interpraevent 1992, S. 139-174.
health, economic acidities, environment and
cultural heritage.
As shown in this article, the methods
for the assessment of natural hazards still suffer
from major short-comings and significant sources
of inaccuracy. In addition, a comprehensive
understanding of the triggering and displacement
processes of Alpine natural hazards is still
Fig. 6: Hazard zone map for torrents (including indication of
landslide areas) (Austria).
Fig. 4: Hazard indication map for mass movements (Bavaria,
Germany).
Abb. 4: Gefahrenhinweiskarte für Massenbewegungen
(Bayern, Deutschland).
maps provide specific information about the
usability of certain plots for building or other
development purposes. Hazard zone maps are
regularly produced for the hazard types floods,
avalanches and debris flow, and only in few
countries (Switzerland, France, and Italy) for
mass movements as well. In most countries,
hazard zone maps are regulated by legal and
technical standards concerning their content,
formal requirements, approval procedure and
implementation in the development planning.
Some countries have also defined a specific design
Abb. 5: Gefahrenzonenplan Wildbäche (einschließlich des
Hinweises von Rutschgebieten) (Österreich).
missing due to the limited availability of “direct”
measurements and observation.
Although hazard maps have gained a
key role in the process of preventive planning,
event (period of recurrence) for the assessment of
the information provided by these maps should
the relevant hazards. (HÜBL ET AL., 2007 [9.])
still be treated with care and only be interpreted
The elaboration of risk maps is based on the
by experts. This reservation especially holds true
depiction of objects at risk (risk potentials) within
for hazard maps devoted to mass movements.
endangered areas. In principle there are two types
As the standards of hazard mapping in this field
of risk maps available (BORTER ET AL., 1999 [4.]):
are still under development, preventive planning
•Risk maps only showing risk potential
concerning rock fall and landslides (unlike flood
without assessing (value) them.
and avalanche hazards) is still “in situ nascendi”.
•Risk maps based on a graded, qualitative
This delay justifies the strong efforts within the
or quantitative assessment of risks (levels
Alpine space to establish and harmonize general
of risk; e.g. low – medium - high). These
standards for the assessment and mapping of
maps are elaborated by combining the
hazards caused by mass movements.
impact intensity with the damage potential
(value), the vulnerability and the exposition
Anschrift des Verfassers / Author’s address:
of objects/persons in the endangered area.
DI Dr. Florian Rudolf-Miklau
Closing remarks
Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft,
Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft, Abteilung IV/5,
Hazard (risk) assessment and mapping count
Wildbach- und Lawinenverbauung
among the most important tasks (measures) in
Federal Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry,
natural hazard management. The maps provide
Enviroment and Water Management, Department
the key information for most of the other mitigation
IV/5, Torrent and Avalanche Control
measures in order to reduce risk to an acceptable
1030 Wien, Marxergasse 2
level. GIS technology provides a powerful tool to
Tel.: (+43 1) 71 100 - 7333
Fig. 5: Hazard map for falls (rock fall) (Switzerland).
combine spatial information on natural hazards
FAX: (+43 1) 71 100- 7399
Abb. 5: Gefahrenzonenplan Felssturz (Steinschlag) (Schweiz).
with other cartographic information concerning
Mail: [email protected]
human activities and development actions.
Homepage: http://www.lebensministerium.at/forst
[2.] BERGMEISTER K., SUDA J., HÜBL J., RUDOLF-MIKLAU F. (2009):
Schutzbauwerke der Wildbachverbauung. Verlag Ernst und Sohn Berlin
(Wiley VCH).
[3.] BOLLSCHWEILER M., STOFFEL M., RUDOLF-MIKLAU F. (2011):
Tracking torrential processes on fans and cones. Springer Dortrecht (in
preparation).
[4.] BORTER P. (1999):
Risikoanalyse bei gravitativen Naturgefahren. Bern: Bundesamt für
Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft BUWAL. Umwelt-Materialien 107/I+II.
[5.] BRÜNDL M., ROMANG H., HOLTHAUSEN N., MERZ H., BISCHOF
N. (2009):
Risikokonzept für Naturgefahren – Leitfaden; Teil A: Allgemeine
Darstellung des Risikokonzepts. Bern: Nationale Plattform Naturgefahren
PLANAT (vorläufige Fassung).
[6.] BUNDESAMT FÜR UMWELT, WALD UND LANDSCHAFT
BUWAL, BUNDESAMT FÜR RAUMPLANUNG BRP, BUNDESAMT FÜR
WASSERWIRTSCHAFT BWW (1997):
Berücksichtigung von Hochwassergefahren bei der raumwirksamen
Tätigkeit, Biel.
[7.] GEBÄUDEVERSICHERUNG GRAUBÜNDEN (2004):
Vorschriften für bauliche Maßnahmen an Bauten in der blauen Lawinenzone.
[8.] HÜBL J. (2010):
Hochwässer in Wildbacheinzugsgebieten. Wiener Mitteilungen (in press).
[9.] HÜBL J., FUCHS S., AGNER P. (2007):
Optimierung der Gefahrenzonenplanung. Weiterentwicklung der
Methoden der Gefahrenzonenplanung. IAN-Report 90. Wien: Universität
für Bodenkultur (unveröffentlicht).
[10.] KIENHOLZ H. (2005):
Gefahrenzonenplanung im Alpenraum – Ansprüche und Grenzen, Imst:
Imst: Wildbach- und Lawinenverbau (Zeitschrift für Wildbach-, Erosionsund Steinschlagschutz), Nr. 152, 135-151.
[11.] LOAT R. (2005):
Die Gefahrenzonenplanung in der Schweiz. Imst: Wildbach- und
Lawinenverbau (Zeitschrift für Wildbach-, Erosions- und Steinschlagschutz),
Nr. 152, 77-92.
[12.] MAZZORANA B., FUCHS S., HÜBL J. (2009):
Improving risk assessment by defining consistent and reliable system
scenarios, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 9: 145–159.
[13.] ONR 24800:
2008, Schutzbauwerke der Wildbachverbauung – Begriffe und ihre
Definition sowie Klassifizierung. Austrian Standards Institute, Vienna.
[14.] RUDOLF-MIKLAU F. (2009):
Naturgefahren-Management in Österreich. Verlag Lexis-Nexis Orac .
[15.] RUDOLF-MIKLAU F., SEREINIG N. (2009):
Festlegung
des
Bemessungshochwassers:
Prozessorientierte
Harmonisierung für Flüsse und Wildbäche, ÖWAW 7-8: 29 – 32.
[16.] RUDOLF-MIKLAU F., SAUERMOSER S. (Hrsg.) (2011):
Technischer Lawinenschutz. Verlag Ernst und Sohn/Wiley Berlin (in
preparation).
[17.] SCHROTT L., GLADE T. (2008):
Frequenz und Magnitude natürlicher Prozesse; in Flegentreff, Glade (Eds.):
Naturrisiken und Sozialkatastrophen. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag
Springer: 134 – 150.
[18.] SUDA J., RUDOLF-MIKLAU F., HÜBL J., KANONIER A. (Hrsg.) (2011):
Gebäudeschutz vor Naturgefahren. Verlag Spring Wien (in preparation).
[19.] WOLMAN M. G., MILLER J. P. (1960):
Magnitude and frequency of forces on geomorphic processes. Journal of
Geology 68 (1): 54 – 74.
Seite 25
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Key-note papers
RICHARD BÄK, HUGO RAETZO, KARL MAYER,
ANDREAS VON POSCHINGER, GERLINDE POSCH-TRÖZMÜLLER
Mapping of Geological Hazards: Methods, Standards
and Procedures (State of Development) - Overview
Geologische Gefahrenkartierung: Methoden, Standards
und Verfahren (derzeitiger Status) – ein Überblick
Summary:
In spite of different methods used, geological hazard mapping is accepted as a tool for
hazard prevention in Europe. Scientific characterization of mass movements is based on
similar methods with mostly comparable results. However, the implementation in spatial
planning and risk management differs considerably due to different regional legal acts,
ordinances, responsibilities and pecularities. Whereas in Italy and Switzerland there are
technical guidelines and legal acts regarding landslides and rock fall, in Austria only hazard
mapping concerning floods and avalanches is regulated. In Germany a recommendation
on how to create a susceptibility map was published. Because of a lack of regulations in
European Alpine states’ inventory maps, susceptibility and hazard maps are created in
different scales with different contents and quality. This, as well as different defintions of
terms such as susceptibility, danger and hazard, makes comparison of hazard assessment
products difficult. Consequently a multilingual glossary, landslide inventories at regional
authorities and minimal requirements as to how to create hazard maps (requirements
concerning input data and purpose of assessment) are necessary. In the AdaptAlp project
(Interreg IV B, Alpine Space) the Alpine regions elaborate the common principles.
Zusammenfassung:
Die geologische Gefahrenkartierung ist in Europa trotz unterschiedlicher Methoden eine
anerkannte Notwendigkeit für die Prävention. Die wissenschaftliche Charakterisierung der
Massenbewegungen basiert oft auf ähnlichen Methoden und ist deshalb eher vergleichbar.
Hingegen ist die Umsetzung in die Raumplanung und in das Risikomanagement auf europäischer Ebene sehr unterschiedlich. Der Grund liegt primär in unterschiedlichen Gesetzen, Verordnungen und Verantwortlichkeiten, bzw. in sozio-ökonomischen Eigenheiten
der Länder. Während in Italien und in der Schweiz technische Richtlinien bzw. gesetzliche Regelungen zur Erstellung von Gefahrenkarten bestehen, gibt es in Österreich nur für
Hochwasser bzw. Lawinen Regelungen zur Ausweisung von Gefahrenzonen. In Deutschland
wurde eine Empfehlung für die Erstellung von Gefahrenhinweiskarten publiziert. Aufgrund
fehlender Regelungen in den alpinen Staaten Europas werden Ereigniskarten, Indexkarten,
Gefahrenhinweiskarten und Gefahrenkarten als Grundlagen für die Gefahrenbeurteilung in
verschiedenen Maßstäben mit unterschiedlichem Inhalt erarbeitet. Dies und unterschiedliche Definitionen erschweren den Vergleich. Ein multilinguales Glossar, die Einrichtung
von Ereigniskatastern bei der Verwaltung und die Festlegung von Mindestanforderungen zur
Erstellung von Grundlagen und Gefahrenkarten (Anforderungen hinsichtlich Eingangsdaten
und Zweck) sollten daher ein primäres Ziel sein. Im Projekt AdaptAlp (Interreg IV B, Alpine
Space) arbeiten die Alpenländer an gemeinsamen Grundsätzen.
countries varies in its quality and quantity: In
Introduction
some regions, detailed landslide inventories exist
and are the basis for susceptibility and hazard
different
assessment. Different approaches to hazard
morphological and geological conditions are
mapping are in practice. This fact and dissimilar
prone to landslides. Taking into consideration
meanings for terms like susceptibility, danger
one of the geological principles for landslide
and hazard make a comparison of the regional
hazard assessment – the past is the key to the
approaches difficult. Using various input data also
future – future slope failures will probably occur
handicaps the comparison of hazard assessment.
in areas with similar geological, morphological
and hydrological situations that have led to past
“Adaptation to Climate Change in the Alpine
failures. Some triggering mechanisms happen
Space “ (acronym AdaptAlp), work package
sporadically and are not readily obvious. Because
5.1 Hazard Mapping - Geological Hazards is
of the lack of memories of past landslide events,
focusing on the transnational harmonization of
the susceptibility to mass movements is not
standards (minimal requirements in the field of
considered accurate in land use. But the effects
hazard assessment and mapping) by exchanging
of mass movements (damages) necessitate new
experiences in the partner regions. This issue
strategies on how to manage the future potential
provides an overview of methods, standards and
of natural (geological) hazards in alpine regions.
procedures without a pretense of completeness.
In
Alpine
regions,
slopes
of
Information about landslides in alpine
Within the INTERREG IV B project
The definitions of terms used regarding
Seite 27
Seite 26
Key-note papers
landslides sometimes differ contradictorily in
phological maps. Using digital DTM data in a GIS
give evidence, if e.g. information on the activity,
date is known. The thematic inventory map
literature and in practice. For this reason the
allows the production of hillshades with several
geometry and slope position of a landslide is
contains only information related to a type of
second goal of the work package 5.1 named
geometries to detect typical landslide forms.
recorded.
process, categorized according to the quality of
above is the elaboration of a multilingual glossary.
Modern methods for modelling processes are de-
(fourth section) is sometimes specified in detail,
the data.
signed for the GIS environment. Slope stability and
sometimes only the information is given that
In Switzerland, the generation of a “map
rock fall trajectories can be computed over large
geological information is being stored.
of phenomena” is mandatory ([30] Raetzo 2002).
areas to get indications of the hazards. Analysis
In many cases additional information
As with the Austrian “map of phenomena”, it
Landslide inventories are the basis for all scientific
of aerial photographs is also a classical and
such as data on vegetation (land cover),
shows the geologic-geomorphologic features. An
and planning activities. They contain the basic
valuable technique to identify landslide features.
hydrogeological or hydrological conditions, as
extensive manual with a digital GIS-legend was
data of natural hazard processes and should
More subtle signs of slope movement cannot be
well as specific data such as the shadow angle are
published on a DVD by BWG ([8]BWG 2002,
mainly include the facts. Therefore all partner
identified on the maps mentioned above. Field
stored in the databases.
[14] Kienholz & Krummenacher 1995).
countries in the AdaptAlp Interreg project are
observation by experts is necessary for accurate
working on landslide inventories.
assessment. The requirements for acquired data
the causes or triggers of landslides. In some cases
the map is used for, ranging from 1:2,000 (or
[11] Guzzetti 2005 wrote about landslide
are raised by the main goal: The accurateness and
the damages due to landslides are listed in the
even more) for a detailed study to 1:50,000 as
inventories: “Despite the ease with which they
detail of input data and scale depends on the aim
inventory, sometimes even the monetary value of
an indicative map ([32] Raetzo & Loup 2009).
are prepared and their immediateness, landslide
of the product – susceptibility map, hazard as-
the damage and the costs of remediation measures.
On the other hand, the Federal Office for the
inventories are not yet very common. Inventory
sessment or risk analyses.
Most inventory forms also provide information
Environment (FOEN) manages a database with
maps are available for only a few countries
information
about how the listed data was gathered (e.g. field
all the events where damages were recorded. This
and mostly for limited areas. This is surprising
about possible scenarios is needed. For this
survey), some provide a rating about the reliability
national database is called “StorMe” and contains
because inventory maps provide fundamental
reason it is important that landslide inventories
of the degree of precision of the information. In
data on every natural hazard process: landslides,
information on the location and size of landslides
are induced to sustain landslide knowledge over
most databases additional reports, documentation
debris flows, snow avalanches and floods.
that is necessary in the assessment of slope
time. In most regions of the Alps, inventories have
and bibliography are included or mentioned.
In Italy, a country with a particularly high
stability at any scale, and in any physiographical
been established by authorities and are to some
In Austria the Geological survey of
landslide risk owing to its landform configuration
environment.” Nevertheless, all of the countries
extent available to the public.
Austria, in cooperation with the Geological Survey
and its lithological and structural characteristics,
considered for the literature survey have landslide
of Carinthia, has created not just one “inventory
the need for a complete and homogeneous
inventories and maps, even if contents, scales and
kind of data is stored in different landslide event
map” but a “level of information” (Fig. 1):
overview of the distribution of landslides was
the state of completeness vary.
inventories, and what questions are asked on the
Process index maps (map of phenomena
recognized after the disastrous event at Sarno. The
Landslide inventories
For
hazard
assessment,
Tab.1 gives information about what
Recorded
geological
information
Most inventories provide information on
The scale used depends on the purpose
In order to predict landslide hazard
landslide reporting form. For the comparison,
“Prozesshinweiskarte”, “Karte der Phänomene”)
aim of the IFFI Project (Inventario dei Fenomeni
in an area, the morphological, geological, and
information from the countries Austria (Geological
can have different scales (1:50,000 and bigger)
Franosi in Italia – “Italian Landslide Inventory”)
hydrological conditions and processes have to be
survey of Austria, of Lower Austria, of Carinthia,
and can be of varying quality; it contains
implemented by ISPRA (formerly: APAT, the
identified. Their influence on the stability of the
project MASSMOVE, project DIS-ALP), Germany,
information about process areas and phenomena
Italian Environment Protection and Technical
slopes has to be estimated.
Switzerland, Slovenia, Italy, France, Slovakia, Aus-
of mass movements that have already happened.
Services Agency) and by the regions and self-
tralia and the USA (Oregon, Washington, Utah)
The event inventory (“Ereigniskataster”) records
governing provinces was to identify and map
are used to establish databases to assess hazards:
was taken into account.
only those processes for which an event date is
the landslides in accordance with standardized
Landslide inventories as an important tool for the
known (5W-questions); it is independent of a
and shared methods. The work method included
assessment of the susceptibility of slopes to mass
if
section
scale. In Carinthia, a digital landslide inventory
the collection of historical and archive data,
movements are created nowadays more and more
deals with the basic data, mainly with the
was created with historical events of the last
aerial photo interpretation, field surveys, and
using digital technology. A general indication of
5W-questions: What happened where, when and
50 years ([7] Bäk et al. 2005). The inventory
detailed mapping. A “Landslide Data Sheet” was
landslide susceptibility can be obtained based on
why, and who reported it (or made the database
map/event map (“Ereigniskarte”) contains only
prepared for collecting the landslide information,
landslide inventories, geological, soil and geomor-
entry). The landslide conditions in the third section
information about processes for which an event
subdivided into three levels of progressively
Different methods of data acquirement
The first section of table 1 shows
inventories
exist.
The
second
Seite 29
Seite 28
Key-note papers
that, since the sources for the inventory map of
of the geohazards and their causal factors. This
material (rock, soil, earth, debris) and type of
•First level: contains the basic information
Slovenia are quite different from each other, the
understanding can be used to assess susceptibility.
movement (slide, flow, fall, topple, spread) are
(location, type of movement, state of
scales vary but landslides were always mapped at
In the USA the Landslide Inventory
also classified. Furthermore, each landslide is
activity) and is mandatory for every
a quite detailed scale.
Steering Committee, composed of members of
classified according to a “confidence” (definite,
landslide.
In France a database for mass movements
USGS and State Geological Surveys and other
probable, questionable) assigned by the geological
•Second level: contains the geometrical,
is accessible on the internet. The processes taken
state agencies, are working on the Landslide
interpreter. It can be regarded as a measure of
geological, and lithological parameters,
into account are landslides, rock fall, debris flows,
Inventory Pilot Project. The purpose of this project
likelihood that the landslide actually exists.
land use, causes and activation date.
subsidence and bank erosion. For each mass
is to provide a framework and tools for displaying
•Third level: provides detailed information
movement, the following detailed information
and analyzing landslide inventory data collected
on the damage, investigations and remedial
can be retrieved: type of movement, detailed
in a spatially aware digital format from individual
measures.
increasing detail (from: [13] ISPRA, 2008):
Susceptibility/hazard assessment in Alpine regions
geographical data, information about the quality,
states. To get information about further landslides,
A literature study regarding susceptibility/hazard
A scale of 1:10,000 is used for surveying and
the precision and the origin of the data, detailed
the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral
mapping ([29] Posch-Trözmüller 2010) shows
mapping the landslides throughout most of Italy,
information about the mass movement (size,
Industries, among others, has prepared an
the different approaches to hazard assessment in
only in high mountainous areas or in lower
activity), the damage caused, the causes for the
inventory form. Besides information about the
alpine regions.
populated areas is a scale of 1:25,000 used. As
movement and geological information as well as
exact location (coordinates) of a landslide, the
with many regions, the region of South Tyrol
information about the survey of the phenomenon.
following specifications should be listed: date of
(hazard maps) mainly heuristic methods are in
(Autonome Provinz Bozen Südtirol, [27] Nössing
A prototype landslide database has
slide, activity, estimated dimension (length, width,
practice. In this case scientific reports, geological
2009) also has a landslide database that resulted
been established by Geoscience Australia in
depth, volume, estimated dimensions from: aerial
and morphological mapping are the basis for
from the IFFI Project. The type of movement, the
collaboration with the University of Wollongong
photos, field evaluation), predominant type of
weighting methods. Statistical analysis (bivariante
litho-logical unit, the volume of the moving masses,
and Mineral Resources Tasmania, displaying the
material (rock, debris, earth, fill), predominant
or multivariate) are used for the weighting. The
the internal cause and the external trigger, as well
location of the landslides on a map and providing
type of movement (fall/topple, flow, translational
weight of evidence method is based on a statistical
as the induced damage are noted for each event.
information regarding the type of landslide, date
slide, rotational slide, spread), approximate
Bayesian bivariate approach. Originally developed
of occurrence (if known), a brief summary of the
original slope (e.g.: 30° +/- 5°, estimated from
for ore exploration, this probabilistic method is
The
extensive
landslide
database,
For the assessment of natural hazards
event, its cause and damage.
e.g. 1:24K USGS topo map), land use where
now commonly used for the statistical assessment
creating susceptibility maps. Until now 2,800
In England after the Aberfan disaster the
slide occurred (forested area, harvested area,
of landslides. It is based on the assumption that
landslides
GEORISK of
Bavaria, is an essential step to
the
UK government funded a number of research
rural area, urban area, agriculture), cause of slide
future landslides would be triggered or influenced
database, with information about the type of
projects to look at the UK’s geohazards ([33]
(road construction, road cut, road fill, earthquake,
by the same or similar controlling factors as
movement, the extension, age and status of the
Reeves 2010). Now in the UK the BGS investigates
preexisting slide, steep natural slope, natural
previously registered landslides ([15] Klingseisen
landslides. The following landslide processes are
geohazards by looking at primary geohazards such
drainage, human built drainage, other), damage
& Leopold 2006, [16] Klingseisen et al. 2006).
recorded: flow ("Hangkriechen", "Schuttströme"),
as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and secondary
caused by slide and additional comments.
In Germany a recommendation on how
slide ("Rutschungen", "Hanganbrüche"), fall/rock
geohazards such as landslides, swelling/shrinking
In California the landslide inventory
to create a susceptibility map is given by the
fall ("Steinschläge", "Felsstürze", "Bergstürze"),
etc. Topics of consideration are the cause of
maps are available at a scale of 1:24,000.
“Geohazards” team of engineering geologists
Karst, subsidence ("Erdfälle", "Dolinen", "Senken",
events, return periods determined by analysis of
The
by
of German federal governmental departments
"Schwinden",..). Based on the inventory, maps
past events, affected regions, influence of regional
geomorphological analysis, interpretation of aerial
of geology ([37] SGD 2007). Basic minimal
were created, showing existing landslides and
geology. An inventory is the first step in building an
photographs and also by field reconnaissance,
requirements for inventory records are defined,
their activity (“Karten der Aktivitätsbereiche”).
understanding of the occurrence of geohazards.
interpretation of topographic map contours, and
such as spatial positioning and technical data of
The Slovenian landslide inventory map
Currently BGS maintains two main shallow
review of geological and landslide mapping.
mass movements. Digital modelling (rock fall,
is shown as a small inlet on the susceptibility
geohazard databases: the National Landslide and
Also, each landslide was classified according to
shallow landslides) can be used to identify the
map of Slovenia at a scale of 1:250,000. Personal
the Karst Database. These inventories provide
its activity: active or historic, dormant-young,
susceptibility of areas to mass movements, verified
information from M. Komac (Geo ZS) revealed
the basis for analysing the spatial distribution
dormant-mature,
by landslide inventories or evaluation through
have
been
documented
in
inventory
was
prepared
primarily
dormant-old. The
landslide
Seite 31
Seite 30
Key-note papers
field work. Indications of active/inactive landslides
indicative map is not obligatory in Switzerland,
statistics (landslides) and cost analysis (rock falls),
out an initial evaluation of the “level of attention”
can be found by using registers, mapping and/or
since the law refers to the standardized hazard
working with a 25x25m grid. The inventory map is
on a municipal basis. The level of attention was
remote sensing (DTM) methods. Potential landslide
map ([32] Raetzo & Loup 2009). Detailed
included in the susceptibility map. Also, the local
for example rated “very high”, when the landslide
areas (where landslides have not yet taken place)
information on hazard maps in Switzerland is
department of the Austrian Service for Torrent
points, polygons and lines intersected with urban,
are determined by empirical methods in account
given by Raetzo & Loup in this issue [31].
and Avalanche Control (WLV) creates “hazard
industrial or commercial areas ([13] ISPRA 2008).
of geological and morphological situation and
maps” within the “hazard zonation plan”. In
land use. Alternatively areas prone to landsliding
framework
concerning
Upper Austria, Lower Austria and Burgenland,
in cooperation with the IFFI Project (IFFI started
can be derived semi-automatically by a cross-over
landslides and rock fall in Austria - only the
different approaches have been chosen to develop
as a national project and is continued by the
between DTM and a geological entity. Regarding
course of actions concerning floods, avalanches
susceptibility maps (different scales, processes)
separate regions), as well as with the PAI Project.
rock fall processes, source areas of rock fall are
and debris flows are regulated by law (ordinance
derived from existing data sets and maps ([29]
For example, the region of Friuli Venezia Giulia
derived in a first step from landslide inventories
of hazard zone mapping, [34] Rudolf-Miklau &
Posch-Trözmüller 2010): The main focus in
has a landslide inventory that originated within
and/or remote sensing (DTM). Usually Alpine
Schmidt 2004) - the federal states all follow a
Burgenland is concentrated on shallow landslides
these two studies, collecting data from several
areas with an inclination > 45° are potential rock
different course of action.
with an annual movement rate of 1-2cm. For
different regional offices (in particular: Protezione
fall escarpments. In the second step, the runout
the prediction of landslide susceptibility based
Civile della Regione and the Direzione Centrale
zone is depicted by empiric angle methods
a
mass
on morphological and geological factors, the
Risorse Agricole, Naturali, Forestali e Montagna)
(shadow angle, geometric slope angle) or physical
movements in Austria (GEORIOS) containing
method called Weights of Evidence was chosen
as well as from other public subjects that work
deterministic methods. The guidelines also include
information
of
([16] Klingseisen et al. 2006). In Lower Austria
on the territory. It homogenizes the information
flow processes, subrosion, subsidence and uplift.
processes, geological, hydrological, geometric
susceptibility maps have been created until now
according to national standards and surveys new
For the whole Bavarian Alps (about
and geographical data, information on studies or
using a heuristic approach based on geological
data. The program is used for the evaluation of the
4.300 km²) ([23] Mayer 2007), an “extended
tests carried out as well as mitigation measures
expertise, historical data and interpretation of DTM
hydrogeological hazard and risk and also to give a
danger map” at a scale of 1:25,000 has already
and the source of information (archives, field
and aerial photos ([36] Schweigl & Hervas 2009).
clear and updated view of the interventions made
been presented or is being completed. That
work) is in use. Susceptibility maps in different
To provide the municipalities with assistance in
in the region to preserve vulnerable areas. The
means that, in contrast to the susceptibility map
scales and with different methods (heuristic
spatial planning, landslide susceptibility maps
data is recorded in an official GIS structure called
(without information on intensity and probability),
approach, neural network analysis) have already
were generated for the main settled areas in Upper
Sitgeo (Geological Service Information System).
it includes a qualitative statement about the
been generated. Using the digital geological
Austria (OÖ). The priority, which is a susceptibility
The main focus lies on hazard assessment at the
probability through a predefined “design event”.
map (1:50,000), the inventory map, map of
class, was evaluated on the basis of the in-tensity
scale of a slope.
The legend for the rock fall danger map discerns
phenomena and a lithological map, susceptibility
and the probability of an event for each type of
between “indication of danger”, yes or no, the
maps for Carinthia were generated in col-
mass movement ([19] Kolmer 2009). As these
of the whole country at a scale of 1:250,000 using
legend for the danger map of superficial landslides
laboration with the Geological Survey of Austria
maps include the intensity and the frequency of
statistical analyses ([20] Komac & Ribicic 2008).
discerns 3 entries (source area, accumulation
(GBA) and the Geological Survey of Carinthia at a
mass movements, they can be called “hazard
In 2002, BGS (England) developed a nationwide
zone, none), the deep-seated landslides danger
scale of 1:200,000 ([17] Kociu et al., 2006). These
maps” by definition. Nevertheless it has to be
susceptibility
map also discerns 3 entries (indication, indication
are, of course, still lacking information about
taken into account that the method of generating
geohazards such as landslides, skrink-swell,
in extreme case, none).
Because of the lack of a regulatory
or
technical
norm
At the Geological Survey of Austria,
database-system
about
for
the
documenting
different
types
The regions in Italy also have programs
Slovenia generated a susceptibility map
assessment
of
deterministic
intensity and recurrence period or probability
these maps did not include either field work or
etc. called GeoSure ([33] Reeves 2010). It
The Swiss indicative map (“Gefahren-
of occurrence. For a small study area in Styria,
remote sensing techniques. The method of assess-
was developed from the 50K digital geology
hinweiskarte”) is generated at a scale of
the Geological Survey of Austria generated a
ment is based solely on geological expertise.
polygons (DiGMap50), published information,
1:10,000 to 1:50,000. The legend gives only the
susceptibility map at a scale of 1:50,000 using
information “indication of hazard” - yes or no,
neural network analysis ([38] Tilch 2009).
represents an important tool for landslide risk
database,
without specification of classes. It indicates the
In Vorarlberg risk maps (susceptibility
assessment, land use planning and mitigation
database
potential process areas of rock falls, landslides
map, vulnerability map, risk map) were produced
measures. By using the information contained in
methods are used for hazard management by
and debris flows. It doesn’t include information
in the course of a university dissertation ([35]
the database of the IFFI Project and the Corine
primary geohazards, deterministic methods by
about intensity or probability. The creation of an
Ruff 2005). For modelling, he used bivariate
Land Cover Project 2000, it was possible to carry
secondary geohazards.
The national project of Italy, IFFI, also
expert judgement knowledge, national landslide
national
and
geotechnical
modified
DTM.
information
Probabilistic
Seite 33
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Key-note papers
A number of guidelines have been published in
mapping (1:25,000), geomorphological mapping
Australian method of hazard assessment, which
indicative map (level 1). Important efforts are taken
Australia by the Australian Geomechanics Society
and analysis (1:5,000), landslide and engineering
is quite different from the first ones, as well as
when a hazard map is established or reviewed
concerning mass movements and landslide risk
data compilation, construction of digital elevation
the method applied in the state of Washington
(level 2). Hazard maps are an accurate delineation
management, as well as slope management and
models (10x10m).
(USA), is also looked into (Tab. 2). Tab. 3 gives
of zones on scales from 1:2,000 to 1:10,000.
maintenance. These guidelines are tools that
an overview about hazard maps generated in the
Detailed analyses and engineering calculations
were made to be introduced into the legislative
42° was chosen for modelling rock fall source
considered countries.
are foreseen for the planning of countermeasures
framework of Australian governments at national,
areas. It does not imply that rock fall will not
state and local levels, and they are also useful for
occur on lower slopes, but it becomes steadily
Comparison of hazard assessment methods in Switzerland
this concept of increased efforts for geological
land use planning.
less likely with reduced slope angles. A simple
and Friuli Venezia Giulia (Italy)
investigations when the assessment takes place
For example, a threshold slope value of
or for expertises (level 3). It is planned to apply
of
modelling approach was developed for modelling
areas prone to landsliding is not yet commonly
the rock fall runout area using the direction of
The hazard maps in Switzerland are compared
include
undertaken in Australia: Because of a lack of
maximum downhill slope defined by an aspect
especially to Friuli Venezia Giulia. More detailed
analyses,
good inventory maps and validated inventory
raster and calculating with a travel angle of 30°.
information on the Swiss method is given by
modelling and other methods.
databases, landslide hazard mapping is very
soil-slip
Raetzo & Loup in this issue [31]. The Swiss
limited. Determining temporal probability is often
susceptibility maps have been produced. These
method ([30] Raetzo 2002) and the method used
Assessment of the intensity
not possible because of the lack of historical
show the relative susceptibility of hill slopes to
in Italy ([21] Kranitz & Bensi 2009) are based on
(Switzerland/ Friuli Venezia Giulia)
information ([25] Middleman 2007). Landslide
the initiation of rainfall triggered soil slip-debris
an intensity-probability matrix. They differ from
mapping is generally done on a site-specific scale
flows. They do not attempt to show the extent
each other in determining the intensity and the
Intensities are assessed through a classification
and is performed by geotechnical consultants for
of runout of the resultant debris flows. The
probability of a landslide event.
that is represented in table 2.
the purpose of zoning, building infrastructure
susceptibility maps were created in an iterative
In Switzerland, 5 degrees of hazard are
The assessment of intensities in Switzerland
and applying for development approvals ([25]
process from two kinds of information: locations
used. In Italy the hazard is rated in 4 classes (from
is different for each process, also for floods
Middleman 2007). Mineral Resources Tasmania
of sites of past soil slips and aerial photographs
very high [P4] to moderate [P1]).
and snow avalanches ([30] Raetzo 2002). For
(MRT, Department of Infrastructure, Energy and
taken during six rainy seasons that produced
Resources, State Government of Tasmania) is
abundant soil slips. These were used as the basis
the only state government agency in Australia
for a soil slip-debris flow inventory. Also, digital
to undertake several activities with respect
elevation models (DTM) of the areas were used
In Switzerland the method to establish the hazard
high to low in three classes (high – medium – low)
to
mapping,
to analyze the spatial characteristics of soil slip
map was simplified as much as possible due to
are needed:
administration of declared landslide areas and
locations. Slope and aspect values used in the
the objective of facilitating its integration into
•For rock falls, the intensity is defined by
monitoring of a small number of problematic
susceptibility analysis were 10 metre DTM cells at
land use (planning). In order to have simple con-
the energy. High intensity is defined as
landslides. Mazengarb ([24], 2005) describes in
a scale of 1:24,000. For convenience, the soil-slip
struction regulations, only 5 degrees of hazard
e≥300kJ, which is approximately the limit
detail the methodology of creating the “Tasmanian
susceptibility values are assembled on 1:100,000
were defined: high, medium, low, residual and
landslide hazard map series” that started with a
scale bases ([26] Morton et al. 2003).
neglectable hazard. The degree of hazard is
•For slides, the mean long-term velocity,
defined in a hazard matrix based on intensity and
the variation of the velocity (dv, or
probability criteria ([32] Raetzo & Loup 2009).
acceleration), the differential movement
Regional
landslides,
susceptibility
including
mapping
regional
In
southwestern
California,
pilot area coinciding with the Hobart municipality.
The following basic information was used to
Comparison of hazard assessment methods
on the second or third level. These investigations
geologic
mapping,
monitoring,
geomorphologic
geophysics,
numerical
continuous landslide processes, the only criterion
Concepts of hazard assessment in Switzerland
is the intensity. For spontaneous processes the
intensity and the probability both ranging from
of resistance of massive armored walls.
For the planning of protection measures, more
(D), and the depth of the slide (T) are used
(note: In the report the maps are called “hazard
Methods of hazard assessment used in Switzerland,
detailed investigations and calculations are done
to determine the intensity ([32] Raetzo &
maps”, but on the homepage, where the maps are
Italy (Friuli Venezia Giulia), Australia, France and
(e.g. all energy classes). In general the methods
accessible via the internet, the individual maps
USA are considered in this section. First the Swiss
used are related to the product, scales and the risk
•For flowing processes like earth flows, the
are called “susceptibility maps”, but, nonetheless,
and the Italian methods are compared, as these
in order to respect economic criteria. Applying
potential thickness and the possible depth
giving “hazard zones” in the legends.): geological
define intensity and probability parameters. The
this concept, low efforts were used for the swiss
of the depo-sition determine the intensity.
create the individual landslide hazard maps
Loup 2009).
Seite 35
Seite 34
Key-note papers
For landslides and rock falls the Swiss evaluation
Assessment of the probability
for the statistical evaluation of the return period,
Australia
is normally based on intensity maps where 3 or
(Switzerland/ Friuli Venezia Giulia)
the values will be assigned by a typological
In
approach based on bibliographical data inherent
susceptibility, hazard and risk zoning for land
more classes can be chosen. (e.g. 10-20,000 kJ
the
Australian
guidelines
for
landslide
for rock falls).
Swiss method ([32] Raetzo & Loup 2009):
to the characteristics of temporal return of the
use planning, the number of events per length
In Italy, different methods of assessment
The probability assessment of the Swiss method
various typologies of landslides. This will be
of source area per year (rock fall) or per square
are used. For example, the regional method
defines the probability in analogy to the recur-
calibrated
observations,
kilometer of source area per year (slides) is used
of Friuli Venezia Giulia ([21] Kranitz & Bensi
rence periods used in flood and avalanche
analyses of historical photos, and aerial pictures
for describing the hazard of small landslides. For
2009) for rock fall: The intensities are classified
protection (30, 100, 300 years return period),
(which is also the case in the Swiss method) from
large landslides, the annual probability of active
by different methods using several tables. For fall
which corresponds to yearly probabilities of 0.03,
the year 1954 up to now, and historical data from
sliding or the annual probability that movement
processes, a table with definition of classes of the
0.01 and 0.003. An event with a return period
local sources. The probability is then classified in
will exceed a defined distance or the annual
geometry is determined (after [12] Heinimann et
higher than 300 years is normally also considered
4 classes:
probability that cracking within a slide exceeds
al. 1998). The classification takes into account the
for the assessment (risk analysis, residual risk,…).
block size of the rocks ([21] Kranitz & Bensi 2009).
Another table determines the velocity factor (v),
also ranging from 1- 3, using the definitions from
The probability of an event has to be calculated
Cruden & Varnes ([9], 1996). The intensity class,
or estimated:
ranging from 1- 9, is then determined with the
a defined length is used to describe the hazard.
It corresponds mainly to the flood prevention
continuous and/or intermittent landslides,
The description of the hazard should include the
strategy.
quiescent – episodic with high frequency)
classification and the volume or the area of the
•Big events (“Bergsturz”, >1mio m3) do not
defined by the elements at risk.
Comparison between the Swiss and the Italian
geomorphologic
landslides,
recur. For smaller events the probability is
geometry-velocity matrix.
• For continuous slides the probability is 1 (or
•
high:
on
1-30
years
(active
• medium: 30-100 years (quiescent – episodic
landslides with medium frequency)
•low: 100-300 years (quiescent – episodic
landslides with low frequency)
•
>300
years
(ancient
landslides
landslides.
Whether landslide intensity is required
for hazard zoning is to be determined on a caseby-case basis. For rock fall hazard zoning, it is
or
palaeolandslides).
likely to be required. Therefore the frequency
assessment is much more important for hazard
intensity classification:
100%), meaning that the event is happening
The differences in determining the intensity
already. Scenarios are defined when sudden
between the Swiss ([32] Raetzo & Loup 2009)
landslide failure or acceleration can take
and the Friuli method ([21] Kranitz & Bensi
place. When fast moving landslides (debris
France
The landslide intensity is assessed as a spatial
2009) are:
or earth slides according to Varnes) have
Malet et al. ([22] 2007) describes the French
distribution of:
•For fall processes in the Italian method,
long run-out distances, the process is
methodology for landslide risk zoning (Plan
the energy does not need to be calculated,
moving into a flow. In this case the Swiss
de Prévention des Risques), where 3 classes of
only the block sizes and the velocity need
method takes into account the change from
risk (R1, R2, R3) with specific rules for land use
to be determined, while in Switzerland the
the first to the second move and criteria of
regulations and urbanism can be represented
energy is calculated.
the flow processes are applied (see below).
in a matrix depicting hazards and potential
•the total displacement or
zonation than the intensity according to AGS.
Other approaches to hazard assessment
Intensity assessment in Australia:
•the velocity of sliding coupled with slide
volume or
•the kinetic energy (e.g. rock falls, rock
avalanches), or
•The probability for debris and earth flows is
consequences. This qualitative method is based
•the differential displacement or
Switzerland
determined through field work and based
on the expert opinion of the scientist. No
•the peak discharge per unit width (m3/m/
uses the mean long-term velocity for these
on inventory data. Numerical modelling
specific investigation is necessary, available data
continuous landslides.
of flow processes is also used and the
and reports are sufficient. The scale of work is
For basic and intermediate level assessments of
importance of these results is rising.
specified as 1:10,000. The hazard map is an
intensity, only the velocity and volume might be
interpretation of the type of processes, activity,
assessed. But for the advanced assessments of
•The Italian method does not differentiate
for
continuous
processes.
•The Swiss method determines 3 intensity
classes to apply within the hazard matrix
sec., e.g. debris flows)
for the land use planning. If protection
Method of Friuli Venezia Giulia ([21] Kranitz &
age and magnitude of the processes; the hazard
rock fall or debris flow hazard, the energy should
measures are planned in Switzerland, all
Bensi 2009):
map is an interpretation of the type of processes,
be determined. In AGS ([3] 2007b) it is noted that
the energy values are taken into account.
The possible frequency or occurrence probability
activity, magnitude and frequency. The risk map is
“there is no unique definition for intensity. Those
The Italian method determines 9 intensity
is determined through the records of historical
the crossing of the hazard map and the inventory
carrying out the zoning will have to decide which
classes.
events. If there is a lack of sufficient historical data
map of major stakes ([22] Malet et al. 2007).
definition is most appropriate for the study”.
Seite 37
Seite 36
Key-note papers
Frequency assessment in Australia:
of this uncertainty, it has been common practice
is regulated by a decree (“Verordnung des
The Swiss regulations are described in more detail
In AGS ([3], 2007b), the assessment of the
to report the likelihood of landsliding using
Bundesministeriums für Land- und Forstwirtschaft,
by Raetzo in this issue [31].
frequency of a landslide event for the generation
qualitative terms such as “likely”, “possible” or
1976“, BGBl. Nr. 436/1976). The scale usually
of hazard maps is usually determined from the
“unlikely”.”
ranges between 1:2,000 and 1:5,000, it must not be
assessed using the Swiss method ([30] Raetzo
smaller than 1:50,000. The map gives information
2002). This method is similar to the method planned
assessment of the recurrence intervals (the average
In some regions of Italy the hazard is
time between events of the same magnitude) of
Procedures of hazard mapping
about the determined effects in the relevant area
by the Italian legislative body for hydrogeological
the landslides. If the variation of recurrence inter-
in the considered regions
of catchment areas (torrent buffer areas) in red
risk assessment. Appropriate changes have been
and yellow hazard zones. The design event is
introduced in order to standardize these aspects
val is plotted against magnitude of the event, a
magnitude-frequency curve is obtained.
Tab. 3 gives an overview of hazard maps generated
determined by a return period of 150 years.
and contextualize the method for territorial
in the considered countries.
In the red hazard zone, infrastructures
jurisdiction ([21] Kranitz & Bensi 2009). Four
frequency include: historical records; sequences
In Germany a recommendation on how to create
cannot be maintained or can only be maintained
classes of hazards are distinguished, ranging
of aerial photographs and/or satellite images;
a susceptibility map is given by the “Geohazards”
with a very high effort due to the high intensity
from very high (P4 “molto elevata”), high (P3
silent
The methods listed for determining the
landslide
team of engineering geologists of German federal
or a high recurrence of avalanches or torrential
“elevata”), medium (P2 “media”), to moderate (P1
triggering events (rain storms, earthquakes); proxy
governmental departments of geology ([37] SGD
events.
“moderata”).
data (e.g. pollen deposition, lichen colonization,
2007). In 2007, the LfU completed the Landslide
The yellow hazard zone includes all
The French hazard map, PPR, Plan
fauna assemblages in ponds generated by a
susceptibility map of Oberallgäu (Bavaria). For
other areas affected by avalanches and torrents.
de prevention des risques, is made by the local
landslide,…); geomorphologic features (ground
this map, the processes of rock falls, superficial
The constant use of these areas by infrastructures
authorities (mayors), but with support by national
cracks, fresh scarps,…); subjective assessment.
landslides and deep seated landslides were
is affected due to these hazards. The hazard
agencies like CEMAGREF or agencies of the
It is further noted that “landslides of
treated separately. The susceptibility maps for rock
zone map also delineates blue areas (for the
departments. It was introduced in 1995. Made
different types and sizes do not normally have
falls and superficial landslides were created using
implementation of technical or forestal measures
by the municipalities at a scale of 1:10,000
the same frequency (annual probability) of
modelling, whereas the susceptibility map for
as well as protective measures), as well as brown
-1:25,000, the plans need to be authorized
occurrence. Small landslide events often occur
deep seated landslides was created empirically,
and violet reference areas.
by the prefects in collaboration with the local
more frequently than large ones. Different
assuming that deep seated landslides tend to occur
The brown reference areas are areas
authorities and the civil society, such as insurance
landslide types and mechanics of sliding have
in areas already affected by landslides in the past,
presumably affected by other hazards than
companies. The PPR gives information about the
different triggers (e.g. rainfalls of different
but taking into consideration that process areas
torrents or avalanches, like rock fall or landslides.
identification of danger zones; 3 classes of risk
intensity, duration and antecedent conditions;
can expand during reactivation of a landslide. The
The violet reference areas are areas, where soil
with specific rules for land use regulations and
earthquakes of different magnitude and peak
basic data used for the investigations contained
and terrain have to be protected in order to keep
urbanism can be represented. The method is a
ground acceleration) with different recurrence
the following: topographic map 1:25,000, raster
up their protective function.
qualitative method based on the expert judgment
periods. Because of this, to quantify hazard, an
format; geological map 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 and
In Switzerland, the Federal Office for
of the scientist. There are PPRs for floods, mass
appropriate
relationship
also maps in smaller scales where the detailed
the Environment FOEN (Bundesamt für Umwelt,
movements, avalanches and wood fires. Non-
should in principle be established for every
maps were not available, vector format; DTM,
BAFU) is responsible for creating guidelines
observance of the PPR has legal consequences.
landslide type in the study area. In practice, the
10m raster data; aerial photographs 1:18,000 and
concerning protection against natural hazards
In Spain the Geological Institute of
data available is often limited and this can only be
orthophotos; data on forests; GEORISK data (BIS-
(floods, mass movements, snow avalanches). The
Catalonia (IGC) is responsible to “study and
done approximately.” A row of useful references
BY); data on catchment areas; historical data.
concepts are similar for these processes to reach
assess geological hazards, including avalanches,
on frequency assessment are listed in AGS ([3],
In Austria only the Austrian Service for
a certain level of protection. Protection against
to propose measures to develop hazard forecast,
2007b).
Torrent and Avalanche Control (WLV) generates
natural hazards takes place on the principle of
prevention and mitigation and to give support
integral risk management, taking into account:
to other agencies competent in land and urban
witnesses;
correlation
with
magnitude-frequency
In AGS ([1], 2000) it is noted that “even
hazard maps, called “Gefahrenzonenkarte” or
if extensive investigation is carried out, assessing
“hazard zone maps” for floods, avalanches and
•Prevention of an event
the probability of landsliding (particularly for an
debris flows within the “Hazard zonation plan”
•Conflict management during an event
unfailed natural slope) is difficult and involves
(“Gefahrenzonenplan”). This is regulated by law
•
Regeneration
much uncertainty and judgement. In recognition
(Forest Act BGBL. 440/1975). The implementation
an event.
and
reconstruction
planning, and in emergency management” ([28]
Oller et al. 2010). Therefore, the IGC is charged
after
with making official hazard maps with such
finality. These maps comply with the Catalan
Seite 39
Seite 38
Key-note papers
Urban Law (1/2005), which indicates that in those
hazard zonation maps at a scale of 1:12,000.
rainfall-triggered soil-slip debris flows ([26] Mor-
through time and represent the main resource for
places where a risk exists, building is not allowed.
The hazard assessment included evaluating a
ton et al., 2003).
susceptibility/hazard assessment. The evidence
For hazard mapping, the work is done on two
“landslide frequency rate (LFR)“ and a “landslide
The state of Utah prepared a landslide
identified in the field are the facts dealing with
scales: land planning scale (1:25,000), and urban
area rate for delivery (LAR)”. The LFR is obtained
susceptibility map for the whole state at a scale
natural hazards. Inventories are the essential base
scale (1:5,000 or more detailed). These scales
by taking the number of delivering landslides
of 1:500,000 for deep seated landslides, based
for accurate hazard/risk assessment and have
imply different approaches and methods to obtain
per landform, divided by the total area of that
on existing landslides and slope angle thresholds
therefore to be established by authorities.
hazard parameters. The maps are generated in
landform, and normalized to the period of study.
for different geologic units. The susceptibility is
the framework of a mapping plan or as the final
The LAR is the area of delivering landslides
delineated in 4 classes: high – moderate – low –
movements
product of a specific hazard report.
normalized to the period of study and the area of
very low ([10] Giraud & Shaw, 2007).
methods of hazard assessment difficult. Guidelines
The Australian AGS guidelines ([1] AGS,
each landform. The resulting values are multiplied
2000, [2]- [6] AGS 2007a-e) provide for a hazard
by one million for easier interpretation.
zonation at a local (1:5,000 -1:25,000) and a site
In California soil-slip susceptibility maps
specific (>1:5,000, typically 1:5,000 -1:1,000)
were produced at a scale of 1:24,000 delineating
Guzzetti ([11], 2005) discusses hazard assessment
scale with 5 hazard descriptors: very high – high
the susceptibility in 3 classes: low, moderate and
in his thesis: “Despite the time [since the defini-
– moderate – low – very low.
high. They give information about the relative sus-
tion of “landslide hazard” given by Varnes and the
ceptibility of hill slopes to the initiation sites of
IAEG Commission on Landslides and other Mass
The state of Washington (USA) generated
Conclusion and recommendations
the title or the intention of the authors, deal with
Informationsebene
hazard”, landslide hazard assessment at the basin
Thematische
Inventarkarte
qualitativ / semiquantitativ
Gefahrenhinweiskarte
to difficulties associated with the quantitative
the literature survey, this unfortunately proved to
be true and contributed to the confusion existing
with definitions ([29] Posch-Trözmüller 2010).
Dispostionskarte
Grunddispositionskarte
Erweiterte
Dispositionskarte
The differences call first for a national
harmonization and second for international
comparable methods (minimal requirements).
Gefahrenpotentialkarte
(Karte der potentiellen Wirkungsbereiche)
To
assess
landslide
hazards,
the
geological, morphological, hydrogeological and
hydrological conditions must be known and
analysed: The differences regarding acquisition of
quantitativ
Interpretationsebene / Bewertungsebene
scale is sparse. And further: “This is largely due
determination of landslide hazard.” In carrying out
Standortparameter
und -verhältnisse
Gefahrenkarte
information and assessment of the susceptibility/
hazard of slopes to landslides and rock fall shown
Risikokarte
Fig. 1: Workflow of hazard mapping. ([18] Kociu et al. 2010)
Abb. 1: Flussdiagramm zum Prozess Gefahrenkartierung. ([18] Kociu et al. 2010)
concerning
final objective and the scale of product.
landslide susceptibility and not with landslide
Ereigniskarte
regulations
minimal requirements taking into account the
of published papers – most of which, in spite of
Ereigniskataster
makes
regarding hazard assessment should declare the
Movements ([39], 1984)] and the extensive list
Prozesshinweiskarte
(Karte der Phänomene)
The variability of phenomena of mass
in the chapter above call for a “harmonization”
of
the
minimal
different
methods
requirements).
(e.g.
parameters,
Hazard
assessment
needs information about possible scenarios.
Landslide inventories sustain landslide knowledge
x
x
x
x
geotechnical
properties
geotechnical
parameters
rock mass structure
joints/ joint spacing
x
x
structural
contributions
x
x
weathering
discontinuities
x
bedding attitude
x
material
Tab. 1: Vergleich der Informationen in Ereigniskatastern
Tab. 1: Comparison of information collected for different inventories
Reports etc.
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
S
By
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
CH
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Degree of precision
info/ reliability
x
x
Remedial measures
MM
x
CH
Methods used
x
"Hazard" to infrastructure
x
x
x
K
D
x
x
Damage
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Austria
Costs of measures and
investigation
x
Silent witnesses
Precursory signs
x
x
rate of movement
Causes, Trigger
x
type
Classification
water content
x
Classification of mass
movements
x
x
x
lithology/ stratigraphy x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Hydrogeology
Relationship to rainfall
NÖ
x
x
x
x
slope
geologic/ tectonic
unit
x
x
slope aspect
depth to failure
plane
depth to bedrock
site description
Land cover/ use
Geology, specified
Geology in general
x
approx. original slope x
x
x
reported when
slope position
x
who
geometry
x
why
x
x
what
activity
x
when
Landslide conditions
x
where
Basic information
GBA
x
Inventory
Countries
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
SLO
SLO
IT
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
IT
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
F
F
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
AUS
AUS
O
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
W
USA
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
U
Seite 41
Seite 40
Key-note papers
dv, D, T
dv, D, T
presence of dolines verified
SG=2 (d=0.52m), v=2
(16mm/year to
1,8m/hour)
SG=2 (depth:
2-15m), v=2
(16mm/year to
1,8m/hour)
intensity 3
SG=3 (d>2m),
v=1 (<16mm/
year) or: SG=1
(<0.5m), v=3
(very high
to extremely
rapid: 3m/min
to 5m/sec.)
SG=3
(depth>15m),
v=1 (<16mm/
year) or: SG=1
(depth<2m),
v=3 (very high
to extremely
rapid: 3m/min
to 5m/sec.)
dolines potentially existing or
soluble rocks (gypsum, etc.)
intensity 2
SG=2
(meaning:
block
diameter
0.5-2m), v=1
(meaning
extremely
slow, <16mm/
year), or:
SG=1 (<0.5m)
and v=2
(16mm/year to
1,8m/hour)
intensity 1
SG=1 and
v=1 (meaning:
block
diam.<0.5m
extremely
slow, <16mm/
year) or v=2
(meaning: very
slow (16mm/
year to rapid
[1.8m/hour])
SG=2 (depth:
2-15m), v=1
SG=1 (<0.5m),
(<16mm/year),
v=1 (16mm/
or: SG=1
year to 1.8m/
(<2m), v=2
hour)
(16mm/year to
1,8m/hour)
Whether landslide intensity is required for hazard zoning is to be determined on a case-by-case
basis. For rock fall hazard zoning it is likely to be required. The landslide intensity is assessed as a
spatial distribution of:
The kinetic energy or or the total displacement or the differential displacement, or
The velocity of sliding coupled with slide volume or the total displacement or the differential
displacement, or
The peak discharge per unit width (m3/m/sec., e.g. debris flows)
subsidence
Italy
rock fall
slide
Australia
rock fall, rock
avalanche
slide
flow
SG=2 (depth:
2-15m), v=3
(3m/min. to
5m/sec.)
SG=2 (d=0.52m), v=3 (3m/
min. to 5m/
sec.)
intensity 6
SG=3
(depth>15m),
v=3 (3m/min.
to 5m/sec.)
SG=3 (d>2m),
v=3 (3m/min.
to 5m/sec.)
intensity 9
dolines and danger of
collapsing
v>10cm/year, dislocation per
event >1m
dv, D, T
Tab. 2: Vergleich Intensität – Gefahrenabschätzung in der Schweiz, in Italien und in Australien
Tab. 2: Comparison of the intensity-assessment in Switzerland, Italy and Australia
For basic and intermediate level assessments of intensity only the velocity and volume might be
assessed, but for advanced assessments of rock fall or debris flow hazard the energy should be
assessed.
intensity 4
dv, D, T
dv, D, T
creep (+Permafrost)
2cm/year<v<10cm/year
v≤2cm/year
M>2m; h>1m
0.5m<M<2m; h<1m
M<0.5m
flow (earth flow)
M>2m; h>1m
M<0.5m
dv, D, T
v>10cm/year,
(or 1m dislocation per event)
E>300kJ
high intensity
spontaneous slides
0.5m<M<2m; h<1m
2cm/year<v<10cm/year
v≤2cm/year
continous slides
30kJ<E<300kJ
E<30kJ
rock fall
moderate intensity
low intensity
Switzerland
source: AGS
([2], 2007a)
Kranitz & Bensi
([21], 2009)
SG=geometry factor,
v=velocity factor
Raetzo & Loup
([32], 2009)
h=thickness of
accumulation of
shallow slide or flow
M=thickness of
potentially displaced
mass
v=velocity
dv=variation of v,
acceleration
D=differential
movement
T=thickness
E=energy
Seite 43
Seite 42
Key-note papers
Seite 45
Seite 44
Key-note papers
Richard Bäk
Amt der Kärntner Landesregierung
Abt. 15 Umwelt
3
statistical
x
1:12,000
USA:
Washington
Anschrift der Verfasser / Authors’ addresses:
Flatschacher Straße 70, A – 9020 Klagenfurt
Karl Mayer
5
statistic and
empirical
x
x
1:5,0001:25,000
Australia:
AGS
Unterabteilung Geologie und Bodenschutz
Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt
Ref. 61 Hochwasserschutz und alpine
2 (3)
qualitative
x
1:10,000
(urban),
-1:25,000
(rural)
Naturgefahren
5
Legend:
Levels of hazard
Tab. 3: Vergleich von verschiedenen Gefahrenkarten, Maßstäben und Legenden (Grad der Gefahren)
2 (for torrent
and debris
flow),
indication for
landslides and
rock fall
Geologische Bundesanstalt
Tab. 3: Comparison of different hazard maps, their scales and legends (levels of hazard)
4
quantitative,
statistic,
empirical
Method
(assessment,
modelling)
5
empirical,
probabilistic
quantitative,
statistical
(incl. field
investigation)
150 years
quantitative,
statistic, qualitative
(incl. field
investigation)
30 years
100 years
300 years
>300 years
30 years
100 years
300 years
(Residual risk zones
for RP>300y)
Return periods
considered for land
use (probability)
x
Gerlinde Posch-Trözmüller
x
Basic data:
susceptibility map
D – 80636 München
Basic data: inventory
eventually
x
x
x
national is
possible,
regional
detail
1:2,000- 1:10,000
1:2,0001:5,000
Scale
Italy:
Guzzetti
Italy:
Friuli, Veneto
Austria:
WLV
Comparison of
hazard maps
Gewässerschutz
Lazarettstraße 67
Switzerland:
FOEN/BAFU
Countries/ projects
France:
PPR
Abt. 6 Wasserbau, Hochwasserschutz,
Fachabteilung Rohstoffgeologie
Literatur / References:
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ON LANDSLIDE RISK MANAGEMENT (2000):
Landslide Risk Management Concepts and Guidelines. Australian
Geomechanics, Vol 35, No 1, March 2000.
[2] AGS (2007a).
Guideline for Landslide Susceptibility, Hazard and Risk Zoning for Land
Use Planning. Australian Geomechanics Society. Australian Geomechanics,
Vol 42, No 1, March 2007.
[3] AGS (2007b).
Commentary on Guideline for Landslide Susceptibility, Hazard and
Risk Zoning for Land Use Planning. Australian Geomechanics Society.
Australian Geomechanics, Vol 42, No 1, March 2007.
[4] AGS (2007c).
Practice Note Guidelines for Landslide Risk Management. Australian
Geomechanics Society. Australian Geomechanics, Vol 42, No 1, March
2007.
[5] AGS (2007d).
Commentary on Practice Note Guidelines for Landslide Risk Management
2007. Australian Geomechanics Society. Australian Geomechanics, Vol 42,
No 1, March 2007.
[6] AGS (2007e).
The Australian GeoGuides for slope management and maintenance.
Australian Geomechanics Society. Australian Geomechanics, Vol 42, No
1, March 2007.
[7] BÄK, EBERHART, GOLDSCHMIDT, KOCIU, LETOUZE-ZEZULA &
LIPIARSKI:
Ereigniskataster und Karte der Phänomene als Werkzeug zur Darstellung
geogener Naturgefahren (Massenbewegungen), Arb. Tagg. Geol. B.-A.,
Gmünd 2005.
Neulinggasse 38, A-1030 Wien
[8] BWG - BUNDESAMT FÜR WASSER UND GEOLOGIE:
Naturgefahren, Symbolbaukasten zur Kartierung der Phänomene, 2002
Andreas von Poschinger
[9] CRUDEN D.M. UND VARNES D.J.:
Landslide types and processes. In: A. Keith Turner & Robert L. Schuster
(eds): Landslide investigation and mitigation: 36-75. Transportation
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1996.
Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt
Abt. 10 Geologischer Dienst
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Landslide Susceptibility Map of Utah. MAP 228DM, Utah Geological
Survey, Utah Department of Natural Resources, Salt Lake City 2007.
Lazarettstraße 67, D – 80636 München
[11] GUZZETTI, F.:
Landslide hazard and risk assessment. Diss. Math.-Naturwiss. Fak. Univ.
Bonn, Bonn 2005.
Hugo Raetzo
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OR, 20-23 July, 1998.
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Bundesamt für Umwelt BAFU
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[13] ISPRA INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND
RESEARCH: Landslides in Italy. Special report 2008. 83/2008, Rome 2008.
[14] KIENHOLZ, H., KRUMMENACHER, B.:
Empfehlungen Symbolbaukasten zur Kartierung der Phänomene Ausgabe
1995, Mitteilungen des Bundesamtes für Wasser und Geologie Nr. 6, 41 S.,
Reihe Vollzug Umwelt VU-7502-D, Bern 1995.
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[15] KLINGSEISEN, B., LEOPOLD, PH.:
Landslide Hazard Mapping in Austria.-GIM International 20 (12): 41-43,
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Gefahrenzonenplanung in Südtirol. Vortrag im
Landesgeologentages 2009, 26.2.2009, St. Pölten 2009.
[16] KLINGSEISEN, B., LEOPOLD, PH., TSCHACH, M.:
Mapping Landslide Hazards in Austria: GIS Aids Regional Planning in NonAlpine Regions. ArcNews 28 (3): 16, 2006.
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Hazard mapping in Catalonia. Vortrag Workshop AdaptAlp, 17.3.2010,
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Georisiko-Potenzial
Kärnten;
Entwicklung
einer
GIS-basierten
Gefahrenhinweiskarte betreffend Massenbewegungen auf Grundlage
einer digitalen geologischen Karte (1:50,000) und eines georeferenzierten
Ereigniskatasters. Endbericht, Gefährdungskarte, Ausweisung von
Bereichen unterschiedlicher Suszeptibilität für verschiedene Typengruppen
der Massenbewegung. Bund/Bundesländerkooperation KC-29, Bibl. Geol.
B.-A., Wiss. Archiv, Wien, 2006
[29] POSCH-TRÖZMÜLLER, G.:
AdaptAlp WP 5.1 Hazard Mapping - Geological Hazards. Literature
Survey regarding methods of hazard mapping and evaluation of danger by
landslides and rock fall. Final Report, Geologische Bundesanstalt, Wien,
2010
[18] KOCIU, A., TILCH N., SCHWARZ L,. HABERLER A., MELZNER S.:
GEORIOS - Jahresbericht 2009; Geol.B.-A. Wien 2010.
[19] KOLMER, CH.:
Geogenes Baugrundrisiko Öberösterreich. Vortrag im Rahmen des
Landesgeologentages 2009, 26.2.2009, St. Pölten, 2009.
[20] KOMAC, M.; RIBICIC, M.:
Landslide Susceptibility Map of Slovenia 1:250,000. Geological Survey of
Slovenia, Ljubljana 2008.
[21] KRANITZ, F., BENSI, S.:
The BUWAL method. In: Posch-Trözmüller, G. (Ed.): Second Scientific
Report to the INTERREG IV A project MASSMOVE - Minimal standards
for compilation of danger maps like landslides and rock fall as a tool for
disaster prevention. Attachment 4 to the second progress report, Geological
Survey of Austria, Wien, 2009.
[22] Malet, J.-P.; Thiery, Y.; Maquaire, O.; Sterlacchini, S.; van Beek,
L.P.H.; van Asch, Th.W.J.; Puissant, A.; Remaitre, A.: Landslide risk zoning:
What can be expected from model simulations? JRC Expert Meetings
on Guidelines for Mapping Areas at Risk of Landslides in Europe 23-24
October 2007, JRC, Ispra EU, 2007.
[23] MAYER, K.:
Maßnahme 3.2a „Schaffung geologischer und hydrologischer
Informationsgrundlagen“. Vorhaben „Gefahrenhinweiskarte Oberallgäu“.
Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt, München 2007.
[24] MAZENGARB, C.:
The Tasmanian Landslide Hazard Map Series: Methodology. Tasmanian
Geological Survey Record 2005/04, Mineral Resources Tasmania, 2005.
[25] MIDDELMANN, M. H. (ED.):
Natural Hazards in Australia: Identifying Risk Analysis Requirements.
Geoscience Australia, Canberra 2007.
[26] MORTON, D.M., ALVAREZ, R.M., CAMPBELL, R.H.:
Preliminary soil-slip susceptibility maps, southwestern California. USGS
Open-File Report OF 03-17, Riverside, 2003.
Rahmen
des
[30] RAETZO, H.:
Hazard assessment in Switzerland – codes of practice for mass movements,
International Association of Engineering Geology IAEG Bulletin, 2002.
[31] REATZO, H. & LOUP, B.:
Geological hazard assessment in Switzerland (this issue)
[32] RAETZO, H. & LOUP, B. ET AL.; BAFU:
Schutz vor Massenbewegungen. Technische Richtlinie als Vollzugshilfe.
Entwurf 9. Sept. 2009.
[33] REEVES, H.:
Geohazards: The UK perspective. Vortrag Workshop AdaptAlp, 17.3.2010,
Bozen 2010.
[34] RUDOLF-MIKLAU F. & SCHMIDT F.:
Implementation, application and enforcement of hazard zone maps
for torrent and avalanches control in Austria, Forstliche Schriftenreihe,
Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, Bd. 18, p. 83-107, 2004.
[35] RUFF, M.:
GIS-gestützte Risikonanalyse für Rutschungen und Felsstürze in den
Ostalpen (Vorarlberg, Österreich). Georisikokarte Vorarlberg. Diss. Univ.
Karlsruhe, 2005.
[36] SCHWEIGL, J.; HERVAS, J.:
Landslide Mapping in Austria. JRC Scientific and Technical Report EUR
23785 EN, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,
61 pp. ISBN 978-92-79-11776-3, Luxembourg, 2009.
[37] SGD, PERSONENKREIS GEOGEFAHREN: Geogene Naturgefahren in
Deutschland- Empfehlungen der Staatlichen Geologischen Dienste (SGD)
zur Erstellung von Gefahrenhinweiskarten., 2007.
[38] TILCH, N.:
Datenmanagementsystem GEORIOS (Geogene Risiken Österreich). Vortrag
im Rahmen des Landesgeologentages 2009, 26.2.2009, St. Pölten 2009.
[39] VARNES, D.J. AND IAEG COMMISSION ON LANDSLIDES AND
OTHER MASS-MOVEMENTS:
Landslide hazard zonation: a review of principles and practice. The
UNESCO Press, Paris, 1984.
Seite 49
Seite 48
Key-note papers
Zusammenfassung:
In den Bergregionen treten an Steilhängen verschiedene Arten von Massenbewegungen
auf, die Wasser und Sedimente mit sich führen: Muren, Bergsturz und Steinschlag. Das
Ziel dieser Abhandlung ist es, einen kurzen Überblick über die vergangenen Analysen der
Gefahren von Hangmassenbewegungen zu geben. Obwohl der Schwerpunkt auf Bergstürzen liegt, können die präsentierten Ansätze auch zur Gefahrenbeurteilung von Muren
und Steinschlag verwendet werden. Insbesondere Bergstürze und Muren sind sehr häufig
miteinander verflochten. Im Folgenden wird „Bergsturz“ im weiteren Sinn als ein Begriff
verwendet, der nicht nur auf einen Erdrutsch zu beziehen ist, sondern auch auf andere
Hangmassenbewegungen.
Schlüsselwörter: Bergstürze, Muren, Felssturz, numerische Ansätze, Bergsturzgefahrenanalyse
movements on slopes, including rock-fall, topples
1. The “Early Ages”
MATEJA JEMEC, MARKO KOMAC
An Overview of Approaches for
Hazard Assessment of Slope Mass Movements
Ein Überblick über die Ansätze zur
Gefahrenbeurteilung von Massenbewegung
Summary:
In mountainous areas, various types of mass movements occur on steep slopes involving
water and sediment: debris flows, landslides and rockfalls. The aim of this paper is to gather
a short overview of the past analyses that dealt with the hazard assessment of slope mass
movements. Although the main focus is on landslides, the approaches presented can be used
to assess debris flows and rockfall hazards. In particular, landslides and debris flow are very
often interlaced between each other. In the following text, the term “landslide” will be used
as a term that might not always be strictly connected to only landslides but also to other
slope mass movements. In a way it has a broader meaning.
Keywords: landslides, debris-flows, rockfall, numerical approaches, landslide hazard assessment
and debris flow, that involve little or no true
sliding”. Cruden (1991) moderated the accepted
The first extensive papers on the use of spatial
definition as “the movement of a mass of rock,
information in a digital context for landslide
earth or debris down a slope”. Later different
susceptibility mapping date back to the late
working groups were established to support a
seventies and early eighties of the last century.
specific level of standardisation in fields related
Among the pioneers in this field were Carrara
to landslides (UNESCO, IUGS, ISSMGE, ISRM
et al. (1977) in Italy and Brabb et al. (1978) in
and IAEG) and created the JTC (Joint Technical
California. Nowadays, practically all research
Committee on Landslides and Engineered Slopes),
on landslide susceptibility and hazard mapping
which continues to work for the standardisation
makes use of digital tools for handling spatial data
and promotion of research on landslides among
such as GIS, GPS and Remote Sensing. These tools
the different disciplines. A large set of definitions
also have defined, to a large extent, the type of
was later presented by ISSMGE TC32 (Technical
analysis that can be carried out. It can be stated
Committee on Risk Assessment and Management,
that to a certain degree the capability of GIS
2004) where international terms recognized for
tools and the accuracy of the in-situ and remote
hazard, vulnerability, risk and disaster can also
sensing data have determined the current state of
be found. Since these definitions were published,
the art in landslide hazard and risk assessment.
many
Many publications about landslides and some
(Einstein, 1988; Fell, 1994; Soeters and van Westen,
worldwide landslide research problems can be
1996; Wu et al., 1996; Cruden and Fell, 1997; van
found in the literature of Einstein (1988), Fell
Westen et al., 2003; Lee and Jones, 2004; Glade et
(1994), Dai et al. (2002) and Glade et al. (2005).
al., 2005) allowing one to conclude that nowadays
approaches
have
been
implemented
definitions regarding landslides risk assessment
2. Terminology
are generally accepted. The latest information of
guidelines for landslide susceptibility, hazard and
The term landslide was defined by Varnes and
risk zoning are published by JTC-1 (2008) and van
IAEG (1984) as “almost all varieties of mass
Westen et al. (2008).
Seite 51
Seite 50
Key-note papers
Data layer and types
Accompanying data in tables
Used methods for data collecting
1. Landslide occurrence
Landslides
Type, activity, depth, dimensions, etc
Fieldwork, orthophoto, satellite images
2. Environmental (preparatory) factors
Terrain mapping units
Units description
In-situ survey (fieldwork), satellite images
Geomorphological units
Geomorphological description
Ortophoto, fieldwork, high resolution DEM
Digital elevation model (DEM)
Altitude classes
SRTM DEM data, topographic map
Slope map
Slope angle classes
With GIS form DEM
Aspect map
Slope direction classes
With GIS form DEM
Slope length
Slope length classes
With GIS form DEM
Slope shape
Concavity/convexity
With GIS form DEM
Internal relief
Altitude/area classes
With GIS form DEM
Drainage density
Longitude/area classes
With GIS form DEM
Landslide related data can be grouped into four
flow are very often interlaced between each
main sets, Table 1 (Soeters and van Westen, 1996).
other (Fig.1). In many cases, heavy precipitation
that
is recognised as the main cause, and thresholds
have
Debris
several
flows
are
sub-categories
processes
different
under different climatic conditions have been
characteristics. Debris flows are gravity-induced
and
empirically evaluated (Caine, 1980; Canuti et
mass movements, intermediate between land
al., 1985; Fleming et al., 1989; Mainali and
sliding and water flooding, with mechanical
Rajaratnam, 1994; Anderson, 1995; Cruden and
characteristics different from either of these
Varnes, 1996; Finlay et al., 1997; Crosta, 1998;
processes (Johnson, 1970). According to Varnes
Crozier, 1999; Dai et al., 1999; Glade, 2000;
(1978), debris flow is a form of rapid mass
Alcantara-Ayala, 2004; Fiorillo and Wilson, 2004;
movement of rocks and soils in a body of granular
Lan et al., 2004; Malet et al., 2005; Wen and
solid, water, and air, analogous to the movement
Aydin, 2005). Landslides may mobilise to form
of liquids. In the landslide classification of Cruden
debris flows by three processes: (a) widespread
and Varnes (1996), debris flows are flow-like
Coulomb failure within a sloping soil, rock, or
Lithology, rock strength, weathering
process
Fieldwork and laboratory tests, archives,
orthophoto
landslides with less than 80% of sand and finer
sediment mass, (b) partial or complete liquefaction
Soils and material sequences
Soils types, materials, depth, grain
size, distribution, bulk density
Modelling form lithological map,
geomorphological map and slope map,
fieldwork and laboratory analysis
particles. Velocities vary between very rapid and
of the mass by high pore-fluid pressure, and (c)
extremely rapid with typical velocities of 3 m/min
conversion of landslide translational energy to
Structural geological map
Fault type, length, dip, dip direction,
fold axis
Fieldwork, satellite images, orthofoto
and 5 m/sec, respectively. Landslides and debris
internal vibrational energy (Iverson et al., 1997).
Vertical movements
Vertical movements, velocities
Geodetic data, satellite data
Land use map
Land use type, tree density root depth
Satellite images, orthofoto, fieldwork
Drainage
Type, order and length
Orthophoto, topographic map
Catchment areas
Order, size
Orthophoto, topographic map
Water table
Depth of water table in time
Hydraulic stations
Rainfall and maximum probabilities
Precipitation in time
Meteorological stations and modelling
Earthquakes and seismic
acceleration
Earthquakes database and
maximum sesismic acceleration
Seismic data, engineering geological data
and modelling
Population
Number, sex, age, etc.
Statistics information
Transportation system and facilities
Roads and railroad types, facilities
types
Atlas, topographic map, local
information
Lifeline utility system
Types of lifeline network and
capacity of fascilities
Atlas, topographic map, local
information
Building
Type of structure and occupation
Topographic map, Housing information
Industry
Industry production and type
Atlas, topographic map, local information
Services facilities
Number and type of health,
educational, cultural and sport
facilities
Atlas, topographic map, local information
Tourism facilities
Type of touristy facilities
Atlas, topographic map, local information
Natural resources
Area without natural resources
combined
Atlas, topographic map, local information
Lithologies
3. Triggering factors
4. Elements at risk
Tab. 1: Summary of data needed for landslide hazard and risk assessment. Adapted from Soeters and van Westen (1996).
Tab. 1: Zusammenfassung der Daten für Erdrutsch-Gefährdungs- und Risikoanalyse. Adaptiert von Soeters und van Westen (1996).
Fig. 1: Classification of slope mass movements as a ratio of solid fraction and material type.
Modified after Coussot and Meunier (1996).
Abb. 1: Klassifikation von Massenbewegungen als Verhältnis von Geschiebefraktion und Materialart.
Modifiziert nach Coussot und Meunier (1996).
Seite 53
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Key-note papers
Rockfall is one of the most common mass
and morphogenetic behaviour of the landslides,
van Westen and Terlien, 1996; Soeters and Westen,
2004; Wen and Aydin, 2005; Zezere et al., 2005;
movement processes in mountain regions and is
and computing capabilities of software and
1996; van Asch et al., 1999; Zaitchik et al., 2003;
Giannecchini, 2006; Jakob et at., 2006). While
defined as the free falling, bouncing or rolling
hardware tools).
Mazengarb, 2004; Schmidt and Dikau, 2004;
some of them deal with specific cases, others are
of individual or a few rocks and boulders, with
Firstly, inventory analysis, which are
Mayer et al., 2010), which is based on hydrological
more concerned with the statistical relationship
volumes involved generally being < 5 m3 (Berger
based on the analysis of the spatial and temporal
and slope instability models to evaluate the safety
for creating correlations models and even produce
et al., 2002). Numerous studies exist concerning
distribution of landslide attributes and such
factor. Montgomery et al. (1994, 1998 and 2000)
forecasting models based on rainfall threshold
various aspects of rockfall, such as the dynamic
inventories are the basis of most susceptibility
have attributed a great importance to precipitation
values.
behaviour (Ritchie, 1963; Erismann, 1986; Azzoni
mapping techniques. On detailed landslide
and many other investigations have also been
et al., 1995), boulder reaction during ground
inventory maps, the basic information for
carried out about the relationship between rainfall
applied to landslide hazard and susceptibility
contact (Bozzolo et al., 1986; Hungr and Evans,
evaluating and reducing landslide hazards on
and landslides (Crozier, 1999; Lida, 1999; Dai
assessment are artificial neural network (ANN)
1988; Evans and Hungr, 1993), or runout distances
a regional or local level may be provided. Such
and Lee, 2001; Guzzetti et al., 2007). For rainfall
tools. ANN is a useful approach for problems
of falling rocks (Kirkby and Statham, 1975; Statham
maps include the state of activity, certainty of
induced failures, these models couple shallow
such as regression and classification, since it
and Francis, 1986; Okura et al., 2000). Much
identification, dominant type of slope movement,
subsurface flow caused by rainfalls of various
has the capability of analyzing complex data
research was also done on the possible triggers
primary direction, and estimated thickness of
return periods, predicted soil thickness and soil
at varied scales such as continuous, categorical
of rockfall, such as freeze-thaw cycles (Gardner,
material involved in landslides, and the dates of
mantle landslides. Numerous studies have used
and binary data. The concept of ANN is based on
1983; Matsuoka and Sakai, 1999; Matsuoka,
known activity for each landslide (Wieczorek,
rainfall characteristics, such as duration, intensity,
learning form data with known characteristics to
2006), changes in the rock-moisture level (Sass,
1984).
maximum and antecedent rainfall during a
derive a set of weighting parameters which are
2005), the thawing of permafrost (Gruber et al.,
Secondly, the popular heuristic analysis
particular period, to identify the threshold value for
used subsequently to recognize the unseen data
2004), the increase of mean annual temperatures
(Castellanos and van Westen, 2003; R2 Resource
landslide initiation. Many authors (Caine, 1980;
(Horton, 1945).
(Davies et al., 2001), tectonic folding (Coe and
Consultants, 2005; Ruff and Czurda, 2007;
Caine and Mool, 1982; Brabb, 1984; Cannon
Harp, 2007) or the occurrence of earthquakes
Firdaini, 2008) based on expert criteria with
and Ellen, 1985; Jakob and Weatherly, 2003)
susceptibility analysis techniques using a multi-
(Harp and Wilson, 1995; Marzorati et al., 2002).
different assessment methods. The landslide
applied the rainfall intensity duration equation
layered perception (MLP) network. The results
In addition, several studies exist on the long-term
inventory map is accompanied with preparatory
to estimate the threshold. With regard to specific
were verified by ranking the susceptibility index
accretion rates of rockfall (Luckman and Fiske,
factors to be the main input for determining
rainfall characteristics, Wieczorek and Sarmiento
in classes of equal area and showed satisfactory
1995; McCarroll et al., 1998). Furthermore, since
landslide hazard zoning. Experts then define the
(1983) used total rainfall duration before specific
agreement between the susceptibility map and
the late 1980s, the field of numeric modelling
weighting value for each factor.
rainfall intensity occurs; Govi et al. (1985) applied
the landslide location data. Lee et al. (2003a)
has become a major topic in the field of rockfall
statistical
total rainfall during a specific period after rainfall
obtained landslide susceptibility by using neural
research (Zinggerle, 1989; Guzzetti et al., 2002;
analysis (Neuland, 1976; Carrara, 1983; Pike,
starts; and Crozier (1986) utilized the ratio of
network models and compared neural models with
Dorren et al., 2006; Stoffel et al., 2006).
1988; Carrarra et al., 1991; van Westen, 1993;
total rainfall to antecedent rainfall. Guzzetti et
probabilistic and statistical ones. They also show a
Chung & Fabbri, 1999; Gorsevski et al., 2000;
al. (2004) identified the local rainfall threshold
combination of ANN for determination of weights
3. Numerical approaches to landslide hazard
Dhakal et al., 2000; Zhou et al., 2003; Saha et al.,
on the basis of local rainfall and landslide record
used spatial probabilities to create a landslide
assessment
2005; Guinau et al., 2007; Komac and Ribičič,
and concluded that landslide activity in Northern
susceptibility index map (Lee et al., 2004). Rainfall
Many
researchers
utilize
One of the relatively new methods
Lee et al. (2003b) developed landslide
2008; Magliulo et al., 2008; Miller and Burnett,
Italy initiates 8-10 hours after the beginning of a
and earthquake scenarios as triggering factors for
According to Van Westen (1993), the landslide
2008; Pozzoni et al., 2009; Komac et al., 2010),
storm. However, many other investigations have
landslides have been used in hazard assessment
hazard assessment methods have been divided
where several parameter maps are surveyed to
been published about the relationship between
with ANNs (Lee and Evangelista, 2006; Wang and
into four groups of analysis. We’ve added an
apply bivariate and multivariate analysis. The
rainfall and landslides and attribute a large
Sassa, 2006). Several studies recognize ANN as a
additional group – Artificial Neural Networks. The
key of this method is the landslide inventory map
impact to precipitation for the time duration of
promising tool for these applications and most of
selection of one method over another depends on
when the past landslide occurrences are needed
landslides (Carrara, 1991; Mongomery et al.,
them use a Multi layer Perceptron (MLP) network
several factors (the data costs and availability, the
to forecast future landslide areas.
1994, 1998; Terlien et al., 1995; Crozier, 1999;
and a back propagation algorithm for training
scale, the output requirements, the geological and
The next approach is deterministic
Laprade et al., 2000; Alcantara-Ayala, 2004; Coe
the network (Rumelhart et al., 1986; Arora et
geomorphological conditions, the tectonogenetic
analysis (van Westen, 1994; Terlien et al., 1995;
et al., 2004; Fiorillo and Wilson, 2004; Lan et al.,
al., 2004; Ercanoglu, 2005; Ermini et al., 2005;
Seite 55
Seite 54
Key-note papers
Numerical approach
Inventory analysis
Heuristic analysis
Statistical analysis
Deterministic analysis
rainfall
Artificial neural
network (ANN)
Basic description of approach
Analysis of the spatial and
temporal distribution of
landslide attributes
Gomez and Kavzoglu, 2005; Wang et al., 2005;
conditional or preparatory causal factors. With
Pradhan and Lee, 2007, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c;
this combination a GIS is obtained in a landslide
Pradhan et al., 2009; Youssef et al., 2009). Ermini
susceptibility map. In susceptibility analyses,
et al. (2005) and Catani et al. (2005) used unique
triggering causal factors are often not considered.
conditions units for the terrain unit definition in
Some research has been done specifically related
ANNs analysis. More critical analyses compare
to the landslide susceptibility assessment (Lee et
ANN techniques with other methods such as
al., 2003; Sirangelo and Braca, 2004; Guzzetti
logistic regression, fuzzy weighing and other
et al., 2006). Several countries have published
statistical methods (Ercanoglu and Gokceoglu,
national landslide susceptibility maps that are
2002; Lu, 2003; Neaupane and Achet, 2004;
based on their national landslide inventory
Miska and Jan, 2005; Yesilnacar and Topal, 2005;
(Brabb et al., 1999; Guzzetti, 2000; Komac and
Kanungo et al., 2006; Lee, 2007). In the neural
Ribičič, 2008). One of the proven techniques for
network method, Nefeslioglu et al. (2008) showed
landslide susceptibility assessment is the weights
that ANNs give a more optimistic evaluation of
of evidence (WofE) modelling. Many landslide
van Westen (1994); Terlien et al. (1995);
van Westen and Terlien (1996); Soeters
and Westen (1996); van Asch et al. (1999);
Zaitchik et al. (2003); Mazengarb (2004);
Schmidt and Dikau (2004); Mayer et al. (2010)
landslide susceptibility than logistic regression
susceptibility have been carried out using this
analysis. Melchiorre et al. (2006) did further
method (van Westen, 1993; Fernandez, 2003; van
research on the behaviour of a network with
Westen et al., 2003; Lee and Choi, 2004; Suzen
respect to errors in the conditioning factors by
and Doyuran, 2004; Neuhauser and Terhorst,
Caine (1980); Caine and Mool (1982);
Wieczorek and Sarmiento (1983); Brabb
(1984); Cannon and Ellen (1985); Govi et
al. (1985); Crozier (1986); Carrara (1991);
Terlien et al. (1995); Montgomery et al.
(1994, 1998 and 2000); Crozier (1999);
Lida (1999); Laprade et al. (2000); Dai
and Lee (2001); Jakob and Weatherly
(2003); Alcantara-Ayala (2004); Coe et
al. (2004); Fiorillo and Wilson (2004);
Guzzetti et al. (2004); Lan et al. (2004);
Zezere et al. (2005); Wen and Aydin (2005);
Giannecchini (2006); Jakob et al. (2006);
Guzzetti et al. (2007)
performing a robustness analysis and Melchiorre
2007; Magliulo et al., 2008). Essentially, the
et al. (2008) improved the predictive capability
WofE method is a bivariate statistical technique
and robustness of ANNs by introducing a cluster
that calculates the spatial probability and odds of
analysis. Neaupane and Achet (2004) used
landslides given a certain variable.
ANN for monitoring the movement. Moreover,
Kanungo et al. (2006) showed that a landslide
landslide runout in the analyses for landslide
susceptibility
combined
hazard assessment. With research on landslide
neural and fuzzy weighting procedure is the best
runout or travel distance started in mid Nineties
amongst the other weighting techniques. Lui et
of the last century (Hungr, 1995; Finlay et al.,
al. (2006) assessed the landslide hazard using
1999; Chen and Lee, 2000; Okura et al., 2000;
ANNs for a specific landslide typology (debris
Fannin and Wise, 2001; Wang et al., 2002; Crosta
flow), considering among the triggering factors
et al., 2003; Hunter and Fell, 2003; Bertolo and
frequency of flooding, covariance of monthly
Wieczorek, 2005; Hungr et al., 2005; Malet et
precipitation, and days with rainfall higher than a
al., 2005; Crosta et al., 2006; van Asch et al.,
critical threshold.
2006; Pirulli et al., 2007; van Asch et al., 2007a;
References
Wieczorek (1984)
Based on expert criteria with
different assessment methods
Castellanos and van Westen (2003);
R2 Resource Consultants (2005); Ruff and
Czurda (2007); Firdaini (2008)
Several parameter maps are
surveyed to apply bivariate
and multivariate analysis
Neuland (1976); Carrara (1983); Pike
(1988); Carrarra et al. (1991); van Westen
(1993); Chung and Fabbri (1999); Gorsevski
et al. (2000); Dhakal et al. (2000); Zhou et
al. (2003); Saha et al. (2005); Guinau et al.
(2007); Komac and Ribičič (2008); Magliulo
et al. (2008); Miller and Burnett (2008);
Pozzoni et al. (2009); Komac et al. (2010)
Apply hydrological and slope
instability models to evaluate
the safety factor
Use rainfall characteristic to
identify the threshold value for
landslide initiation
Horton (1945); Rumelhart et al. (1986);
Ercanoglu and Gokceoglu (2002); Lee et al.
(2003a); Lee et al. (2003b); Lu (2003); Arora
et al. (2004); Lee et al. (2004); Neaupane and
Achet (2004); Catani et al. (2005); Ercanoglu
Learning from data with
known characteristics to derive (2005); Ermini et al. (2005); Gomez and
(2005); Miska and Jan (2005); Wang
a set of weighting parameters, Kavzoglu
et al. (2005); Yesilnacar and Topal (2005);
which are used subsequently
Kanungo et al. (2006); Lee and Evangelista
to recognize the unseen data
(2006); Lui et al. (2006); Melchiorre et al.
(2006, 2008); Wang and Sassa (2006); Lee
(2007); Pradhan and Lee (2007,2009a, 2009b,
2009c); Nefeslioglu et al. (2008); Pradhan et
al. (2009); Youssef et al. (2009)
map
derived
from
Many
investigations
have
included
van Asch, et al., 2007b) where authors use three
4. Approaches to landslide hazard assessment
types of approaches for runout analysis. These are
the empirical approach from previous landslides
The landslide susceptibility assessment is a
and geomorphological analysis, the deterministic
Tab. 2: Review of numerical approaches to landslide hazard assessment with short description of approach and references.
particular step in the landslide hazard assessment
approach from the geotechnical parameters and
Tab. 2: Überprüfung von numerischen Ansätzen zur Gefahrenabschätzung von Rutschungen mit einer kurzen Darstellung des Ansatzes
und Referenzen.
and is usually based on the comparison of
the dynamic approach from numerical modelling
the previously surveyed landslides and the
of runout.
Seite 57
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Key-note papers
Landslide
vulnerability
assessment
is
a
and the risk areas are categorized generally in
Komac (2006) designed multivariate statistical
Landslide (or any natural hazard for that matter)
evaluation
three or five classes as very high, high, moderate,
processing techniques in order to obtain several
assessment process is just one of several steps in
of landslide risk (Leone et al., 1996). Most
low and very low. This method is applicable for
landslide susceptibility models with data at scale
the (Landslide) Risk Management Cycle (RMC),
publications about vulnerability are related to
spatial analysis using GIS and usually applied at
1:50,000 and 1:100,000. Based on the statistical
which doesn’t end at the stage where results of
hazard and risk assessment (Mejia-Navarro et al.,
national or regional levels. This approach were
results, several landslides susceptibility maps
assessment process are included in the RMC. RMC
1994; Leone et al., 1996; Ragozin and Tikhvinsky,
found in literature from Lateltin (1997), AGS
were created.
is a live system where each measure/provision
2000; van Westen, 2002; Hollenstein, 2005). The
(2000), Budetta (2004), Cascini (2004), Ko Ko et
Quantitative landslide risk assessment
results in a consequence(s) that influence(s)
main object of these investigations determined
al. (2004), IADB (2005), Nadim et al. (2006).
has been used for specific slopes or very small
further development in and steps of this cycle. In
the elements of risk which have impact on
landslide
areas using probabilistic methods or percentage
a way we could define it as a spiral rather than as
structures on its surface and estimate the cost.
risk assessment approach, weights are assigned
of losses expected (Whitman, 1984; Chowdhury,
a circular process since the same position is never
The vulnerability maps are expressed with values
under certain criteria, which provide numbers
1988). Probabilistic values (0-1) are obtained
reached again.
between 0 and 1, where 0 means no damage and
as outcome, instead of qualitative classes
at the expense of a certain amount of monetary
1 means total loss. Generally, the vulnerability
(0-1, 0-10 or 0-100). It could be applicable to
or human loss. Quantitative risk analysis and
to landslides may depend on runout distance;
any scale, but more reasonably used at medium
consequent assessment uses information about
volume and velocity of sliding; elements at risk
scale. Semi-quantitative approach efficiently uses
hazard probability, values of elements at risk
In this paper, different approaches for the evaluation
(buildings and other structures), their nature and
spatial multi-criteria techniques implemented in
and their vulnerability. Among the quantitative
of slope mass processes are reviewed. In general,
their proximity to the slide; and the elements
GIS that facilitate standardization, weighting and
approaches found in literature there are some
all analyses are based on the assumption that
at risk (person), their proximity to the slide, the
data integration in a single set of tools. More
basic similarities but also some differences
historical landslides and their causal relationships
nature of the building/road that they are in, and
details about the weighting system are published
between the approaches. They include either
can be used to predict future ones (“past is a key
where they are in the building, on the road, etc
by Brand (1988), Koirala and Watkins (1988),
estimation of hazard or estimation of vulnerability
to the future”). However, we can see that many
(Finlay, 1996).
Chowdhury and Flentje (2003), Blochl and
and consequences (Morgan, 1992; Einstein, 1988,
researchers use different approaches to evaluate
fundamental
component
in
the
With
the
semi-qualitative
6. Conclusion
The aim of landslide hazard and risk
Braun (2005), Castellanos Abella and van Westen
1997; Fell, 1994; Fell et al., 2005; Anderson et al.,
landslides, debris flow or rockfall hazard risk
assessment studies is to protect the population,
(2005) and Saldivar-Sail and Einstein (2007).
1996; Ragozin, 1996; Ragozin and Tikhvinsky,
assessment, which mainly depend on data
the economy and environment against potential
When
2000; Lee and Jones, 2004; AGS, 2000).
availability. In developing countries, usually the
damage caused by landslides (Crozier and Glade,
model, usually the multi-criteria evaluation is
2005). Risk in this context, is seen as a disaster
used (see references below). The input is a set
that could happen in the future. The total risk
of maps that are the spatial representation on
map could be obtained by combining hazard and
the criteria, which are grouped, standardised
At the end of the assessment process when
with high standards, the approach to the topic is
vulnerability and made directly or specific risk or
and weighted in a criteria tree. Meanwhile the
landslide susceptibility and risk assessment
focused into prevention and into remediation if
consequence maps can be created and analyzed
output is one or more composite index maps
have been identified, results and measures
disasters occur. In any event the obstacles related
in order to achieve some preliminary conclusions.
indicating the completion of the model used.
obtained should or may be included into the
to the availability of data are smaller each day
The classification of the landslide risk assessment
The theoretical background for the multi-
landslide risk management process governed
due to low-cost satellite information, the use of
is still in progress. At the moment the classification
criteria evaluation is based on the Analytical
by decision makers to mitigate landslide risk of
SRTM, ASTER and Google Earth, which ease the
is based on the level of quantification dividing the
Hierarchical Process (AHP) developed by Saaty
the community or, at this level, several further
creation of landslide inventory databases, a basis
landslide risk assessment methods in qualitative,
(1977). The AHP has been extensively applied
approaches are possible. The strategies may
for any further hazard assessments. The landslide
semi-qualitative and quantitative (AGS, 2000;
on decision making problems (Saaty and Vargas,
be grouped into planning control, engineering
inventory map is probably the most important data
Powell, 2000; Walker 2000; Chowdhury and
2001). Recently some research has been carried
solution, acceptance, and monitoring or warning
set to work on for producing a reliable prediction
Flentje, 2003).
out to apply AHP to landslide susceptibility
systems. The risk assessed can be compared
map of spatial and temporal probability for
The qualitative landslide risk assessment
assessment (Barredo et al., 2000; Mwasi,
with the acceptance criteria to decide upon the
landslides or other slope mass movements and a
approach is based on the experience of the experts
2001; Nie et al., 2001, Wu and Chen, 2009).
landslide mitigation measures required.
necessity for any type of analyses.
implementing
the
semi-quantitative
lack of financial support to produce risk assessment
5. Landslide risk management
maps for dangerous areas results in emphasis
on remediation measures. Whereas in countries
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Mateja Jemec
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Marko Komac
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Board, National Research Council, pp. 106-128.
ZHOU, G., ESAKI, T., MITANI, Y., XIE, M., MORI, J., 2003.
Spatial probabilistic modeling of slope failure using an integrated GIS
Monte Carlo simulation approach, Engineering Geology, 68: 373–386.
ZINGGERLE, A., 1989.
Steinschlagsimulation in Gebirgswa¨ldern: Modellierung der relevanten
Teilprozesse. Diploma Thesis, Department of Geography, University of
Berne.
Seite 65
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Key-note papers
ROLAND NORER
Legal Framework for Assessment and Mapping
of Geological Hazards on the International,
European and National Levels
Rechtlicher Rahmen für Analyse und Kartierung
geologischer Gefahren auf internationaler,
europäischer und nationaler Ebene
Summary:
Legal standards for the assessment and mapping of geological hazards are rather scarce at
the international and European level. Certain protocols to the Alpine Convention provide for
the obligation to map geological hazards, but they fail to adopt substantive standards for it.
At a European level, standards such as those for priority areas are only provided for in drafts
such as the proposal for a Directive establishing a framework for the protection of soil or are
mentioned in the Communication on the Community approach to prevent natural disasters.
At a national level, there are legal provisions in connection with preventive planning on
natural disasters, although the general problem on the coexistence of multiple area-related
definitions persists. The extensive exposition of hazards in forestry law remains a central issue. The sources and materials encountered to this end are, however, not enough to derivate
consistent standards and provisions for the assessment and mapping.
1. Introduction
Both provisions were classified as binding and
directly applicable.5
A glance at the legal framework on assessment
and mapping of geological hazards is difficult.
Protocol”
No coherent legal system on the
necessary, to develop or increase mountain forests
management of natural disasters can be found at
as a near-natural habitat (art. 1.1) and imposes the
either the international or European level. Also, a
duty of the Contracting Parties to give priority to the
legal fragmentation can be detected at a national
protective function of mountain forests (art. 6.1).
level. Therefore, the art is to filter something like
a legal essence out of diverse dispersed norms,
Development Protocol“7 establishes the obligation
which are often only partly related to this topic
to determine the areas subject to natural hazards,
and follow different legal approaches.2 This will
where building of structures and installations
be the attempt in the following sections. Naturally,
should be avoided as much as possible (art.
the essay will not exceed a more or less abundant
9.2.e). The spatial planning policies also take
outline of the issue.
into account the protection of the environment,
1
In
6
addition,
the
“Mountain
Forests
aims to preserve and, whenever
The “Spatial Planning and Sustainable
in particular with regard to the protection against
2. International law
natural hazards (art. 3.f).
2.1. Alpine Convention
2.2. Findings
protocols
In international law, only certain provisions
are the only source of international law. The
established in the protocols to the Alpine
“Soil Conservation Protocol”4 provides for the
Convention refer to the obligation to map
obligation to draw up maps of Alpine areas “which
geological
are endangered by geological, hydrogeological
additional substantive elaborations arising out of
and hydrological risks, in particular by land
these duties are not revealed before the respective
movement (mass slides, mudslides, landslides),
national implementation measures.
The Alpine
Convention3
and
its
hazards.
But
farther-reaching,
avalanches and floods”, and to register those areas
Zusammenfassung:
Rechtliche Vorgaben betreffend Analyse und Kartierung geologischer Gefahren sind sowohl
auf internationaler als auch europäischer Ebene selten. Bestimmte Protokolle zur Alpenkonvention sehen Kartierungspflichten für geologische Risiken vor, ohne allerdings materielle
Vorgaben zu treffen. Im Europarecht finden sich solche Regeln lediglich in Entwürfen wie bei
den prioritären Gebieten im Vorschlag einer EU-Bodenrahmenrichtlinie oder sie werden wie
im Gemeinschaftskonzept zur Verhütung von Naturkatastrophen erst in Aussicht gestellt.
Auf nationaler Ebene bestehen in der Regel Rechtsvorschriften im Zusammenhang mit
präventiven Planungen bei Naturgefahren, wenngleich das allgemeine Problem des Nebeneinanders von mehreren gebietsbezogenen Festlegungen besteht. Als zentrale Vorschriften
gelten die flächenhaften Gefahrendarstellungen im Forstrecht. Das vorgefundene Material
reicht jedenfalls nicht aus, um einheitliche Standards und Vorgaben für Analyse und Kartierung ableiten zu können.
and to designate danger zones when necessary
3. European law
(art. 10.1).
Likewise, areas damaged by erosion and
3.1. Soil protection law
land movement shall be rehabilitated in as far
as this is necessary for the protection of human
The
beings and material goods (art. 11.2).
Commission in 2002 about a Strategy for Soil
communication
from
the
European
Protection8 aims at the further development of
BMLFUW (ed.), Die Alpenkonvention: Handbuch für ihre
Umsetzung (2007), p. 112. Implementation analysis by
SCHMID, Das Natur- und Bodenschutzrecht der Alpenkonvention. Anwendungsmöglichkeiten und Beispiele, in: CIPRA
Österreich (ed.), Die Alpenkonvention und ihre rechtliche
Umsetzung in Österreich – Stand 2009, Tagungsband der
Jahrestagung von CIPRA Österreich, 21.-22.Oktober 2009,
Salzburg (2010), p. 33 et seq.
6
BGBl. III 2002/233.
7
BGBl. III 2002/232..
5
For the “Natural hazards profile“ of landslips, rock fall, avalanches and landslides, see RUDOLF-MIKLAU, NaturgefahrenManagement in Österreich (2009), p. 21 et seq.
2
For an overview regarding norms of prevention, see RUDOLFMIKLAU (fn. 1), p. 97 et seq.
3
BGBl. 1995/477.
4
BGBl. III 2002/235.
1
Seite 67
Seite 66
Key-note papers
3.4. Spatial planning law
political commitment to soil protection in order
In particular, the EU Directive establishing a
to achieve a more comprehensive and systematic
Framework for the Protection of Soil turned out
protection. As soil formation is an extremely slow
to be fiercely disputed.16 Since 2007, after an
Regarding
soil
hazard and risk mapping, building upon existing
process, soil can essentially be considered as a
attenuated version failed to obtain the majority
protection, a separate communication on the
Community initiatives. However, these should
non-renewable resource.9 It proceeds to mention
in the EU Environment Council, the future of this
topic of “Planning and Environment – the
focus on disasters with potential cross-border
eight main threats to soil in the EU , including
proposal remains uncertain.
Territorial Dimension” has been announced for a
impact, exceptional events, large-scale disasters,
some time now. This communication should deal
and disasters for which the cost of recovery
with rational land-use planning, as addressed by
measures appears to be disproportionate when
10
“erosion” and “floods and landslides”. These are
intimately related to soil and land management.
3.2. Environmental law
to collect and unify information about hazard/
risks by developing Community guidelines for
the
quantitative
aspects
of
the Sixth Environment Action Programme. The
compared to that of preventive measures. Also, a
erosion, pollution with sediments and loss of soil
In the remaining European environmental laws,
announced content, however, does not refer to a
more efficient targeting of Community funding25
resources with major impacts for human activities
certain provisions about erosion can be found.17
special relevance for the prevention of landslides.
is dealt with (3.3.1) by establishing an inventory
and human lives, damage to buildings and
However, there are no further provisions dealing
Hence, at present the only object of an integrated
of existing Community instruments capable
infrastructures, and loss of agricultural land”.
with the topic of this essay.
and sustainable management at the EU level is
of supporting disaster prevention activities, as
the flood prevention programme in transnational
well as by developing a catalogue of prevention
river areas included in the European Spatial
measures (e.g. measures integrating preventive
Development Perspective (ESDP).23
action in reforestation/afforestation projects).
“Floods and mass movements of soil cause
11
22
In 2006, the European Commission followed
suit with a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection
12
3.3. Agricultural law
and with a Proposal for a Directive establishing
a framework for the protection of soil , the latter
The situation is rather similar in the area of
of which provides in its art. 6 for priority areas
European agricultural law. Different standards
(first draft: risk areas) with regard to landslides.
are included in the general provisions on direct
The addendum landslides “brought about by the
payments (cross compliance)18, in which there is
The Communication of the European Commission
in the event of major emergencies, or the
down-slope, moderately rapid to rapid movement
an obligation to maintain all agricultural land in
of February 200924 was another attempt to
imminent threat thereof. However, a regulation
of masses of soil and rock material” fell victim to
good agricultural and environmental condition,
establish measures, based on the already existing
on geological mass movements similar to the EU
the changes made by the European Parliament.14
such as those regarding soil erosion.19 In contrast,
instruments, for a Community approach on the
Directive on the assessment and management of
Also, a programme of measures shall be adopted
the regulation on support for rural development
prevention of natural and man-made disasters.
flood risks27, with its flood hazard maps and flood
within five years of the implementation of the
includes in its Axis 2 some links with supporting
risk maps, does not currently exist.
Directive (art. 8). A list of common elements for
measures, such as afforestation (cf. art. 50.6).
the Community approach: creating the conditions
13
20
21
3.5. Disaster law
Furthermore,
establishing
a
a
Council
Community
Civil
Decision
Protection
Mechanism25 deals with assistance intervention
Three key elements were mentioned for
3.6. Findings
the identification of areas at risk of landslides can
for the development of knowledge based disaster
be found in the appendix.
prevention policies at all levels of government,
Communication from the Commission to the Council, the
European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and
the Committee of the Regions – Towards a Thematic Strategy
for Soil Protection, COM(2002) 179 final.
9
Communication from the Commission to the Council, the
European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee
and the Committee of the Regions – Thematic Strategy for Soil
Protection, COM(2006) 231 final, Section 1.
10
Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection (fn. 8),
Section 3.
11
Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection (fn. 8),
Section 3.8.
12
Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection (fn. 9).
13
Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of
the Council establishing a Framework for the Protection of Soil
and amending Directive 2004/35/EC, COM(2006) 232 final.2..
14
European Parliament legislative resolution of 14 November 2007 on the proposal for a directive of the European
Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for
the protection of soil and amending Directive 2004/35/EC,
P6_TA(2007)0509.
15
Annex I Section 5: soil typological unit (soil type), properties,
occurrence and density of landslides, bedrock, topography,
land cover, land use (including land management, farming
systems and forestry), climate and seismic risk.
linking the actors and policies throughout the
Some relevant regulations can be found at the
disaster management cycle and making existing
European level. However, only one of them, Cross
instruments perform better for disaster prevention.
Compliance, is in force and affects the topic dealt
In
“Developing
with in this essay in a rather marginal way. By
guidelines on hazard/risk mapping” (3.1.3) is
contrast, the Proposal for a Directive establishing
of great interest. Here, the Commission tries
a Framework for the Protection of Soil, which has
15
8
Cf. in detail NORER, Bodenschutzrecht im Kontext der europäischen Bodenschutzstrategie (2009), p. 17 et seq.
17
Like the Directive 2000/60/EC establishing a framework for
Community action in the field of water policy (“Wasserrahmenrichtlinie“), OJ 2000 L 327/1.
18
Art. 4 et seq. Council Regulation (EC) No. 73/2009 establishing common rules for direct support schemes for farmers
under the common agricultural policy and establishing certain
support schemes for farmers, OJ 2009 L 30/16.
19
Art. 6 in conjunction with Annex III Regulation (EC) 73/2009;
§ 5.1 in conjunction with Annex INVEKOS-CC-V 2010, BGBl. II
2009/492.
20
Council Regulation (EC) No. 1698/2005 on support for rural
development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD), OJ 2005 L 277/1.
21
Cf. Recital 32, 38, 41 and 44 Regulation (EC) 1698/2005. For
Austrian implementation see Sonderrichtlinie zur Umsetzung
der forstlichen und wasserbaulichen Maßnahmen im Rahmen
des Österreichischen Programms für die Entwicklung des
ländlichen Raums 2007 – 2013 „Wald & Wasser“, BMLFUWLE.3.2.8/0054-IV/3/2007 idF BMLFUW-LE.3.2.8/0028IV/3/2009.
16
particular,
the
subsection
Towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection (fn. 8), Section 2.1, 6.1.; REISCHAUER, Bodenschutzrecht, in: Norer (ed.),
Handbuch des Agrarrechts (2005), p. 491.
23
European Commission (ed.), ESDP European Spatial
Development Perspective. Towards Balanced and Sustainable
Development of the Territory of the European Union (1999),
Section 146.
24
Communication from the Commission to the European
Parliament, the Council, the European Economic ad Social
Committee and the Committee of the Regions. A Community
approach on the prevention of natural and man-made disasters,
COM(2009) 82 final, 23.02.2009.
22
been put on hold, contemplates the designation
of landslide risk areas and the establishment of
Especially the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development, the Civil Protection Financial Instrument, LIFE+,
the ICT Policy Support Programme, the Research Framework
Programme.
26
Council Decision 2007/779/EC of 8 November 2007, OJ
2007 L 314/9.
27
Directive 2007/60/EC on the assessment and management of
flood risks, OJ 2007 L 288/27.
25
Seite 69
Seite 68
Key-note papers
4.3. Soil protection law
4.6. Findings
sets out guidelines for the unification of hazard
The rules on soil protection can be divided in two
In the light of the arid gain at the international and
remains within the same course of action, no
mapping in large-scale disasters.
categories with different aims: on the one hand,
European legal level, at a first glance the respective
relevant changes coming from the international
qualitative soil damage such as contaminating
national systems seem to constitute the determining
and European level are to be expected in the
activities and structural damages and on the
factor, by implementing higher-ranking guidelines
near future. Admittedly, the creation of uniform
other hand, quantitative soil loss, such as soil
or autonomously. However, norms related to the
technical standards by all those involved as a
The second category
assessment and mapping of geological hazards,
further step towards self-regulation should be
such as the law of natural disaster management
brought to mind.
action programmes. Furthermore, a Community
A convincing and coherent overall view cannot
be offered. Whereas the available legal set of tools
approach on the prevention of natural disasters
4. National law
4.1. Forestry law
degradation and erosion.
35
could also be of interest for mass movements.
36
at all40, remain fragmentated between the various
Many times, the catchment area of mountain
torrents and avalanches, as well as references to
4.4. Spatial planning law
rock fall and landslip areas, are established within
regulations (“Querschnittsmaterien”). Relevant
Anschrift des Verfassers / Author’s address:
provisions exist, primarily in forestry law with its
Univ.-Prof. Dr. Roland Norer
the national forestal spatial planning. It can even
As a general rule, rules on areas with a higher
extensive hazard descriptions, but also marginally
University of Lucerne
include the layout of forests with a protective
risk of mass movements in connection with the
in spatial planning law. This fact, however, would
School of Law
28
or the extensive hazard description
or special use in
not allow the development of uniform standards
Hofstraße 9
structured in risk levels.30 The protective effect of
grassland can be mainly found in spatial planning
and provisions for assessment and mapping of
P.O. Box 7464
the forest especially implies “the protection against
law. Further contents in this regard remain
geological hazards.
CH-6000 Luzern 7
natural peril and contaminating environmental
missing.38
function
29
designation of building sites
37
Switzerland
5. Conclusion
influences as well as the conservation of the soil
against torrents and drift, boulders accumulation
41
4.5. Building law
and landslides”.31 Thus, forests with a direct
Legal provisions regarding the assessment and
protective function against the above-mentioned
A similar situation applies to building law. The
mapping of geological hazards are tenuously
hazards could be signalised by means of an
suitability as a building site for areas with a higher
sown at the international and European level.
administrative act (Bannwälder).
risk of mass movements is not given.
Unlikely enough, at the national level more legal
4.2. Water law
In Austria e.g. Water Construction Development Act (Wasserbautenförderungsgesetz), BGBl. 1985/148 (Wv), expressly
mentions the necessary protection against “rock fall, mudflow
and landslides” in the requirements for granting and allocation
of federal funds to pursuit the objectives in the Act (§ 1.1.1.b).
35
Cf. HOLZER/REISCHAUER, Agrarumweltrecht. Kritische
Analyse des „Grünen Rechts“ in Österreich (1991), p. 47;
REISCHAUER (fn. 22), p. 477.
36
In Austria e.g. the pertinent national provisions only provide
for land-use measures for soil in erosion areas; see § 5 Burgenland Soil Protection Act (Burgenländisches Bodenschutzgesetz), LGBl. 1990/87; § 27 Upper Austria Soil Protection
Act 1991 (Oberösterreichisches Bodenschutzgesetz), LGBl.
1997/63; § 7 Salzburg Soil Protection Act (Salzburger Bodenschutzgesetz), LGBl. 2001/80; § 6 Styria Agricultural Soil
Protection Act (Steiermärkisches landwirtschaftliches Bodenschutzgesetz), LGBl. 1987/66.
37
In Austria e.g. § 37.1.a Tyrol Spatial Planning Act (Tiroler
Raumordnungsgesetz), LGBl. 2006/27, according to which
certain areas are excluded as building sites when f.i. there is a
risk of „rockfall, landslide or other gravitated natural hazards”.
From the perspective of avalanche protection see in detail
KHAKZADEH, Rechtsfragen des Lawinenschutzes (2004), p.
37 et seq.
38
F.i. the Recommendation Nr. 52 of the Austrian Spatial Planning Conference (ÖROK) about preventive handling with natural hazards in Spatial Planning (2005) also puts an emphasis
in floods. Cf. for Austria altogether KANONIER, Raumplanungsrechtliche Regelungen als Teil des Naturgefahrenmanagements,
in: Fuchs/Khakzadeh/Weber (ed.), Recht im Naturgefahrenmanagement (2006), p. 123 et seq.
32
39
provisions exist in connection with preventive
34
Such regulations are limited to measures for flood
prevention33, although geological risks are at
times also included .
34
In Austria e.g. the mapping of risk areas is based on § 11 Austrian Forestry Act 1975, BGBl. 1975/440, in conjunction with §
7.a Regulation on the mapping of risk areas, BGBl. 1976/436,
including brown areas of reference, which posed other hazards
than mountain torrents and avalanches, such as rock fall
and landslips. Cf. JÄGER, Raumwirkungen des Forstrechts,
in: Hauer/Nußbaumer (ed.), Österreichisches Raum- und
Fachplanungsrecht (2006), p. 181 et seq.; STÖTTER/FUCHS,
Umgang mit Naturgefahren – Status quo und und zukünftige
Anforderungen, in: Fuchs/Khakzadeh/Weber (ed.), Recht im
Naturgefahrenmanagement (2006), p. 21 et seq.
29
In Austria e.g. Forestry Development Plan (Waldentwicklungsplan) based on § 9 Austrian Forestry Act 1975.
30
In Austria e.g. hazard and risks mapping (Gefahren- und
Risikokarten), here geological hazard mapping (no legal basis).
31
Such as in § 6.2b Austrian Forestry Act 1975.
32
Such as in § 27.2.a Austrian Forestry Act 1975.
33
In Austria e.g. Section 4 of the Water Law Act 1959, BGBl.
1959/215 (Wv).
28
planning42 for natural hazards. Here, the existing
instruments partially conduct the assessment of
mass movements, although the general problem
of the coexistence of different area-related
definitions still remains.43
39
In Austria e.g. § 5.1.5 Styria Building Act (Steiermärkisches
Baugesetz), LGBl. 1995/59, according to which a plot area is
only suitable for building if the risks posed by „flood debris
accumulation, rockfall, landslides” are not to be expected. From
the perspective of avalanche protection see in detail KHAKZADEH (fn. 37), p. 58 et seq.
40
For Austria see e.g. HATTENBERGER, Naturgefahren und
öffentliches Recht, in: Fuchs/Khakzadeh/Weber (ed.), Recht im
Naturgefahrenmanagement (2006), p. 67 ; RUDOLF-MIKLAU
(fn. 1), p. 57 and list 61 et seq., speaking of „Kompetenzlawine“.
41
WEBER/OBERMEIER, Verwaltungs- und zivilrechtliche Aspekte von Steinschlaggefährdung und –schutz, Studie im Auftrag
des Bundesministeriums für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Umwelt
und Wasserwirtschaft (2008, unveröffentlicht), p. 29, suggest
for Austria f.i. an extension of the competence „Wildbach- und
Lawinenverbauung“ towards other natural hazards. The political feasibility seems little realistic.
42
For Austria see in detail RUDOLF-MIKLAU (fn. 1), p. 129 et
seq.; HATTENBERGER (fn. 40), p. 73 et seq.
43
For Austria see HATTENBERGER (fn. 40), p. 84 et seq.
Seite 71
Seite 70
Key-note papers
KARL MAYER, BERNHARD LOCHNER
Internationally Harmonized Terminology
for Geological Risk: Glossary (Overview)
Internationale Harmonisierung der Fachterminologie
für geologische Risiken: Glossar (Überblick)
Summary:
Purpose and motivation for this project are the difficulties traditionally encountered when
using or defining mass movements terms in scientific papers. This results in different methods
and concepts being used by geological agencies and finally leads to misunderstandings
and problems in cooperative international projects. In order to tackle that complexity and
ambiguity, found not only in the German-speaking geology, but generally throughout Europe,
a multilingual glossary shall be created. This glossary aims at an international harmonization
by providing the user with a selection of official terms used by the geological agencies in a
specific country and by setting relations to similar terms employed in other countries. The
resulting harmonized terms and definitions should be made available to all partners and to the
general public on the internet through the Bavarian Environment Agency homepage. The first
step is to design and implement the technical infrastructure required to store and query the
terms. For this purpose, a relational database management system will be used as a back-end.
Zusammenfassung:
Ausgangslage und Motivation für dieses Projekt ist die schon „traditionelle“ Problematik der
unterschiedlichen Verwendung und Definition der Begrifflichkeiten in der Fachliteratur zum
Themenbereich Massenbewegungsprozesse. Dies hat zur Folge, dass die Arbeitsweisen der
Experten in den verschiedenen geologischen Ämtern in den Projektpartnerländern nicht einheitlich sind und es daher immer wieder zu Missverständnissen und Schwierigkeiten bei der
Abstimmung gemeinsamer Projekte kommt. Aufgrund dieser Komplexität und der Unklarheit,
die speziell im deutschsprachigen Raum, aber auch europaweit, besonders im Hinblick auf
die Klassifikation der Massenbewegungen existiert, soll ein mehrsprachiges Glossar erstellt
werden, in welchem im Sinne der internationalen Harmonisierung in Absprache mit den
einzelnen Projektpartnerländern die von den jeweiligen geologischen Ämtern verwendeten
administrativen Begriffe eingestellt und in Beziehung gesetzt werden. Das gesamte Projekt
gliedert sich grundsätzlich in einen technischen und einen inhaltlichen Teil, wobei die erste
Projektphase vom technischen Bereich bestimmt wird. Da die harmonisierten Begrifflichkeiten und Definitionen für alle beteiligten Länder und auch für eine breitere Öffentlichkeit zugänglich gemacht werden soll, wird eine relationale Datenbank erstellt, in welcher die Inhalte
logisch verknüpft werden und welche zu Projektende in die LfU-Homepage integriert wird.
combination for one language and one country.
1. Requirements for the relational database
It is particularly relevant for this project, as the
usage of a term varies greatly within a language
Before the actual database is deigned, it is essential
depending on the region where it is used, as
to assess the exact requirements for the glossary.
it is the case for German (Germany, Austria,
This eases the following conceptional work a lot
Switzerland).
and minimizes time-consuming adjustments and
changes to the model later on.
for the usability of the glossary. Although the
Easy and intuitive queries are essential
First a list of attributes needed for a single
user friendliness mostly depends on the graphical
glossary term as well as a type for those attributes
user interface and is hard to control through the
(e.g. numbers, text, keys etc.) is to be defined.
database design, there are still aspects that need
The type of attribute determines which relations
to be considered in conception. It is important to
can be saved in the database and what kind of
determine what possible queries will be offered
information can be queried using them. Every
to the user (e.g. a search by synonyms, case and
attribute corresponds at least to one column in the
special character insensitive searches, etc.) and to
main glossary table.
adapt the database design accordingly.
The
unique
language
to
which
a
Editing and adding glossary terms after
term is assigned is a fundamental attribute in
the initial import should also be possible and
a multilingual glossary. Because of the pan-
requires saving metadata for each entry, e.g. time
European character of the glossary, it is necessary
and date of the creation or the last edit of a term.
to specify the languages more precisely by linking
Using that information, it is easy to reconstruct the
them to a specific country, resulting in a unique
history of an entry at a later point in time.
Seite 73
Seite 72
Key-note papers
PK
The nomenclature used throughout the database
tdtaTermLng
tdtaTerm
idterm
PK, FK1
PK
idworkflowstatus
metacreator
metaowner
idreadaccess
idwriteaccess
deleted
metamasterlang
metalastedit
on the function or content of a particular table,
idterm lang
stands for tables in which actual data is being stored,
Fig. 1: Example of a multilingual glossary where each term has exactly one translation in
each other language. The primary key of the language table ('tdtaTermLng') is defined by
its ID and language
Abb. 1: Beispiel eines mehrsprachigen Glossars, in dem jeder Begriff genau eine
Übersetzung für jede weitere Sprache hat. Der Primärschlüssel der Tabelle mit dem
Textinhalt ('tdtaTermLng') ist somit über ID und Sprache definiert.
“tkey-” is used for key tables (key attributes can
only take a value from a predefined set of keys) and
“trel-” for relation tables. Unique IDs are prefixed
required by the direct translation provides a
meaning) would be a looser one. The relations
second table with an identical name and the suffix
extensions or additional functions arise.
between “cliff falls“, “block falls“, “boulder falls“
“-Lng”. Those language tables hold the text values
and “Felssturz“, “Steinschlag“, “Blockschlag“
of the different glossary terms. The first “section”
could
classical
approach
followed
by
most
manner.
is the core of the database, with its element tables
(Note: the values used above are examples and do
be
defined
in
a
similar
tdtaElement and tdtaEleGlossarTerm. The glossary
not necessarily match any official values)
terms are stored in the latter, whereas the main
1.2 Database model
This chapter describes in detail the different
in an entity-relationship model (ERM). Such a
“sections” of the database. For the purpose
direct translation supposes an equivalence of
of clarity, the database was divided into four
the terms’ definition and meaning. In this new
“sections” or “areas” which correspond to a set of
glossary, the relations between the different
interrelated tables. The following diagram shows
terms should be defined solely by their technical
the relations between those “sections”.
tkeyCountry
PK idcountry
meaning, resulting in two possible relations: same
meaning or similar meaning. A direct translation is
Glossary
still required in order to provide the user with the
• Terms
• Relations
• Translation tables
Following example should help clarifying
Auxiliary
translated into “Felssturz” or “Bergsturz” in
German, but that translation usually doesn't
consider
the
effective
volume
transported.
However, if the technical meaning is taken into
Metadata
User Management
• Workflow
• History
• Users & groups
• Permissions
term
reference
idtopic
idlang
idcountry
searchterm
searchsynonyms
have the same meaning as “rock avalanche”, also
characterized by volume values above 106 cubic
term
reference
idtopic
idlang
idcountry
searchterm
searchsynonyms
PK,FK1, FK2
PK,FK1
idelement
lang
title
summary
metacreated
metalastedit
metatranslator
PK,FK1
PK,FK2
idcountry
lang
tkeyLang
PK
idlang
langsort
PK
idtopic
topicsort
Fig. 4: Auxiliary tables
Abb. 2: Übersicht über die Komponenten des Datenbankmodells
Abb. 4: Behelfstabellen
Abb. 3: Haupttabellen
tkeyLanguage
PK
idlanguage
lang
languagesort
idcountry
lang
langterm
idlanguage
tkeyTopicLng
PK,FK1
PK,FK2
idtopic
lang
topicterm
Fig. 2: Overview of the database model components
Fig. 3: Main tables
tkeyLangLng
PK,FK1
PK,FK2
idelement
lang
title
description
tdtaEleGlossarTermLng
countryterm
tkeyTopic
account, “Bergsturz”, which corresponds to a
minimum volume of 106 cubic meters, would
PK,FK1,
PK,FK2
PK,FK1 idelement
FK3
FK4
FK2
The English term “rock fall” is usually
countrysort
tdtaEleGlossarTerm
• Key tables
• Relation tables
the concept of “meaning” vs. “definition”:
FK3
FK4
FK2
tdtaElementLng
through the usage of foreign keys).
relation between the entities (i.e. glossary terms)
idelement
tdtaEleGlossarTermLng
to the system and not to the glossary itself (mostly
of another language. This corresponds to a 1: n
exact translation of a definition in his language.
elementtype
idworkflowstatus
metaowner
metacreator
idreadaccess
idwriteaccess
deleted
metamasterlang
PK,FK1
element table holds additional information related
glossaries is a single translation layer; a direct
translation of each term into exactly one term
FK4
FK2
FK1
FK5
FK3
For most of the tables the multilingual concept
meters. The relation to “rock fall” (i.e. similar
The
idelement
with “id-” and meta-attributes with “meta-”.
Finally, the database should, to some
1.1 Relations
PK
its name is prefixed differently. The prefix “tdta-”
term description
extent, be expandable if future needs for
tdtaEleGlossarTerm
tdtaElement
follows a simple naming convention. Depending
tkeyLanguageLng
PK,FK1 idlanguage
PK
lang
languagesort
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Key-note papers
For each term, following fields are available:
•
'term':
the
actual
text
value
The auxiliary tables are mainly key tables defining
(direct
translation using the -Lng table)
in the main table. They also contain the relation
•‘reference’: source of information and date
table used to specify relations between terms
•
'idlang' and 'idcountry': foreign keys
based on a relation code (“similar” or “same”).
pointing to a unique combination of
Metadata is partly stored in the tdtaElement table
language/country
using foreign keys. Those keys point to external
• 'idtopic': foreign key specifying the topic of
this term
or tdtaUser, where, for example, information
•'searchterm' and 'searchsynonyms': used
for insensitive searches
PK
idworkflowstatus
about the status, author or owner of an element
are defined. tdtaHistory works similarly to a log
•'picture': paths to pictures depicting a term
tkeyWorkflowStatus
metadata tables such as tkeyWorkflowstatus
PK
FK4
FK2
FK1
FK5
FK3
PK
FK4
FK2
FK1
FK5
FK3
elementtype
idworkflowstatus
metaowner
metacreator
idreadaccess
idwriteaccess
deleted
metamasterlang
FK3
FK4
FK2
PK
FK1
iduser
username
password
email
organisation
fullname
inactive
superadmin
lastlogin
loginip
maingroup
tkeyLanguageLng
idelement
term
reference
idtopic
idlang
idcountry
searchterm
seyrchsynonyms
tdtaUser
PK
PK,FK1 idlanguage
PK
lang
tkeyelementActionLng
FK2
FK1
Fig. 5: Metadata tables
Fig. 5: Metadata tables
tdtaGroup
idgroup
PK,FK1 idpermissionlevel
PK
lang
permissionlevelterm
description
iduser
username
password
email
organisation
fullname
inactive
superadmin
lastlogin
loginip
maingroup
trelUserGroup
PK,FK2 iduser
PK,FK1 idgroup
Fig. 6: User and group management
Abb. 6: Benutzer- und Gruppenverwaltung
element, which can be displayed as a list to an
duplicate IDs, can be handled to some extent by
authorized user.
the database itself. The integration of the database
PK,FK1 idelementaction
PK
lang
Finally, user and group management
into the homepage from the Bavarian Environment
FK2
defines the group(s) a user belongs to and which
Agency (LfU) and a graphical user interface to
read/write rights a group or a specific user owns
manually add or edit single terms is planned in
(through the tdtaElement table)
the final stage of the project.
1.3 Data capture and import
2. Contents of the glossary
The primary data capture is done via an Excel
In view of a different use of landslide-terms in the
table with a predefined format. This table is used
European countries, a multilingual glossary can help
as an interface to import data records in the
to improve the collaboration between the experts.
database. The person responsible for filling out
Also, progress concerning the comparability of the
this table must ensure that the relations between
methods dealing with geological hazards in the
the terms are set correctly. Other errors, such as
several countries is to be achieved.
elementactionterm
idlanguage
idhistory
idelement
lang
iduser
logdatetime
info
idelementaction
FK1
languagesort
tdtaHistory
PK
tkeyPermissionLevelLng
tdtaUser
tdtaEleGlossarTerm
PK,FK1
permissionlevelsort
groupname
idlanguage
lang
languagesort
workflowstatusterm
idelement
elementtype
idworkflowstatus
metaowner
metacreator
idreadaccess
idwriteaccess
deleted
metamasterlang
tkeyLanguage
PK,FK1 idworkflowstatus
PK,FK2 lang
idpermissionlevel
PK
PK
tdtaElement
PK
idelement
by saving all actions performed on a specific
tkeyWorkflowStatusLng
workflowstatussort
tkeyPermissionLevel
tdtaElement
the different languages, countries and topics used
tkeyElementAction
PK
idelementaction
FK1 elementactionsort
idhistory
Seite 77
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Key-note papers
In general, the glossary implies terms and
definitions to landslides and corresponding maps,
considering “danger, hazard and risk” caused by
several kinds of geological hazards. Due to the
“alpine – character” of the project, the glossary
contains all the languages spoken in the Alpine
region plus English and Spanish for two additional
European countries dealing with geological
hazards. Therefore, the glossary consists of the
following six languages:
•German – Germany, Switzerland, Austria
(three different lists)
•Italian – Italy
•French – France
•Slovenian – Slovenia
•Spanish – Spain (Castilian and Catalan)
•English – United Kingdom
•General geomorphology (Allgemeine
•Falls (Sturzprozess – Steinschlag - z.B.
Geomorphologie - z.B. Grat)
Steinschlag)
•General (Allgemeines - z.B.
will be integrated in the official homepage of
•Subrosion (Subrosionsprozess - z.B.
Primärereignis)
Doline)
Bergzerreissung)
id
Therefore, the terms are collected in a predefined
term
lang
country
definition
reference
topic
DE
Senke ohne natürlich möglichen
oberirdischen Wasserabfluss. In
einem fluviatil geprägten Relief
stellt sie eine Anomalie dar, die
u.U ein Hinweis auf Hangbewegungen sein kann
LfU Bayern
Allgemeine
Geomorphologie
LfU Bayern
Maßnahmen
•Path of movement (Bewegungsbahnen z.B. Sturzbahn)
•Flow process slow (Fließprozess – langsam
2016
Abflusslose
Senke
de
- z.B. Solifluktion)
•Flow process rapid (Fließprozess – schnell
2066
aktive
Maßnahmen
de
DE
Schutzmaßnahme, die dem Naturereignis aktiv entgegenwirkt,
um die Gefahr zu verringern
oder um den Ablauf eines Ereignisses oder dessen Eintretenswahrscheinlichkeit wesentlich zu
verändern. Neben den klassischen, punktuellen technischen
Schutzmaßnahmen wie zum
Beispiel Stützmauer oder Felsanker sind auch flächendeckende
Maßnahmen im Einzugsgebiet,
beispielsweise Aufforstungen
oder Entwässerungen, dieser
Kategorie zuzuordnen.
2070
Aktuelle
Hangbewegung
de
DE
Hangbewegung die zum Zeitpunkt der Aufnahme aktiv oder
bezüglich ihres Alters für die
Untersuchungen relevant war.
LfU Bayern
Rutschungsdynamik
2029
Anbruch
de
DE
Hangbereich aus dem eine
Hangbewegung ihren Ausgang
nimmt.
LfU Bayern
Anbruchformen
LfU Bayern
Allgemeines
- z.B. Blockstrom)
•Flow process very rapid (Fließprozess –
sehr schnell - z.B. Murgang)
•Risk (Gefahr-Gefährdung-Risiko - z.B.
Restrisiko)
•Maps (Karten - z.B. Gefahrenkarte)
Prozesse - z.B. Sturzprozess)
•Measures (Maßnahmen - z.B. aktive
For the development of such a glossary, it is
necessary to create a “basic list” in which all
Maßnahmen)
•Slides combined (Rutschprozess –
the desired terms and definitions are included.
Kombinierte Rutschung - z.B. Rutschung
Therefore a table with 92 terms and definitions
mit kombinierter Gleitfläche)
for geological hazards (in German) was drafted.
•Slides rotational (Rutschprozess
Based on this, the other language lists were
– Rotationsrutschung - z.B.
developed. More information on the approach of
Rotationsrutschung)
this “Harmonization” is available in chapter 3.2.
In order to facilitate this process, all
the terms are structured in different topics.
This classification is very useful for simplifying
the comparability between the languages. For
example, it’s much easier to get the English term
for “Stauchwulst” if the English expert knows that
you are searching for an accumulation term. This
topical limitation helps the translator to get the
several experts on the right track.
The “basic list” is structured into the
following topics:
•Accumulation (Ablagerungen - z.B.
Schuttkegel)
the Bavarian Environment Agency in a final step.
•Fracture forms (Anbruchformen - z.B.
•Classification – processes (Klassifikation –
2.1 Basic list for Germany
As mentioned above, the different terms lists
2027
Auslöser
de
DE
Der Auslöser/Anlass für das
Versagen eines Hanges liegt in
externen Faktoren. Dieser löst
eine quasi sofortige Reaktion
aus, die ihrerseits wieder Auslöser für die nächste Reaktion
sein kann (Kausalitätskette).
Die Auslöser reduzieren zum
Beispiel die Festigkeit der im
Hang anstehenden Gesteine.
Mögliche Auslöser können sein:
Niederschläge, Schneeschmelze,
Frost- Tauwechsel, Erdbeben,
Menschlicher Eingriff.
2092
Bachschwinde
(Ponor)
de
DE
Öffnungen an der Erdoberfläche
über die Oberflächenwasser in
den Untergrund eindringt.
LfU Bayern
Subrosionsprozess/Allgemein
DE
Hangbewegung mit großem
Volumen und hoher Dynamik,
die oftmals dafür sorgt, dass
die Massen am Gegenhang
weit aufbranden. Volumen >
1.000.000m³.
LfU Bayern
Sturzprozess Bergsturz
•Slides translational (Rutschprozess
– Translationsrutschung - z.B.
Translationsrutschung)
•Landslide dynamics (Rutschungsdynamik z.B. aktuelle Hangbewegung)
•Landslide features (Rutschungsmerkmale z.B. Rutschungkopf)
•Falls (Sturzprozess – Bergsturz - z.B.
Bergsturz)
•Falls (Sturzprozess – Blockschlag - z.B.
Blockschlag)
•Falls (Sturzprozess – Felssturz - z.B.
Felssturz)
2079
Bergsturz
de
Fig. 7: Extract of the “Basic-Terms-Table” in German
Abb. 7: Auszug aus der Deutschen Begriffstabelle
same_
rel
similar_
rel
Seite 79
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Key-note papers
Excel table with a unique ID for each term. This
ID is used to establish the relations between the
different languages and also to integrate these in
the relational database. Fig. 6 shows an extract
of this Excel table with the basic terms from
German
id
term
definition
reference
topic
topic
term
definition
2001
Stauchwulst
Wulst aus Gesteinsmaterial.
Sie tritt vor allem an der
Stirn einer Rutsch- oder
Kriechmasse auf
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
toe????
accumulation at the toe/foot
of the main body.
2002
Murwall
Murablagerung am
seitlichen Rand des
Murkanales
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
Blocklandschaft
Gelände, in dem weiträumig Blöcke und Gesteinsschollen verteilt sind.
Herkunft der Blöcke in der
Regel von großen Fels- od.
Bergstürzen, aber auch von
Talzuschüben.
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
2004
Murkegel,
-fächer
Unter Murkegel sind kegelförmige Ablagerungen v.a.
an Gerinnen zu verstehen,
deren Böschungswinkel
meist mehr als 8-10° beträgt
Sie sind oft noch durch die
typischen dammartigen
Wülste entlang des Randes
eines ehemaligen Murstromes gekennzeichnet.
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
Coned accumulation espacially at channels with a
naturel slope of 8-10°.
2005
Schwemmkegel,
-fächer
Schwemmkegel weisen im
Gegensatz zu Murkegeln
meist Böschungswinkel von
weniger als 10° auf, größere
Geschiebeblöcke fehlen.
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
Coned accumulation espacially at channels with a
naturel slope less than 10°
and with no big blocs.
2006
Schuttkegel
Schuttkegel entstehen
v. a. durch Steinschlag.
Sie lagern sich an
Steilwände und dort
bevorzugt im Bereich von
Steinschlagrinnen an
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
coned debris/
detritus????
"coned debris/detritus" are
caused by rock falls. They
accumulate at the rock face.
2007
Buckelfläche
Gelände, das durch
unruhige Morphologie
(weiche Formen)
gekennzeichnet ist.
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
undulating
area????
Area which is characterized
by undulating morphologie.
2008
Sturzmasse
Ablagerung infolge eines
Sturzprozesses.
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
Accumulation caused by a
fall process.
2009
Rutschmasse
Ablagerung infolge eines
Rutschprozesses
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
Accumulation caused by a
slide process.
2010
Rutschscholle
Teilweise im
Verband befindlicher
Gesteinskomplex, der als
ganze Scholle abrutscht.
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
sliding bloc/clod/
massif????
A coplex of rocks which is
sliding as one bloc/clod/
massif.
2011
Sturzblock
Einzelblock >1m³, infolge
eines Sturzprozesses.
LfU Bayern
Ablagerungen
accumulation
(fall) bloc????
One bloc (<1m³) of an fall
process.
Germany.
2.2 “Harmonisation” of terms and methods
“…A glossary will facilitate transdisciplinary
and translingual cooperation as well as support
2003
the harmonization of the various methods…”
(www.adaptalp.org).
Striving for “Harmonization” of regional
terms and methods seems to be a guiding principle
not only in WP 5 of the AdaptAlp project but in
multiple European cooperation projects.
In the literature, a lot of definitions are
used for the term harmonization. According to
the business dictionary, harmonization is an
“adjustment of differences and inconsistencies
among
different
measurements,
methods,
procedures, schedules, specifications, or systems
to make them uniform or mutually compatible”
(www.businessdictionary.com).
This definition implies some important
points which are mentioned as main goals in many
projects supported by the EU. The adjustment of
differences and the achievement of compatibility
also play a major role in work package 5:
“AdaptAlp will evaluate, harmonise and improve
different methods of hazard zone planning
applied in the Alpine area. The comparison of
methods for mapping geological and water risks
in the individual countries” (www.adaptalp.org)
will be brought into focus.
Concerning the development of the
multilingual glossary for geological hazards, the
“Harmonization” is implemented by the following
approach.
English
Fig. 8: Extract of the “suggested-terms list” for England
Abb. 8: Auszug aus der vorgeschlagenen Begriffsliste für England
accumulation at flank of the
main body.
Bloc
Landscape????
Area in which blocs are
shared spacious. Bloc are
comming from rock collapses, block falls or sags.
Seite 81
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Key-note papers
2.2.1 Basic rules
short visits in the involved countries. Building
are sent to the responsible persons for orientation
technical meaning. Although the structure of the
In order to tackle the complexity and ambiguity,
on the German “basic list”, in these talks “term
and preparation. Furthermore, Fig. 7 shows an
model may seem complex, the multiple functions
found not only in German-speaking geology,
after term” is discussed with the respective person
extract of the “suggested terms list” for England.
offered by external tables and the stronger data
but generally throughout Europe, a multilingual
responsible. With regard to linguistic problems,
A picture paints a thousand words, therefore also
integrity fully compensate for a higher level of
glossary shall be created. This glossary aims at
each “Harmonization” is carried out with the
pictures and illustrations are used within the talks.
complexity. To achieve this complexity, not only
international harmonization by providing the
help of native speakers who also be well versed in
user with a selection of official terms used by
the thematic of geological hazards. The terms are
2.2.3 Data preparation and presentation
the contents should satisfy the guidelines. The
the geological agency in a specific country and
related in the following three forms:
Concerning the data preparation, the main issues
term “Harmonisation” is playing a central role
are already described in the technical description
in the work for the glossary where the contents
above. The central point to fully exploit the
are concerned. Only terms, which are officially
possibilities of the database structure is the correct
used by the regional responsible agencies,
setting of the relations between the different terms
are registered in the glossary and the relations
(over the ID).
between the different expressions are also defined
Regarding to the data presentation, at
by several experts. The topics in this glossary
by setting relations to similar terms employed in
other countries. Unlike many other glossaries,
which are more like dictionaries working with
direct translations; this glossary consists of terms
and definitions which are used by the official
agencies from the involved countries. So the big
•Same meaning (the term has the same
meaning in both languages)
•Similar meaning (the term has a similar
meaning in both languages)
•Not existing (no term with the same or
similar meaning exists)
the structure of the relational database but also
difference from many other word lists is the way
To facilitate the harmonization process, in the
this stage of the project no final results can be
are not defined by a translation agency, which
of getting the topics.
run-up to the visits, several national literature
shown. As mentioned in the introduction of this
undoubtedly would have the linguistic ability
lists with suggested terms are worked out with
article, the main output of the project will be an
but not the specialist background. Due to this
2.2.2 Data acquisition
the native speakers. These lists also contain short
online glossary which is linked to the homepage
approach, every involved country or region gets
Basically the data acquisition is made during
descriptions of the desired expressions and they
of the Bavarian Environment Agnecy (LfU). The
the chance to determine the terms and definitions
layout of this web page should be clear and
they use and that procedure improves the overall
simple for everyone to use. Therefore existing
result. The connection to the LfU – Homepage
online glossaries are compared and “best-
ensures accessibility for all interested persons.
practice” examples are pulled out as inspiration.
This is an important contribution to one of the
Fig. 8 shows the “Inter Active Terminology for
main goals of the whole project, namely the
Europe” glossary from the European Union which
improvement of the cooperation by the European
approximately fulfils the desired criteria for the
countries in dealing with geological hazards.
geological hazard glossary.
3. Conclusion
Anschrift der Verfasser / Authors’ addresses:
As mentioned in the introduction, this article
Karl Mayer
presents no final results because the project runs
Bavarian Environment Agency (LfU)
until February 2011. Nevertheless, provisional
(Office Munich)
results, theoretical and practical approaches
Lazarettstraße 67
could be shown. The database model presented
80636 Munich – GERMANY
in this article fulfils all requirements stated
Fig. 9: Screenshot of the online “Inter Active Terminology for Europe” from the EU (Source: http://iate.europa.eu)
Abb. 9: Screenshot de online „Inter Active Terminology for Europe” der EU (Quelle: http://iate.europa.eu)
by a multilingual glossary focusing on mass
Bernhard Lochner
movements and other geological hazards. The
alpS – Centre for Natural Hazard
multilingual concept provides the user with a
and Risk Management
direct translation of a term in a foreign language
Grabenweg 3
and sets relations to other terms based on its
6020 Innsbruck - AUSTRIA
Seite 83
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Introduction
but it is not digitally available. And then there are
states that can rely on a lot of digitally available
MICHAEL MÖLK, THOMAS SAUSGRUBER, RICHARD BÄK, ARBEN KOCIU
Standards and Methods of Hazard Assessment
for Rapid Mass Movements
(Rock Fall and Landslide) in Austria
In Austria there are several public organizations
data and are working on generating landslide
([12] HÜBL et al. 2009) involved in the assessment
susceptibility maps. The following provides a short
of rapid gravitational mass movements such
summary about the efforts in the federal states.
as rock falls and landslides. Inventories of such
events are maintained by the Austrian Torrent and
Avalanche Control (WLV) and the Geological
Survey of Austria (GBA) apart from independent
Since 1978 the Geological Survey of Austria
assessments done by the national railway and
has been gathering and displaying information
road administrations.
(e.g.
about gravitational mass movements and other
On the level of the federal administrations,
Summary:
This presents the Austrian approach for the documentation and prediction of landslides and
rock falls from various inventories (GEORIOS - Geological Survey, Torrent and Avalanche
Control, inventories of the federal states) via the hazard zone planning leading to the
development of process related susceptibility maps. The different legal obligations of the
respective organizations leads to different results regarding the type, the extent and the quality
of the expertise.
documents,
photos,
inventory
maps)
and/or
hazardous processes. Due to the increasing
forecasting such mass movements are being followed.
amount of data, the Department of Engineering
These organizations deal with those hazards using
Geology of the Geological Survey of Austria
different approaches (method and target).
developed a complex data management system
different
Standards und Methoden der Gefährdungsanalyse
für schnelle Massenbewegungen
(Steinschläge und Rutschungen) in Österreich
Mass-movement inventories in Austria
approaches
to
documenting
As there are no legal instructions in Austria
called GEORIOS. It consists of a Geographical
as to how to deal with the evaluation of mass
Information System (GIS), which is the basis for
movements, the federal states all follow a different
the digital storage and display of data and overlay
course of action. Also, the status of available
of different data types. Additionally the data
historical data is very different in the individual
management system consists of a relational data
states. In some of the federal states, almost no data
base, which manages additional thousands of
is available, others have collected a lot of data
meta-information (documents, photos etc.).
Zusammenfassung:
Der „österreichische“ Weg zur Erfassung von historischen bzw. zur Vorhersage von zukünftigen
Steinschlagprozessen und Rutschungen von den verschiedenen Ereigniskatastern (GEORIOS
– Geologische Bundesanstalt, Wildbach- und Lawinenkataster, Ereigniskataster der Länder)
über die Gefahrenzonenplanung bis zur Erstellung von Prozessdispositionskarten wird dargestellt. Dabei sind unterschiedliche gesetzliche Verpflichtungen und Zielsetzungen für die damit
befassten Organisationen maßgeblich für die Art, den Umfang und die Qualität der erreichten
Aussagen.
Fig. 1: Inventory of mass movements in Austria (source Geol. B.-A.: www.geologie.ac.at)
Abb. 1: Karte der Massenbewegungen in Österreich (Quelle: Geol. B.-A.: www.geologie.ac.at)
Seite 85
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
The
database
includes
detailed
information about the mass movements (geology,
hydrology, geometric and geographical data,
studies or tests carried out, mitigation measures)
and the source of information (archives, etc.), and
also information about who carried out the field
work and added the data into the database.
There
movements
are
stored
already
22,000
mass
in
database.
The
the
Fig. 4: WLV-Inventory of mass movements in Austria (source: www.die-wildbach.at)
Abb. 4: Ereignisdatenbank der WLV (Quelle: www.die-wildbach.at)
compilation of a part of the mass movements
in Austria is publicly accessible via the internet
(www.geologie.ac.at) in German and English.
However, the web application includes only
events such as slides, rock falls, or more complex
mass movements which have been published
already in the media or the internet and are freely
Fig. 2: Event inventory of Carinthia with 5W-questions and
quality remarks MAXO (M-sure; A-estimate; X-uncertain;
O-unknown)
Abb. 2: Ereignisdatenbank von Kärnten mit 5W-Fragen und
Qualitätskriterien „MAXO“
•
The
inventory
map/event
map
available for everyone ([16]KOCIU et al 2007).
(“Ereigniskarte”) contains only information
An engineering geological database, as
about processes for which an event date is
well as a bibliographical database is also included
known (5W–questions: What, When, Where,
in the GEORIOS system.
Who, Why). The symbols are correlated to
process type and magnitude (triangle – small
In cooperation with the Geological
Survey of Carinthia, the Geological Survey of
events, pentagon – great events).
Austria has created not just one “inventory map”,
but a “level of information”, as is explained in the
following ([17] KOCIU et al 2010):
Level of information:
“Karte
so called “Wildbach- und Lawinenkataster”.
G.,
2010):
Main
focus
of
Burgenland
is
concentrated on shallow landslides with an
Standards of susceptibility/hazard
annual rate of movement of 1-2cm. For the
assessment in Austria
prediction of landslide susceptibility based on
morphological and geological factors, the method
Because of the lack of a regulatory framework
called “Weights of Evidence” was chosen ([15]
or technical standard concerning landslides and
KLINGSEISEN et al., 2006). Three (respectively
rock falls in Austria - only the course of actions
4) hazard zones were classified ([“high Hazard”],
concerning floods, avalanches and debris flows
“hazard”, “hazard cannot be excluded”, “no
are regulated by law (ordinance of hazard zone
hazard”, [15] KLINGSEISEN et al., 2006). In
mapping,[33] RUDOLF-MIKLAU F. & SCHMIDT
Lower Austria up until now the susceptibility maps
F., 2004) - the federal states all follow a different
have been created using a heuristic approach
course of action.
based on geological expertise, historical data and
were produced in the course of a university
a scale ranging from 1:50,000 to 1:25,000 ([36]
dissertation ([34] RUFF, 2005). For modelling,
SCHWEIGL & HERVAS 2009). To offer assistance
bivariate statistics (for landslides) and cost
for the municipalities in land-use planning,
analysis (for rock fall) were used, working with a
landslide susceptibility maps were generated for
25x25m raster. The susceptibility, meaning spatial
the major settled areas in Upper Austria (OÖ).
susceptibility, is presented in 5 classes (very low,
For each type of mass movement, the priority,
Fig. 3: Event map of Carinthia (brown – landslides; blue – earth
flow; red – rock fall; green – earth fall)
low, medium, high, very high). The inventory map
which is a susceptibility class, was evaluated on
is included in the susceptibility map. On the other
the basis of the intensity and the probability of an
Abb. 3: Ereigniskarte von Kärnten
hand, the local department of the Austrian Service
event. The priority was classified in 3 stages (high
for Torrent and Avalanche Control (WLV) creates
– medium – low; [18] KOLMER, 2005). As these
“hazard maps” within the “hazard zoning plan”.
maps include the intensity and the frequency of
Austria,
mass movements, they can be called “hazard
Burgenland and Carinthia, different approaches
maps” by definition. Nevertheless it has to be
can be of varying quality with information
about process areas as phenomena of mass
movements that have already happened.
independent of a scale and can contain
data sets and maps ([30] POSCH-TRÖTZMÜLLER
to ten classes of susceptibility are delineated at
different scales (1:50,000 and bigger) and
event date is known (5W–questions), it is
floods, avalanches, landslides and rock falls – the
interpretation of DEM and aerial photos. Three
Phänomene”): These kinds of maps can have
records only those processes for which an
(different scales, processes) derived from existing
For example, in Vorarlberg risk maps
der
•The event inventory (“Ereigniskataster”)
are chosen to develop susceptibility maps
also maintains an inventory covering torrential
(susceptibility map, vulnerability map, risk map)
•Process index map, map of phenomena
(“Prozesshinweiskarte”,
The Austrian Torrent and Avalanche Control (WLV)
processes without information on location.
•
The thematic inventory map contains
In Carinthia, a digital landslide inventory
only information related to a type of
was created with historical events of the
process, categorized according to the
last 50 years ([1] BÄK et al 2005).
quality of the data.
In
Upper
Austria,
Lower
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
taken into account that the method of generating
For a small study area in Styria, the Geological
events, a thorough mapping of the phenomena
issuing building permits to consult an expert to
these maps included neither field work nor remote
Survey of Austria generated a susceptibility map
involved and an accurate interpretation of the
evaluate the hazard for the planned construction
sensing techniques. The method of assessment is
for spontaneous landslide (soil slips and earth
failure with the subsequent processes.
site explicitly, otherwise the community can be
based solely on geological expertise.
flows) at a scale of 1:50,000 using neural network
excluded from public funding for the financing of
Using the digital geological map of
analysis ([35] SCHWARZ et al., 2009). Any
inventory of all events regarding natural hazards,
Carinthia (1:50,000), the inventory map of mass
susceptibility class is not a ranking of the degree
such as torrential processes, avalanches, rock-falls
movements (landslides and rock falls), DEM
of slope stability, but a description of the relative
and landslides in the so called “Wildbach- und
(10m x10m raster), land-use and lithological-
propensity/probability of a landslide of a given
Lawinenkataster – WLK” ([8] Forstgesetz 1975).
geotechnical characteristics of bedrock and
type and of a given source area to occur.).
The GBA defines its very own tasks, among others:
Several standards issued by the IAEG (Internat.
unconsolidated
At the Geological Survey of Austria
“the assessment and evaluation of geogenically
Association of Engineering Geology –UNESCO
susceptibility maps for Carinthia were generated in
(GBA), susceptibility maps in different scales and
induced natural hazards". These inventories
Working Party of World Landslide Inventory
a collaboration of the Geological Survey of Austria
with different methods (heuristic approach, neural
(WLV, GBA, geological surveys of provinces like
[42] to [47]) exist for the documentation and
(GBA) and the Geological Survey of Carinthia at
network analysis) have already been generated. ([17]
Carinthia) are established to guarantee a complete
classification of landslides. Furthermore, for the
a scale of 1:200,000 ([1] BÄK et al., 2005). Of
KOCIU et al., 2010, [21] MELZNER et al., 2010,
documentation of processes and events that can
documentation of landslide and rock fall events
course these maps still lack information about
[38] TILCH et al., 2009, [39] TILCH et al., 2010, [40]
eventually endanger infrastructure and/or people.
(avalanches and torrential processes are covered
intensity and recurrence period or probability of
TILCH et al., 2010, [41] TILCH et al 2009).
The data collected in the inventories allow for
as well) there is a short course of the Universität
occurrence. Due to the imprecision of input data
better information and further evaluation of where,
für Bodenkultur Wien, Dpt. f. Bautechnik und
used, the accuracy of predictions regarding the
responsibility of different authorities
when, how often and with which intensities those
Naturgefahren, Inst. f. Alpine Naturgefahren,
susceptibility for rapid mass-movements based on
The key feature for susceptibility/hazard
events took place. These inventories can form
which certifies documentalists for those processes.
maps like the ones mentioned above is limited.
mapping is a good documentation of historic
an important basis for the elaboration of hazard
For the assessment and evaluation of rock
maps and related hazard zones, which give the
fall processes and the design of protection
authorities good evidence to optimize land-use
measures an Austrian Standard is currently under
planning and avoid areas that tend to be exposed
development ([28] ONR 24810: Technischer
to natural hazards. For already developed areas,
Steinschlagschutz).
sediments,
process-related
Legal situation, requirements by the law,
The WLV is legally obliged to do an
mitigation measures in the future.
Standards, guidelines, official and legal documents
the assessment of the type of process, magnitude,
run-out, location, frequency etc. allows for a better
State of the art in the practice
priority-rating and design of mitigation measures.
The elaboration of hazard zone maps
The code of practice is to be brought up to the
([8] Forstgesetz 1975 and [2] BGBl. 436/1976)
state of the art due to the absence of binding
for potentially endangered zones caused by
standards. The state of the art according to the
natural hazards (except flooding by rivers and
“Wasserrechtsgesetz
earthquakes, which are done by other authorities)
defined in Austria as the following: The use of
for all communities is the task of the Austrian
modern technological methods, equipment and
Torrent and Avalanche Control (WLV).
modes of operation with proven functionality
which represent the status of progress based on
The delineation of potential emmission-
zones of rapid mass movements, such as rock falls
WRG 1959 §12a(1)” is
relevant scientific expertise.
and landslides, are not mandatory and therefore
can be illustrated as “brown hazard indication
Fig. 5: Susceptibility map for spontaneous shallow landslide at Gasen – Haslau ([35] Schwarz et al 2009).
Abb. 5: Dispositionskarte für spontane, flachgründige Rutschungen im Bereich Gasen-Haslau ([35]Schwarz et al 2009).
Rock fall hazard assessment
areas” by the WLV.
The legal implication of these indication
The state of the art regarding the assessment and
areas lies in the obligation of the authorities
evaluation of hazard for rock fall processes can
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Landslide hazard assessment
be described by the following workflow. The
methods to be applied are just roughly described,
The combination of a rotational and a translational
sliding mechanism is called a compound slide.
General
for a detailed description see the cited literature.
These may develop in horizontally stratified soils
Depending on the objective of the assessment, the
and rocks, where the upper part of the slope shows
tools to be applied may vary in respect to the scale
Landslides present complex natural phenomena
a rotational failure which is constrained by a plane
of the result, being more coarse at regional scale
for both the variability of processes and the
of weakness at the base (e. g. a claystone layer).
and detailed at slope-scale.
dimensions. A landslide may exhibit a translational
Standard procedure for the assessment of rock fall
sheet slide of some square meters involving the
in Austria are debris slides (e. g. Gasen and Haslau
hazards (best practice):
ground surface or a deep seated mass movement
2005, Vorarlberg). These failures occur in porous
of several cubic kilometres.
soils, especially after extraordinary water input
Preparation
A process that frequently can be observed
Rapid landslides with reference to [6]
resulting from precipitation and/or snow melt
•Definition of the boundaries of the project
CRUDEN & VARNES (1996) feature velocities
leading to an excess of pore water pressure. The
area in compliance with the stakeholder
of some metres per minute to several meters per
mass movement often starts as a rotational slide,
•Acquisition of basic data (topografic maps,
second. In Austria, the main processes exhibit
which turns into a debris flow down slope.
geology, land use, literature, studies etc.)
different slides and debris slides. Very rapid to
•Collection of historic event information
rapid flow slides, which one can find for example
is important to distinguish between preparatory
in Scandinavia or in Canada, have no relevance
factors and the triggers ([46] WL/WPLI 1994). The
in Austria.
triggering of the occurrence of a mass movement is
Slides include rotational, translational
the last step of destabilization over a longer period
•Collection of properties of the forest (if
and compound slides. Rotational slides own a
of time. Concerning [37] THERZAGHI (1950) the
relevant), identification (by field work and/
circular sliding surface, which results from shear
stability of slopes is stated by the factor of safety,
or according to e. g. [12] JABOYEDOFF
failure in relatively homogenous rock or soil of low
which is expressed by the ratio between driving
1999) and
strength. Translational
(written and oral)
Field work:
•Evaluation of detachment areas
slides take place in
description of discontinuities
rock on forgiven more
(type, dip/direction, opening, filling …),
or less planar features
properties of rock mass,
like bedding planes,
relevant failure mechanisms,
joints etc. The failure
probabilistic distribution of
results when the shear
joint-bordered rock bodies
•
Scree
slopes:
block-size
When assessing landslide hazards, it
distribution
(statistics)
Fig. 6: Delineation of potential conflict areas at regional extent
using an empirical model ([21] Melzner et al 2010).
resistance on the plane
Abb. 6: Abgrenzung potenzieller Wirkungsbereiche mittel einfachen empirischen Modellansätzen ([21] Melzner et al 2010).
often one can find
•
Analysis of rock fall processes ([22]
is exceeded. Relatively
these slides in the soil
MELZNER et al 2010, [23] MELZNER et al
For the design of mitigation measures, a
cover of the ground,
2010, [24] MÖLK 2008):
probabilistic approach is going to be defined
called
sheet
slides,
as a standard procedure in Austria ([28] ONR
where
the
sliding
Rough estimation of run out e. g. by
shadow angle (regional scale)
24810) following the concept of partial factors of
surface is formed by a
2D or 3D modelling (probabilistic):
safety ([26] EUROCODES) for actions/resistances
weak clay layer, such
provides run out length, energy and
and varying accepted probabilities of failure
as a gley horizon in the
Fig. 7: An Example of changes of the factor of safety with time after [46] WL/WPLI (1994)
bouncing-height distributions for slope-
depending on the casualty and reliability-classes
range of groundwater
scale problems
of [27] Eurocode 0.
fluctuations.
Abb. 7: Beispiel für die Veränderung der Sicherheit eines Einhanges über die Zeit,
nach [46] WL/WPLI (1994)
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
forces and resisting forces. Stable slopes feature a
State of the art in landslide assessment
and an evaluation of the mechanical model.
future. Models showing the disposition of a given
Furthermore, a monitoring allows the prediction
environment to tend to mass-movements and
forces exceed the driving forces. If the driving
For several years, high resolution Lidar data
of failure time under certain circumstances (e.g.
also forecasting the location, time and run-out
forces are greater than the resisting forces the slope
have been available for most regions in Austria
[9] FUKUZONO 1985, [19] KRÄHENBÜHL
of such processes will be a precious tool for the
fails, i.e. the factor of safety drops under one.
bearing landslide activity. They are a powerful
2006, [32] ROSE & HUNGR 2007)
experts although a replacement of a thorough
factor of safety over one, meaning that the resisting
Fig. 5 ([46] WL/WPLI 1994) shows the
tool to recognize geomorphological structures
development of a stable slope to one that fails.
of landslides ([49] ZANGERL et al., 2008). A
Since the slope is exposed to weathering, erosion
main advantage of Lidar data in comparison
processes etc. the factor of safety of the slope
to conventional photos is the information on
The development of forecast-models for the
decreases to the point where it is close to failure
shaded areas and of areas covered with wood.
prognosis of the location and/or time of rapid
(marginally stable). At this point the slope is
Additionally,
(e.g.
gravitational mass movements to take place
susceptible to many triggers.
airborne and satellite-based multispectral and
or even the meteorological settings which will
Michael Mölk
remote
sensing
systems
evaluation of the conditions on site is not to be
Future development
expected anytime.
Anschrift der Verfasser / Authors’ addresses:
When assessing landslide hazard the
radar images) provide information on unstable,
trigger such events is at an early stage. Due to
Forsttechnischer Dienst für
following information is needed regarding the
slowly creeping slopes, which may fail and
the fact that the authorities are strongly asking for
Wildbach und Lawinenverbauung,
ground conditions:
transfer into a rapid moving masses ([31] PRAGER
such tools, many practitioners and scientists are
Geologische Stelle
•geology and structures
et al., 2009).
focusing on that topic.
Liebeneggstr. 11
•hydrogeology,
6020 Innsbruck
•type of process
maps in Austria were often made on demand.
the development of the erosion processes in
•velocity of the process
For some years authorities (LReg Kärnten, WLV
question will keep the stakes high and will not
Oberösterreich und Vorarlberg) are going to make
allow for providing the authorities with the accurate
Thomas Sausgruber
comprehensive hazard maps giving a basis on
models they ask for within a considerable time.
Forsttechnischer Dienst für
decision-making for land use and development.
Given the necessary detailed parameters, such as
Wildbach und Lawinenverbauung
Landslide inventories (databases of WLV, GBA,
geology, hydrogeology, geotechnical parameters
Geologische Stelle
several federal states) in combination with GIS
etc., triggering, influencing or allowing for the
Liebeneggstr. 11
applications are used to get rapid information to
processes in question are at hand, and all the
6020 Innsbruck
Conventional methods are based on observations
areas prone to landslides.
necessary models are developed, it is highly likely
[email protected]
of potentially unstable slopes. Aerial photos,
Collected surface data in combination
that they will work in certain regions with similar
both stereographic and orthophotos, have been
with subsurface data gained from trenches
or corresponding geological, morphological and
Richard Bäk
used since decades to detect these slopes by
and boreholes or seismic refraction, ground-
meteorological conditions only.
Abt. 15 Umwelt
characteristic geomorphological phenomena in
penetrating radar and electrical resistivity profiles
Geologie+Bodenschutz
combination with available geological maps ([4]
allow for the drawing of an underground-model
necessarily
depend
BUNZA 1996, [14] KIENHOLZ 1995). This first
and deduce the type of failure mechanism which
calibration
with
analysis is completed by mapping in the field. The
is most likely to occur.
This emphasizes the necessity of a consistent
data are commonly presented in landslide hazard
documentation of events, to provide the model-
maps, which show the spatial distribution of
to assess the factor of safety and the probability
developers with calibration data.
Arben Kociu
different hazard classes. Additionally chronicles,
of failure by means of analytical calculations
Geologische Bundesanstalt
which occasionally exist at the town halls, turned
or numerical modelling (e.g. [29] Poisel et al.
applied at defined locations with all the necessary
Fachabteilung Ingenieurgeologie
out to be very useful.
2006). Additional information on the process
field work and assessment of natural parameters,
Neulinggasse 38
can be provided by a monitoring system. This
fed in apt models will not become obsolete in
1030 Wien
serves as a check for the taken assumptions
the near and very probably not even in the far
[email protected]
•
geotechnical
properties
of
materials
involved
• potential role of human activities (triggers?).
State of the practice in landslide assessment
Until
recently,
susceptibility/hazard
Geotechnical data are also required
The multitude of parameters influencing
The accuracy of these models will
highly
on
a
well-documented
thorough
events.
This means that the expertise of experts
[email protected]
Flatschacher Straße 70
9020 Klagenfurt
[email protected]
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
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LIPIARSKI (2005):
Ereigniskataster und Karte der Phänomene als Werkzeug zur Darstellung
geogener Naturgefahren (Massenbewegungen), Arb. Tagg. Geol. B.-A.,
Gmünd 2005
[20] MELZNER, S., LOTTER, M. & A. KOCIU (2009):
Development of an efficient methodology for mapping and assessing
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Union (EGU), General Assembly, 19-24th April 2009, Vienna. (http://www.
geologie.ac.at/pdf/Poster/poster_2009_egu_melzner.pdf)
[2] BGBl. Nr. 436/1976: Verordnung des Bundesministers für Land- und
Forstwirtschaft vom 30. Juli 1976 über die Gefahrenzonenpläne
[21] MELZNER, S., DORREN, L. , KOCIU, A. & R. BÄK (2010B):
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Sturzprozessen im Oberen Mölltal/Kärnten. Poster Präsentation beim
Geoforum Umhausen 2010, Niederthai, Tirol. (Poster download on GBA
homepage www.geologie.ac.at)
[3] BMLFUW (2010):
Richtlinie für die Gefahrenzonenplanung-LE.3.3.3/0185-IV/5/2007 vom
12. Jänner 2010
[4] BUNZA, G. (1996): Assessment of landslide hazards by means of
geological and hydrological risk mapping
[22] MELZNER, S., TILCH, N., LOTTER, M., KOÇIU, A. & BÄK, R. (2010C):
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for detaching processes such as sliding or toppling. European Geosciences
Union (EGU), General Assembly, 02-07 Mai 2010, Wien. (http://www.
geologie.ac.at/pdf/Poster/poster_2010_egu_melzner_etal.pdf)
[5] BUWAL:
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Zeitschrift für Forstwesen 158 (2007) 6: S 128-141
[8] Forstgesetz 1975, § 11
[9] FUKOZONO T. (1985):
A new method for predicting the failure time of a slope. Proc. 4th Int. Conf.
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[24] MÖLK, M. (2008):
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[25] MÖLK M. und NEUNER G. (2004):
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[26] ÖNORM EN 1990:
Eurocode: Grundlagen der Tragwerksplanung
[10] HUNGR, O.; EVANS, S.G. (2004):
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[27] ÖNORM EN 1997-1:
Eurocode 7: Entwurf, Berechnung und Bemessung in der Geotechnik. Teil
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[11] HUTCHSINSON, J.N. (1988):
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[28] ONR 24810:
Technischer Steinschlagschutz: Begriffe und Definitionen, geologischgeotechnische Grundlagen, Bemessung und konstruktive Ausgestaltung,
Instandhaltung und Wartung. – In preparation, foreseen publication: 2011
[12] HÜBL, J., KOCIU, A., KRISSL, H., LANG, E., LÄNGER, E., RUDOLFMIKLAU, F., MOSER, A., PICHLER, A., RACHOY, Ch., SCHNETZER,
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[14]
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[15] KLINGSEISEN, B., LEOPOLD, Ph., TSCHACH, M. (2006):
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[16] KOCIU A. et al. (2007):
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[17] KOCIU, A., TILCH N., SCHWARZ L,. HABERLER A., MELZNER S.
(2010): GEORIOS - Jahresbericht 2009;
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[18] KOLMER, Ch. (2009):
Geogenes Baugrundrisiko Öberösterreich. Vortrag im Rahmen des
Landesgeologentages 2009, St. Pölten 2009.
[19] KRÄHENBÜHL R. (2006):
Der Felssturz, der sich auf die Stunde genau ankündigte. Bull. Angew.
Geol., 11(1), 49-63, 2006.
[29] POISEL, R., ANGERER, H., PÖLLINGER, M., KALCHER, T., KITTL,
H. (2006): Assessment of the Risks Caused by the Landslide Lärchberg ?
Galgenwald, Austria. Felsbau 24, No. 3, S. 42-49 (2006)
[30] POSCH-TRÖZMÜLLER, G. (2010):
Adapt Alp WP 5.1 Hazard Mapping - Geological Hazards. Literature
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landslides and rock fall. Final Report, Geologische Bundesanstalt, Wien,
2010 (www.ktn.gv.at/Verwaltung/Abteilungen/Abt.15 Umwelt, Thema
Geologie und Bodenschutz)
[31] PRAGER, Ch.; ZANGERL, Ch.; NAGLER, Th. (2009):
Geological controls on slope deformations in the Köfels rockslide area
(Tyrol, Austria). AJES 102/2 (2009), 4-19
[32] ROSE, N.D. and HUNGR O. (2007): Forecasting potential rock slope
failure in open pit mines using the inverse-velocity method. Int. Jour. of
Rock Mech. and Min. Science, 44, 308-320, 2007.
[33] RUDOLF-MIKLAU F. & SCHMIDT F. (2004):
Implementation, application and enforcement of hazard zone maps
for torrent and avalanches control in Austria, Forstliche Schriftenreihe,
Universität für Bodenkultur Wien, Bd. 18, p. 83-107, 2004
[34] RUFF, M. (2005):
GIS-gestützte Risikonanalyse für Rutschungen und Felsstürze in den
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Karlsruhe, 2005.
[35] SCHWARZ, L., TILCH, N. & KOCIU. A. (2009):
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performed for the region Gasen-Haslau (eastern Styria, Austria) – 6th
European Congress on regional Geoscientific Cartography and Information
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[36] SCHWEIGL, J.; HERVAS, J. (2009):
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23785 EN, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,
61 pp. ISBN 978-92-79-11776-3, Luxembourg, 2009.
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[44] WP/WLI - Working Party on Landslide Inventory (International
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A Suggested Method for a Landslide Summary. – Bull. Intern. Ass. Eng.
Geology, No. 43, Paris 1991
[38] TILCH, N. (2009):
Datenmanagementsystem GEORIOS (Geogene Risiken Österreich). Vortrag
im Rahmen des Landesgeologentages 2009, St. Pölten 2009.
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Räumliche und skalenabhängige Variabilität der Datenqualität und deren
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Introduction
step the hazard of landslides is assessed according
to the methods used in the Swiss strategy against
Switzerland is a country exposed to many natural
all natural hazards (e.g. floods, avalanches). The
hazards. These hazards include earthquakes, floods,
hazard assessment is then integrated into land use
forest fires, snow avalanches, rock falls and debris
planning and in the risk management (3. step).
flows. More than 6% of Switzerland is affected by
hazards due to slope instability. These areas occur
First step: Hazard identification
mainly in the Prealps and in the Alps. The Randa
HUGO RAETZO, BERNARD LOUP
Geological Hazard Assessment in Switzerland
Geologische Gefahrenbeurteilung in der Schweiz
Summary:
Geological hazard assessments are based on Swiss laws dealing with natural hazards.
Guidelines are published by the Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN/BAFU). According
to the integrated risk management, the methods are applied for all natural hazards (landslides,
floods, snow avalanches). The hazard maps are dealing with five degrees: high (red), medium
(blue), low (yellow), residual (yellow-white), no hazard (white).
Zusammenfassung:
Geologische Gefahren werden in der Schweiz gemäß den eidgenössischen Gesetzen über den
Wald und den Wasserbau erhoben und beurteilt. Dazu hat das zuständige Bundesamt (heute
das Bundesamt für Umwelt BAFU) entsprechende Empfehlungen und Richtlinien veröffentlicht.
Im Sinne des integralen Risikomanagements werden für alle Gefahrenprozesse vergleichbare
Methoden angewendet und anschließend in der Planung umgesetzt. Das gilt für geologische
Massenbewegungen, Hochwasser und Lawinen. Für diese Prozesse werden Gefahrenkarten
erstellt, die immer fünf Gefahrenstufen ausscheiden: Hohe, mittlere und geringe Gefahr sowie
Restgefährdung und keine Gefährdung. Daraus entstehen die roten, blauen, gelben, gelb-weiß
gestreiften und weißen Zonen auf den Gefahrenkarten.
rock avalanches of 1991 are a good example of the
Landslides can be classified according to the
potential of such hazards. Thirty million m3 of fallen
estimated depth of the sliding plane (< 2m: shallow;
debris cut off the valley for two weeks. In another
2-10 m: intermediate; >10 m: deep) and the long
case, a landslide was reactivated with historically
term mean velocity of the movements (< 2 cm/year:
unprecedented rates of displacement up to 6 m/
substabilised; 2-10 cm/year: slow; > 10 cm/year:
day, causing the destruction of the village of Falli-
active). These depth and velocity parameters are
Hölli in the year 1994.
not always sufficient to estimate the potential
The legal and technical background
danger of a landslide. Differential movements must
conditions for the protection against landslides
also be taken into account since they can generate
have undergone considerable changes since the
buildings to topple or cracks to open.
80’s. The flooding of 1987 promoted the federal
authorities to review criteria governing natural
(< 40 m/s), the size of their elements (Østone < 0.5 m,
hazard protection. The Federal Flood Protection
Øblock > 0.5 m) and the volumes involved. Rock
Law and the Federal Forest Law came into force in
avalanches with huge volumes (v > 1million m3)
1991. Their purpose is to protect the environment,
and high speed (> 40 m/s) can also happen
human lives and property from the damage caused
although these are rare.
by water, mass movements, snow avalanches and
forest fires. Following the promulgation of these
very shallow landslides are frequent in Switzerland.
new regulations, greater emphasis has been
These are moderate volume (< 20,000 m3) and
placed on preventive measures. Consequently,
high speed features (1-10 m/s). These phenomena
hazard assessment, the identification of protection
are very dangerous and annually cause important
objectives, purposeful planning of preventive
traffic disruptions and fatalities.
measures and the limitation of the residual
A map of landslide phenomena and
risk are of central importance. The cantons are
an associated technical report provide signs
now required to establish inventories and maps
and indications of slope instability as observed
denoting areas of hazards, and to take them
in the field. The map represents phenomena
into account in the land use planning. For the
related to dangerous processes and delineates the
improvement of the inventories and the hazard
vulnerable areas.
maps, the federal government provides subsides
to the cantonal authorities (50%).
allows areas vulnerable to landslides to be
Rock falls are characterized by their speed
Due to heavy rainfall, debris flows and
Field interpretation of these phenomena
In a first step the landslides are identified
mapped. This is based on the observation and
and classified. During this phase inventories and
interpretation of landforms, on structural and
maps of phenomena are established. In a second
geomechanical properties of slope instabilities,
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
and on historical traces. Extensive knowledge of
An additional distinction is made between
allow an overview of the different natural disasters
blue and yellow. The estimated degrees of danger
past and current events in a catchment area is
potential, inferred or proved events. According to
and potential associated damage in Switzerland.
have implications for land use. They indicate the
essential if zones of future instability are to be
the scale of mapping (e.g. 1:50,000 for the Master
identified.
Plan, 1:5,000 for the Local Plan), this legend may
contain a large number of symbols.
Some recommendations for the uniform
Inventories:
Recommendations
level of danger to people and to animals, as well
Second step: Hazard assessment of landslides
as to property. In the case of mass movement,
people are considered safer inside the buildings
classification, representation and documentation
for
Hazard is defined as the occurrence of a potentially
than outside.
of natural processes have been established by the
the definition of a uniform Register for slope
damaging natural phenomena within a specific
Swiss federal administration. Consequently, the
instability events has been developed, including
period of time in a given area. Hazard assessment
potential damage caused by an event is based on
definition of features on a natural hazard map is
special sheets for each phenomenon (landslides,
implies the determination of the magnitude or
the identification of threshold values for degrees
based on a uniform legend for landslides, floods
floods, snow avalanches). Each canton is currently
intensity of an event over time. Mass movements
of danger, according to possible damage to
and snow avalanches. The different phenomena
compiling the data for its own register. These
often correspond to gradual (landslides) or unique
property. The intensity parameter is divided into
are represented by different colours and symbols.
databases (StorMe) are transferred to the FOEN to
(falls, debris flows) events. It is sometimes difficult
three degrees:
RED: high hazard
• People are at risk of injury both inside and outside buildings.
• A rapid destruction of buildings is possible.
or:
• Events occurring with a lower intensity, but with a higher probability of occurrence. In this
case, people are mainly at risk outside buildings, or buildings can no longer house people.
The red zone mainly designates a prohibition domain (area where development is prohibited).
BLUE: moderate hazard
• People are at risk of injury outside buildings. Risk is considerably lower inside buildings.
• Damage to buildings should be expected, but not a rapid destruction, as long as the
construction type has been adapted to the present conditions.
The blue zone is mainly a regulation domain, in which severe damage can be reduced by
means of appropriate protective measures (area with restrictive regulations).
YELLOW: low hazard
• People are at slow risk of injury.
• Slight damage to buildings is possible.
A description of the magnitude of
to make an assessment of the return period of
High intensity: People and animals are at risk
a massive rock avalanche, or to predict when a
of injury inside buildings; heavy damage to
dormant landslide may reactivate.
buildings or even destruction of buildings is
possible.
Some federal recommendations have
been proposed in the 90’s for the management
Medium intensity: People and animals are
of landslides and floods. Since 1984 similar
at risk of injury outside buildings, but are at
recommendations have already existed for snow
low risk inside buildings; lighter damage to
avalanches. Hazard maps, according to the federal
buildings should be expected.
“recommendations“ (guidelines), express three
Low intensity: People and animals are slightly
degrees of danger, represented by corresponding
threatened, even outside buildings (except
colours: red, blue and yellow (Fig. 1). The various
in the case of stone and block avalanches,
hazard zones are delineated according to the
which can harm or kill people and animals);
landslide phenomena maps, the register of slope
superficial damage to buildings should be
instability events and additional documents.
expected.
Numerical models (analysis of block trajectories,
calculations of factors of safety) may be used to
Criteria for the intensity assessment:
determine the extent of areas endangered by rock
There is generally no applicable measure to define
falls, or to present quantitative data on the stability
the intensity of slope movements. However,
of a potentially unstable area.
indicative values can be used to define classes
A chart of the degrees of danger has been
of high, mean and low intensity. Applied criteria
developed in order to guarantee a homogeneous
usually refer to the zone affected by the process,
and uniform means of assessment of the different
or to the threatened zone.
The yellow zone is mainly an alerting domain (area where people are notified at possible
hazard).
kinds of natural hazards across Switzerland
(floods, snow avalanches, landslides…) – for
For rock falls, the significant criterion is the
YELLOW-WHITE HATCHING: residual danger
example, Fig.1 for fall processes. Two major
impact energy in the exposed zone (translation
parameters are used to classify the danger: the
and rotation energy). The 300 kJ limit corresponds
intensity, and the probability (frequency or return
to the impact energy to which can be resisted
period). Three degrees of danger have been
by a reinforced concrete wall, as long as the
defined. These are represented by the colours red,
structure is properly constructed. The 30 kJ limit
Low probability of high intensity event occurrence can be designated by yellow-white hatching.
The yellow-white hatched zone is mainly an alerting domain, highlighting a residual danger.
WHITE: no danger or negligible danger, according to currently available information.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Low intensity
Medium intensity
High intensity
Rock fall
E < 30 kJ
30 < E < 300 kJ
E > 300 kJ
Rock avalanche
-
-
E > 300 kJ
Landslide
v ≤ 2 cm/y
v : 2-10 cm/y
v>10 cm/year
dv, D, T
dv, D, T
dv, D, T
v > 0.1 m/day for
shallow landslides;
displacement > 1 m
per event
correlated with recurrent meteorological conditions.
For example, considering a time period of 30
The probability of mass movement occurrence
years, an event with a 30-year return period has
should mainly be established for a given duration of
a 64% probability of occurrence (or about 2 in
land use. Thus, the probability of potential damage
3), of 26% (or about 1 in 4) for a 100-year return
during a certain period of time, or the degree
period, and of 10% (or about 1 in 10) for a 300-
of safety of a specific area should be taken into
year return period.
account, rather than the frequency of dangers.
The probability of occurrence and the
occurrence clearly shows that even for a rather
return period can be mathematically linked, if
high return period (300 years), the residual danger
attributed to the same reference period:
remains not significant.
Earth flows and
debris flows
p = 1 – (1 – 1/T)n
real
-
h<1m
h>1m
E: kinetic energy; e: thickness of the unstable layer; h: height of the earthflow deposit; v: long term mean
velocity, dv: variation of velocity (accelerations), D: differential movements, T: thickness of the landslide.
corresponds to the maximum energy that oak-
converted to danger classes. Other criteria as
wood stiff barriers can resist (e.g. rail sleeper).
velocity changes or accelerations (dv), differential
For rock avalanches, the high intensity class
movements (D) and thickness of the landslide (T)
(E > 300 kJ) is always reached in the impact zone.
can lead to increase resp. to reduce the intensity
The target zones affected by block avalanches
class as derived from the long term velocity.
of low to medium intensity can only be roughly
For earth flows and debris flows,
delineated. Therefore, it is recommended not to
the intensity depends on the thickness of the
artificially delineate zones affected by low to
potentially unstable layer. The boundaries defining
medium intensities.
the three intensity classes are set at 0.5 m and 2 m.
Most landslides: A low intensity movement has an
Probability: Probability of landslides is defined
annual mean speed of lower than 2 cm per year.
according to three classes. The class limits are set
A medium intensity has a speed ranging from
at 30 and 300 years and are equivalent to those
one to 10 cm per year. The high intensity class
established for snow avalanches and floods. The
is assigned to velocities higher than 10 cm per
100-year limit corresponds to a value applied in
year and to shear zones or zones with clear
the design of flood protection structures.
differential movements (D). It may also be assigned
if reactivated phenomena have been observed or,
determine if mass movements occur remain very
if horizontal displacements greater than one meter
uncertain. Unlike floods and snow avalanches, mass
per event may occur. Finally, the high intensity
movements are usually non-recurrent processes.
class can also be assigned to very rapid shallow
The return period, therefore, only has a relative
landslides (speed > 0.1 m/day). In the area affected
meaning, except for events involving stone and
by landsliding field, intensity criteria can be directly
block avalanches and earth flows, which can be
exclude the intensity scale for high magnitude
Whereby p is the probability of occurrence, n
events. Hazards with a very low probability of
represents the given time period (for example 30
occurrence are usually classified as residual
or 50 years), and T is the return period.
dangers under the standard classification. In the
high
e>2m
RED
medium
0.5 m < e < 2 m
In principle, the probability scale does
not exclude very rare events, neither does it
BLUE
low
e < 0.5 m
INTENSITY
potential
The calculation of the probability of
YELLOW / WHITE
Phenomena
YELLOW
The results of probability calculations to
high
Fig. 1: Matrix for the assessment of hazards
Abb. 1: Matrix für die Gefahrenbeurteilung
medium
PROBABILITY
low
very low
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Anschrift der Verfasser / Authors’ addresses:
domain of dangers related to mass movements,
According to Art. 6 of the Federal Law for Land
The degrees of danger are initially assigned
the limit for a residual danger has been set for an
use Planning, the cantons must identify all areas
according to their consequences for construction
event with a 300-year return period.
that are threatened by natural hazards.
activity. They must minimise risks to the safety
Hugo Raetzo
The cantonal Master Plan is a basic
of people and animals, as well as minimising
Federal Office for the Environment FOEN
hazard matrix based on intensity and probability
document for land use planning, infrastructural
as possible damage to property. In agricultural
Bundesamt für Umwelt BAFU
criteria (Raetzo & Loup 2009). The resulting
coordination and accident prevention. It consists
zones, buildings affected by different degrees of
3003 Bern
hazard map is mainly used for planning (land
of a map and a technical report, and is based on
danger are constrained by the same conditions as
Schweiz
use), while the design of protection measures
studies. The Master Plan allows for deciding the
those in built-up areas.
needs more detailed investigations. In general
following:
The degree of hazard is defined in a
Bernard Loup
•It shows how to coordinate activities
the methods used are related to the product,
Conclusions
Federal Office for the Environment FOEN
associated with different land uses.
scales and the risk in order to respect economic
Bundesamt für Umwelt BAFU
•It identifies the goals of planning and
criteria: low efforts are done for the Swiss
specifies the necessary stages.
indicative map (level 1), important efforts
•
It provides
are done when a hazard map is established
legal
constraints
to
the
authorities in charge of land use planning.
or reviewed (level 2). Detailed analyses and
In Switzerland legal and technical references are
3003 Bern
published to clarify which responsibilities the
Schweiz
authorities have and how the assessment has to
be done in order to apply the concept of integral
risk management. The hazard map indicates
engineering calculations are foreseen for the
planning of countermeasures (level 3). Applying
The objectives of the Master Plan with respect to
which areas are unsuitable for use, according
this
natural hazards are:
to existing natural hazard. The integration of
concept
rising
efforts
for
geological
•To early detect conflicts between land use,
investigations are planned when the assessment
development and natural hazards.
on the second or third level takes place.
•To refine the survey of basic documents
Third step: Land use planning and risk management
concerning natural hazards.
•To formulate principles that can be applied
hazard maps into land use planning (including
construction
conditions,
building
licences)
and the development of protective measures to
minimise damage to property are main objectives.
When the hazard map is compared with
The hazard map is a basic document used in
by the cantons to the issue of protection
existing land use conflicts may occur. Since it is
land use planning. Natural hazards should be
against natural hazard.
difficult or impossible to change land use, specific
taken into account particularly in the following
•To define necessary requirements and
construction codes are required to reach the
mandates to be used in subsequent
desired protection level. Hazard maps are also
planning stages.
considered in planning protective measures as
situations:
•Elaboration and improvement of cantonal
well as the installation of warning systems and
Master Plan and Communal Local Plans for
land use.
•Planning, construction, transformation of
buildings and infrastructures.
•Granting of concessions and planning
for
construction
and
infrastructural
installations.
•Granting of subsidies for building and
The constraints on Local Planning already allow
emergency plans. The federal recommendations
and ensure appropriate management of natural
are on attempt to mitigate natural disasters by
hazards with respect to land use. The objective
restricting development on unstable areas.
of these constraints is to delineate danger zones
by highlighting restrictions, or to establish legal
frameworks leading to the same ends.
At the same time danger zones can be
development (road and rail networks,
delineated on the local plan with areas suitable
residences), as well as for slope stabilisation
for construction as well as additional protection
and protection measures.
zones.
Literatur / References:
BUNDESAMT
FÜR
RAUMPLANUNG,
BUNDESAMT
FÜR
WASSERWIRTSCHAFT & BUNDESAMT FÜR UMWELT, WALD UND
LANDSCHAFT, (1997).
Empfehlungen, Berücksichtigung der Massenbewegungsgefahren bei
raumwirksamen Tätigkeiten, EDMZ, 3000 Bern.
CRUDEN D.M. UND VARNES D.J.:
Landslide types and processes. In: A. Keith Turner & Robert L. Schuster
(eds): Landslide investigation and mitigation: 36-75. Transportation
Research Board, special report 247. Washington: National Academy Press,
1996.
KIENHOLZ, H., KRUMMENACHER, B. et al.:
Empfehlungen Symbolbaukasten zur Kartierung der Phänomene Ausgabe
1995, Mitteilungen BUWAL Nr. 6, 41 S., Reihe Vollzug Umwelt VU7502-D, Bern 1995.
RAETZO et al.:
Hazard assessment of mass movements – codes of practice in Switzerland,
International Association of Engineering Geology IAEG Bulletin, 2002.
RAETZO, H. & LOUP, B.; BAFU:
Schutz vor Massenbewegungen. Technische Richtlinie als Vollzugshilfe.
Entwurf 9. Sept. 2009.
VARNES, D.J. and IAEG Commission on Landslides and other MassMovements:
Landslide hazard zonation: a review of principles and practice. The
UNESCO Press, Paris, 1984.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Introduction
2)Landslide studies that have direct consequences
to land planning laws, at local scale or higher.
When facing a natural hazard, risk management
GIS methods allow for performing analyses
can be divided in several stages:
over wide areas that are useful to be included
in basin plans or master plans. National or local
a)danger characterization, hazard assessment
laws can require standard ways to present the
and vulnerability analysis;
b)risk evaluation and assessment;
results (common graphical signs on the maps,
STEFANO CAMPUS
c)risk prevention (protective works, land use
for example).
Landslide Mapping in Piemonte (Italy):
Danger, Hazard & Risk
d)crisis and post-crisis management;
regulation, monitoring, etc.);
Legal framework in Italy and Piemonte
e)feedback from experience.
It is essential to properly distinguish the three
High Level Legislation (national level)
aspects of landslides studies:
Kartierung von Rutschungen im Piemont (Italien):
Gefahren & Risiken
Summary:
This paper briefly describes the legal framework of landslide danger, hazard and risk mapping
in Italy and Piemonte. Laws or rules that indicate how a landslide analysis (danger, hazard, risk)
has to be done, do not exist. As a general remark, it has to be observed that public legislation
defines general principles and lines of conduct, functions, activities and authorities involved,
while the regional administrations apply restrictions on land use through different regional laws.
Keywords: Landslide, danger, hazard, risk, Piemonte, Italy
Zusammenfassung:
Diese Abhandlung beschreibt kurz den gesetzlichen Rahmen der Kartografie von Rutschungsgefahren und -risiken in Italien und im Piemont. Es gibt keine Gesetze oder Verordnungen darüber, wie eine Rutschungsanalyse (Gefahren und Risiken) auszuführen ist. Als eine allgemeine
Bemerkung ist festzustellen, dass die öffentliche Gesetzgebung allgemeine Prinzipien und
Richtlinien, Funktionen, Aktivitäten und betreffende Befugnisse festlegt, die Regionalverwaltungen hingegen erlegen auf der unterschiedlichen landesgesetzlichen Basis Einschränkungen
hinsichtlich der Bodennutzung auf.
Schlüsselwörter: Rutschung, Gefahr, Gefährdung, Risiko, Piemont, Italien
•DANGER. Threat characterization (typology,
The national Law n. 445/1908 (Transfer and
morphology even quantitative, inventory…);
consolidation of unstable towns) and Royal
•HAZARD. Spatial and temporal probability,
Decree R.D. n. 3267/1923 (Establishment of areas
intensity and forecasting of evolution
subject to hydro-geological constrains) were the
(scenarios) are needed;
first public regulations on land use planning. At
•RISK. Interaction between a threat having
the beginning of ‘70s, land use management was
particular hazard and human activities. We
transferred to the regions.
need vulnerability and damage analysis.
The
national
Law
n.
183/1989
These differences are theoretically well known by
introduced land use planning at a basin scale: the
all technicians but often there are some problems
government sets the standards and general aims
when they have to be applied in a legal framework.
without fixing a methodology to analyze and
So, it is not so unusual to find inventory maps used
evaluate the dangers, hazards, and risks related
as hazard maps or damage maps called risk maps.
to natural phenomena. The same law designated
Therefore, we have to distinguish two situations:
the Autorità di Bacino (Basin Authorities) whose
1)Landslides studies that have no influence from
main goal is to draw up the Basin Plan, a tool for
legal point of view. Typical cases are the studies
planning actions and rules for conservation and
carried out by universities about relevant
protection of the territory.
landslides. The aim is, for example, to understand
the mechanical features of instability or to study
in 2001 is called PAI (Piano per l’Assetto
different ways of evolution of the phenomenon
Idrogeologico or Hydrogeological System Plan
(scenarios) in order to assess residual risk. Any
of River Po Basin). It tries to verify the geological
method to assess landslide hazard and risk can
instability of the whole territory as regards the
be used. They include statistical, deterministic,
land use planning through a process of upgrading
numerical, etc. methods for hazard and
and feedback with the local urban management
qualitative or matrix calculus for risk. Landslide
plans. Moreover, all the municipalities are
inventory can be made by means of historical,
classified according different risk levels, mainly
morphological, etc. approach.
from a qualitative point of view. For landslides it
About Po basin, the last plan adopted
has two atlases (1:25,000 scale):
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
1) Atlas of Hydro-geological Risks (landslides,
2) Atlas of Landslides. It is an inventory, in
government to give answers for development
of geological and morphological features and
floods, alluvial fans, avalanches) at the
which polygons and points are divided in 3
regulation (to reduce or eliminate landslides
historical analysis.
municipal level. Every municipality is valued
classes (fig. 1):
losses). According to the national Law n.
on the basis of the hazard, vulnerability
•
Fa-Area with Active Landslides (“very
267/1998, the government enforced legislative
the Regional Law n. 38/1978, which regulate and
and expected damage. Landslide hazard is
high hazard”). No new buildings or
measures at the national level, including the
organise interventions related to severe instability
function of ratio between area of landslides
infrastructures are allowed. Only measures
procedure to define landslide risk areas.
phenomena), a specific article of the regional law
within municipal boundaries and whole area
of protection and reduction of vulnerability;
of municipality.
It has 4 qualitative classes:
•R1-moderate risk. Social damages and few
economic losses are possible.
•R2-medium risk. Few damages to buildings
and
infrastructures
without
loss
of
functionality.
•R3-high risk. Problems to human safety.
Many damages and economic losses.
•R4-very high risk. Deaths and severe
injuries are possible.
the
56/1977 (art. 9/bis) allows inhibiting or suspending
•Fq-Area with Quiescent Landslides (“high
Law n. 267/1998 regards the development of
development in the involved areas. Consequently,
hazard”). Some enlargements are allowed.
“extraordinary plans” to manage the situations of
new land-use planning must be realised (upgrade/
New buildings are allowed according to
higher risk (R.M.E.-Aree a Rischio Molto Elevato),
revision of the local management plan).
city development plan.
where safety problems or functional damages
are possible. Local and regional authorities
(Circolare del Presidente della Giunta Regionale,
•
Fs-Area
with
Stabilized
(“medium-moderate
Landslides
hazard”).
Another
important
aspect
of
In a state of emergency (as established by
The
last
integrations
to
this
law
The
are obliged to define, design and apply proper
n. 7/LAP/1996 and Nota Tecnica Esplicativa, n.
development of these areas is indicated in
measures to risk mitigation, with national funding.
12/1999) introduced the concept of hazard and
the city development plan.
In Piedmont, these actions have been applied in
risk zoning, classifying the whole territory in
The catastrophic event of May 1998, which caused
some significant cases such as in Ceppo Morelli
different classes where land uses are precisely
heavy damages and victims in municipalities
(Valle Anzasca in northern part of Piemonte),
regulated
of Sarno and Quindici (Campania), urged the
classified as a very high-risky area.
forbidden, where preventive measures have to be
and
defined,
where
building
is
taken, etc…
Low Level Legislation (Local Urban Development Plan)
It is important to clarify that Regione
Piemonte does not have an official regional
Fig. 1: Example of Atlas of Landslides published by Po River Basin Authority (elaboration by Arpa Piemonte).
Abb. 1: Beispiel des „Atlas of Landslides“ (Bergsturz-Atlas), veröffentlicht von Po River Basin Authority (Ausarbeitung von ARPA
Piemonte).
The classification of areas made by the Po Basin
Geological Survey. Some geological functions
Authority is a binding act. The municipality must
are
executed
adopt a new town development plan taking into
for
Environmental
account that classification. If the municipality
“geological” departments: one dedicated to
wants to change PAI classification, a deep analysis
Geological Informative System, research and
of the areas has to be done to justify new land use
applied projects, the other one deals with
destination.
geological aspects of municipality urban plans.
Regione Piemonte Regional Law for
by
Arpa
Piemonte
Protection)
(Agency
having
two
Therefore, we produce landslide danger,
Urban Development L.R. n. 56/1977, which is the
hazard and risk analyses that have not any legal
main legal instrument of land use management at
consequences.
a local scale, as well as the Regional Law L.R. n.
45/1989 which regulates land use modification
European
and
to
out many experiences in fields of assessing
environmental protection, divides areas in more
methodology for landslides hazard assessment:
detailed classes having (almost) same meaning of
for instance, the IMIRILAND Project within Fifth
PAI classification.
Framework
In Piemonte, the local management plan
Project Fall or national Project of Geological
(required by the Regional Law L.R. n. 56/1977)
Cartography for shallow and planar landslides
includes the danger/hazard zoning in order
hazard maps in the southern hilly part of Piemonte
to identify landslide prone areas on the basis
region called Langhe (fig. 2).
transformation
in
areas
subject
Within many regional, national and
projects,
Arpa
Programme,
Piemonte
Interreg
carried
PROVIALP
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
existing landslides (fig. 3). Every region decided
Fig. 2: Extract from the
shallow landslides hazard
map of 1:50,000 scale sheet
Dego in Piemonte. The
traffic light colors indicate
increasing hazard (from
green to red), referring to
return periods of critical
rainfall (Arpa Piemonte,
2006).
by itself if the results of IFFI Project (danger maps)
Abb. 2: Auszug aus dem
Gefahrenzonenplan rutschgefährdeter, oberflächennaher Hänge im Maßstab
von 1:50.000 Dego im
Piemont. Die Ampelfarben
veranschaulichen die
zunehmende Gefahr (von
grün zu rot) mit Bezug auf
Wiederkehrdauern kritischen Niederschlags (ARPA
Piemonte, 2006).
important tool for the planners who finally have
So complete coverage of basic information is
authorities and made locally by the regions. It
available (lithology, geotechnical geo-database,
is the first try of an inventory based on common
landslides inventory, etc…), but only few rigorous
graphical legend and glossary.
applications of hazard & risk assessment.
One of the available tools produced
were recognized by interpreting aerial photos
by Arpa Piemonte is the regional part of Italian
and field surveys and the Informative System of
Landslides Inventory (IFFI). It is a national program
Landslides is constantly updated with inclusion of
of landslide inventory, sponsored by national
new landslides or corrections and deepening of
In Piemonte, over 35,000 landslides
do or do not have or a legal value. Currently, in
Stefano Campus
Piemonte landslides inventory coming from IFFI
Arpa Piemonte
Project is not a legal basis but it is one of the tools
Dipartimento Tematico Geologia e Dissesto
available that can be consulted.
via Pio VII 9, 10135 TORINO (ITALY)
[email protected]
In any event, IFFI represents a very
the first homogeneous, shared, detailed and most
complete knowledge of the landslide occurrence
on the whole territory.
As a general remark for Italy, it has
to be observed that public legislation defines
general principles and lines of conduct, functions,
activities and authorities involved, while the
regional administrations apply restrictions on land
use through different regional laws.
Final remarks
•Laws or rules that indicate how a landslide
analysis (danger, hazard, risk) has to be
done, do not exist;
•There is often some confusion among
danger, hazard and risk. An inventory
map can be used as hazard map (i.e.
susceptibility map), without any prevision
of scenarios;
•There is some lack of trust in quantitative
methods. Qualitative approach seems to be
preferred;
The technicians who make the maps have to
think firstly:
•Who will be the end users?
•What will be the use of maps?
•Is the scale of work suitable for this?
•Are the complexity of methods (time,
resources, needed input data…) and
Fig. 3: Arpa Piemonte Web-GIS Information Service of the IFFI Project.
Abb. 3: ARPA Piemonte, Web-GIS Informationsdienst des IFFI-Projekts.
Anschrift des Verfassers / Author’s address:
results appropriate and understandable for
decision makers?
Literatur / References:
ARPA PIEMONTE, (2006),
Note illustrative della Carta della Pericolosità per Instabilità dei Versanti
alla scala 1:50,000 Foglio n. 211 Dego. (S. Campus, F. Forlati & G. Nicolò
editors), Apat, Roma. (in Italian);
ARPA PIEMONTE, (2007),
Evaluation and prevention of natural risks. (S. Campus, F. Forlati, S. Barbero
& S. Bovo editors), Balkema Publisher;
ARPA PIEMONTE, (2008),
Interreg IIIa 2000-2006 Alpi Latine Alcotra. Progetto n. 165 PROVIALPProtezione della Viabilità Alpina. Final Report (in Italian);
ARPA PIEMONTE, (2010),
Geographic Information System on-line - http://webgis.arpa.piemonte.it
V.A. (2004),
Identification and mitigation of large landslides risks in Europe. The
IMIRILAND project. (C. Bonnard, F. Forlati & C. Scavia editors), Balkema
Publisher;
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Zusammenfassung:
Slowenien liegt in einem komplexen Raum Adria – Dinaren – Pannonisches Becken, und
seine allgemeine geologische Struktur ist bestens bekannt. Aufgrund seiner außerordentlich
heterogenen geologischen Lage ist Slowenien Hangmassenbewegungen (SMM = slope mass
movement) sehr stark ausgesetzt. Die slowenische Gesetzgebung (und darauf beruhend auch
die entsprechenden Maßnahmen) sind vorwiegend auf die Schadenbehebungsphase und die
Begrenzung der Auswirkungen bereits aufgetretener SMM-Vorkommnisse ausgerichtet, es mangelt jedoch an vorbeugenden Maßnahmen. Der Zweck dieses Artikels ist die Präsentation von
Gefahrenhinweiskarten über Hangmassenbewegungen auf nationaler und regionaler Ebene,
die zum Schutz vor schnellen Massenbewegungen in Slowenien erstellt wurden und die eine
fachlich fundierte Grundlage für die entsprechenden Präventivmaßnahmen bilden. Der nächste
logische Schritt wäre, dieses Know-how und diese Ansätze in die Gesetzgebung zu integrieren.
Schlüsselwörter: Massenbewegungen, Gesetzgebung, Gefahrenhinweiskarte, Slowenien
MARKO KOMAC, MATEJA JEMEC
Standards and Methods of Hazard Assessment for
Rapid Mass Movements in Slovenia
Standards und Methoden der Gefährdungsanalyse für
schnelle Massenbewegungen in Slowenien
but they can be mitigated or avoided, applying
1. Introduction
adequate legislation measures supported by
corresponding expert argumentation. Although
Slovenian territory occupies the Eastern flank of
Slovenian legislation (and hence also measures)
the Alpine chain. As in other areas of the Alpine
mainly focuses on the remediation phase and
region, Slovenia is exposed to different slope mass
mitigation of consequences of SMM events that
movements (SMM) above the average of the rest of
have already occurred, it’s biggest deficiency lays
Europe. SMM that represent substantial problems
in the area of prevention measures. While, in the
can be generally divided into three groups, 1)
case of rare SMM events, the current approach of
landslides, 2) debris-flows, and 3) rock falls. The
exclusively post-event measures is conditionally
majority of SMM events cannot be prevented,
sustainable, in the case of frequent events it
Summary:
Slovenia is situated on the complex Adria – Dinaridic – Pannonian structural junction and
its general geological structure is well known. As a consequence of an extraordinarily
heterogeneous geological setting, Slovenia is highly exposed to slope mass-movement
processes. While Slovenian legislation (and based on that also measures) mainly focuses on
the remediation phase and mitigation of consequences of SMM events that have already
occurred, its biggest deficiency lays in the area of prevention measures. The purpose of this
paper is to represent slope mass movement susceptibility maps on a national and a local
level that have been developed for protection from rapid mass movements in Slovenia and
which form an expert foundation for the prevention measures. The next logical step would be
to incorporate this knowledge and approach into legislation.
Keywords: mass movement processes, legislation, susceptibility map, Slovenia
Fig 1: Relation between hazards on one side and elements at risk on the other, and the risk in between (after Alexander, 2002).
Abb. 1: Beziehung zwischen Gefahren und gefährdeten Elementen, und das dazwischen liegende Risiko (nach Alexander, 2002).
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
becomes unsustainable and brings a huge burden
Law on protection against natural and other disasters
to the local, regional and state budget. The only
(Official Gazette of RS, no. 64/94)
Water Act (Official Gazette RS, no. 67/02, 4/09)
included in the fifth development priority, which
is designed to achieve sustainable development.
Protection against the harmful effects of water
reasonable approach would hence be minimising
interaction between SMM events and elements
The Act governs the protection against natural
that is among other the issues dealt with this
Regulation of the spatial order of Slovenia (Official Gazette
at risk. Graphically this interaction would be
and other disasters and includes the protection of
act also refers to protection against landslides.
of RS, no. 122/04)
presented as a cross-section between the natural
people, animals, property, cultural heritage and
Threatened area is defined by Government, which
hazard on one side and vulnerability of elements
environment against any hazard or accidents (risk)
is responsible for protecting the population,
Regulation of spatial order in Slovenia provides
at risk on other side (Fig 1).
that can threaten their safety. The main goal of
property and land in dangerous exposed areas.
the rules for managing the field of landslide
the protection against natural and other disasters
In order to protect against the harmful effects of
problematic. One of the important articles is
2. Legislation in the field of slope mass movement
system is to reduce the number of disasters, and
water, land in the threatened area is categorized
Article 67, in which is mentioned how to plan
domain
to forestall or reduce the number of victims and
into classes based on the risk.
according to the limitations which are caused by
other consequences of disaster. The basic tasks
natural disasters and water protection.
In the area of systematic prevention measures
of the system are: prevention, preparedness,
Act on measures to eliminate the consequences of certain
regarding SMM, Slovenia lags behind other Alpine
and protection against threats, rescue and help,
large-scale landslides in 2000 and 2001 (Official Gazette
Resolution of the National Environmental Act (Official
countries or regions. One of the basic approaches
providing of basic conditions for life, and recovery.
RS, no. 21/02, 92/03, 98/05)
Gazette of RS, no. 2/06)
hazardous areas due to natural phenomena and
National program of protection against natural and other
Act defines the format and the method of
The National Environmental Action Programme
the inclusion of this information in spatial plans.
disasters (Official Gazette of RS, no. 44/02)
financing and form of allocating state aid for
(NEAP) is the basic strategic document in the
the implementation of remedial measures, to
field of environmental protection, aimed at
to solve the problem is to establish potentially
Information on geology, upon which the slope
mass movement occurrence heavily depends, it is
On the basis of the Resolution, the National
prevent the spread of landslide and stabilization
improving the overall environment and quality
not yet an integral part of spatial plans. Legislative
Programme of Protection against Natural and
of landslides on the specific area of influence. It
of life and protection of natural resources. NEAP
acts deal mostly with remediation issues instead
Other Disasters for the period 2002 – 2007.
covers several major landslides in Slovenia.
was prepared under the Environmental Protection
with the prevention measures.
The National Programme is oriented towards
Act and complies with the European Community
The protection strategy against landslides
the prevention and its basic aim is to reduce the
Spatial Development Strategy of Slovenia (Official Gazette
Environment Programme, which addresses the
(within legislation the term landslide also other
number of accidents and to prevent or minimise
of RS, no. 76/04)
key environmental objectives and priorities
types of slope mass movements are included)
its consequences.
varies substantially and is tailored according
that require leadership from the community.
The Spatial Development Strategy of Slovenia is a
The objectives and measures are defined in
to different terrain conditions. They are mainly
Law on the Remediation of consequences of natural
public document guiding development in the field
the four areas, namely: climate change, nature
divided into prevention, emergency protective
disasters (Official Gazette of RS, no. 114/05)
of landslide problematics. It provides a framework
and biodiversity, quality of life, and waste and
for spatial development throughout the country
industrial pollution.
measures and permanent measures adopted in the
process for remediation. In the frame of preventive
The Act defines a landslide as a natural disaster.
and sets guidelines for development in European
actions, the emphasis is on creating a national
According to the article 11, with some restriction
space. It provides for the creation of spatial
database of active landslides (and other SMM) and
and at some level of damage, state budget funds
planning, its use and conservation. The spatial
intentions of government to include hazards doe
may be used to ease the effects of natural disasters.
strategy takes into account social, economic and
Due to specifics of different slope mass movement
to landslides into spatial planning. In the planning
Damage assessment is made in accordance
environmental factors of spatial development.
processes, a single approach would be hampered
and implementation of emergency protective
with the Regulation on the methodology for
measures, the emphasis is on protecting human
damage assessment (Official Gazette of RS,
Slovenia's Development Strategy
presents an overview of approaches to slope
lives and property.
no. 67/03, 79/04), after which the landslide is
Slovenia's Development Strategy sets out the
mass movements (1 – landslides; 2 – debris-flows;
considered a landslide, which threats a property
vision and objectives of Slovenia and five
3 – rock falls) hazard assessment. The presented
or infrastructure.
development priorities with action plans. The
approaches are similar to a certain level, they also
chapter on protection against natural disasters is
differ according to the scale of the assessment. The
3. Methodology
in its results / prognosis. The following chapter
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
final results (but not the only ones) of approaches
GIS in raster format with a 25 × 25 m pixel size.
presented in the following text were presented
Five groups of lithological units were defined,
in a form of warning maps that are still the main
ranging from small to high landslide susceptibility.
product used by end users. All the analyses were
Furthermore, critical slopes for the landslide
conducted in GIS, which enables the end users to
occurrence, other terrain properties and land cover
implement results also in a form of databases or a
types that are more susceptible to landsliding were
digital format.
also defined. Among triggering factors, critical
the
rainfall and peak ground acceleration quantities
terminology of slope mass movements in Slovenia
were defined. These results were later used as
are as follows: landslides are processes of
a basis for the development of the weighted
translational or rotational movement of rock or
linear susceptibility model where several models
soil as a consequence of gravity at discontinuity
with various factor weights variations based on
plane(s). Rock falls are processes of falling or
previous research were developed. The rest of
tumbling of a part of rock or soil along a steep
the landslide population (35 %) was used for the
slope. Debris-flows are processes of transportation
model validation. The results showed that relevant
of material composed of soil, water and air.
precondition spatio-temporal factors for landslide
According
to
Skaberne
(2001)
The landslide susceptibility model for
occurrence are (with their weight in linear model):
Slovenia at scale 1:250,000 was developed
lithology (0.3), slope inclination (0.25), land cover
at the Geological Survey of Slovenia in 2006
type (0.25), slope curvature (0.1), distance to
(Komac & Ribičič, 2006). The final result of this
structural elements (0.05), and slope aspect (0.05).
approach was presented in a form of a warning
map (Fig. 2). Based on the extensive landslide
assessment, a rainfall influence on landslide
database that was compiled and standardised
occurrence was analysed since rainfall plays
at the national level, and analyses of landslide
an important role in the landslide triggering
The debris-flow susceptibility model for Slovenia
weighted sum approach was selected on the
spatial occurrence, a Landslide susceptibility map
processes. Analyses of landslide occurrences in
at scale 1:250,000 was also developed at
basis of easily acquired spatio-temporal factors to
of Slovenia at scale 1 : 250,000 was completed.
the area of Slovenia have shown that areas where
Geological Survey of Slovenia in 2009 (Komac et
simplify the approach and to make the approach
Altogether more than 6,600 landslides were
intensive rainstorms occur (maximal daily rainfall
al., 2009). The final result of this approach was
easily transferable to other regions. Based on the
included in the national database, of which
for a 100-year period), and where the geo-logical
presented in a form of a warning map (Fig. 3).
calculations of 672 linear models with different
roughly half are on known locations. Of 3,257
settings are favourable an abundance of landslide
For the area of Slovenia (20,000 km2), a debris-
weight combinations for used spatio-temporal
landslides with known locations, random but
can be expected. This clearly indicates the spatial
flow susceptibility model at scale 1:250,000 was
factors and based on results of their success to
representative 65% were selected and used for
and temporal dependence of landslide occurrence
produced. To calculate the susceptibility to debris-
predict debris-flow susceptible areas, the best
the univariate statistical analyses (χ2) to analyse
upon the intensive rainfall. Regarding the landslide
flow, occurrences using GIS several information
factors’ weight combination was selected. To avoid
the landslide occurrence in relation to the
occurrence, the intensity of maximal daily and
layers were used such as geology (lithology and
over-fitting of the prediction model, an average of
spatio-temporal precondition factors (lithology,
average annual rainfall for the 30 years period
distance from structural elements), intensive
weights from the first hundred models was chosen
slope inclination, slope curvature, slope aspect,
was analysed. Results have shown that daily
rainfall (48-hour rainfall intensity), derivates of
as an ideal combination of factor weights. For
distance to geological boundaries, distance to
rainfall intensity, which significantly influences the
digital elevation model (slope, curvature, energy
this model an error interval was also calculated.
structural elements, distance to surface waters,
triggering of landslides, ranges from 100 to 150
potential related to elevation), hydraulic network
A debris-flow susceptibility model at scale
flow length, and land cover type) and in relation
mm, most probably above 130 mm. Despite the
(distance to surface waters, energy potential of
1:250,000 represent a basis for spatial prediction
to the triggering factors (maximum 24-h rainfall,
vague influence, if any at all, of the average annual
streams), and locations of sixteen known debris
of the debris-flow triggering and transport areas. It
average annual rainfall intensity, and peak ground
rainfall, the threshold above which significant
flows, which were used for the debris-flow
also gives a general overview of susceptible areas
acceleration). The analyses were conducted using
number of landslides occurs is 1000 mm.
susceptibility models’ evaluation. A linear model-
in Slovenia and gives guidance for more detailed
Beside
landslide
susceptibility
Fig. 2: Landslide susceptibility warning map of Slovenia at scale 1:250,000 (Komac & Ribičič, 2006, 2008).
Abb. 2: Gefahrenhinweiskarte für Rutschungen in Slowenien im Maßstab von 1:250.000 (Komac & Ribičič, 2006, 2008).
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
(4) Mapping of problematic areas at scale
1:5000 or 1:10,000 for the purpose of the
highest detail planning
(3) Development of detailed
geohazard map at scale 1:25,000 as
a combination of synthesis of
phases (1) and (2)
(1) Synthesis of archive geological data into the
overview geohazard map at scale 1:25,000
(2) Development of statistical geohazard at scale
1:25,000
Fig. 3: Debris-flow susceptibility warning map of Slovenia at scale 1:250,000 (Komac et al., 2009).
Fig. 4: Schematic diagram of the process of production of landslide and rock-fall susceptibility at the municipal scale (1:25.000)
(Bavec et al., 2005).
Abb. 3: Muren-Gefahrenhinweiskarte Sloweniens im Maßstab von 1:250.000 (Komac et al., 2009).
research areas and further spatial and numerical
processes, taking the Bovec municipality as
analyses. The results showed that approximately
the case study area. The geohazard map at the
4% of Slovenia’s area is extremely high susceptible
scale 1:25,000 as the final product is aimed
development that included relevant influence
in the overview geohazard map at scale
and approximately 11% of Slovenia’s area of
to be directly applicable in spatial planning
factors. For analytical purposes, 10,816 models
1:25,000 (Budkovič, 2002).
susceptibility to debris-flows is high. As expected,
of
The
were developed: 3,142 for landslide susceptibility
these areas are related to mountainous terrain in
requirements that were followed to achieve this
and 7,674 for rock-fall susceptibility. In both
the NW and N of Slovenia.
aim were: expert correctness, reasonable time of
cases, geology/lithology and slope angle showed
•(3) Development of detailed geohazard
local
communities
(municipalities).
Abb. 4: Schematische Darstellung der Erstellung von Gefahrenhinweiskarten über Erdrutsch, Berg- und Felssturz im Maßstab einer
Wanderkarte (1:25.000) (Bavec et al., 2005).
•(2) Development of statistical geohazard at
scale 1:25,000 (Komac, 2005).
In the frame of a research project, slope
elaboration, and easy to read product. Elaboration
to be the most important influencing factors.
map at scale 1:25,000 as a combination of
mass movement geohazard estimation – The
of the final product comprises four consecutive
Regarding landslides, additional important factors
synthesis geological map (1) and statistical
Bovec municipality case study an approach to
phases, of which the first three are done in the
were land use and synchronism of strata bedding
geological model (2) and delineating the
assess the landslide and rock-fall susceptibility at
office: 1) synthesis of archive data, 2) probabilistic
and slope aspect, and in the case of rock-falls an
most problematic areas.
the municipal scale (1:25,000) (Bavec et al, 2005;
model of geohazard induced by mass movement
additional important factor was synchronism of
Komac, 2005). The production of a susceptibility
processes, 3) compilation of phases 1 and 2 into
strata bedding and slope aspect.
map that should represent (officially not included
the final map at scale 1:25,000. As the last phase,
among the documentation yet) one of basic layers
field reconnaissance of most hazardous areas is
the direct use of the final product in the process
All presented approaches are based on a probability
in the spatial planning process shown in the Fig. 4.
foreseen. The susceptibility model development
of spatial planning at the municipal level and is
statistical model that is a part of a conceptual
Methodology was developed for estimation
was based on the upgrading of the expert geohazard
divided into four phases as shown in Fig. 4:
development model of general or detailed slope
of geohazard induced by mass movement
map at scale 1:25,000 with a probabilistic model
The methodology is focused towards
•(1) Synthesis of archive geological data
•(4) Mapping of problematic areas at scale
1:5,000 or 1:10,000 for the purpose of the
highest detail planning.
mass susceptibility maps represented in Fig 5.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Univariate analysis (x2)
of SMM occurrence by
classes within each of
the influence factor
Influence factors classes
ranging based upon
their influence on the
SMM occurrence
Values normalisation
within each influence
factor (0-1)
Fig 5: Conceptual model of
development
of general or
detailed slope
mass susceptibility maps.
Bad results
Testing of different
models developed on
the weighted sum
of influence factors
Selection of optimal
and most logical
susceptibility model
Field testing
s
ult
res
od
Go
Abb. 5:
Konzeptionelles
Modell für die
Entwicklung von
allgemeinen
oder detaillierten
Gefahrenhinweiskarten über
Hangbewegungen.
Development of
phenomenon
susceptibility map
For all influence factors included in the weighted
or discreet variable value. Final slope mass
sum model calculation, original values were
movements
transformed into the same scale, which ranged
is between 0 and 1) were classified into 6
from 0 – 1 to assure the equality of the input data.
susceptibility classes: 0 – Negligible (or None); 1
In other words, within each factor original values
– Insignificant (or Very Low); 2 – Low; 3 – Medium
were normalised with the eq. 1.
(or Moderate); 4 – High; 5 – Very High.
(RV - Min)
NVR =
,
Max - Min
eq. 1
susceptibility
values
(the
range
4. Conclusion
Where NVR represents new and normalised
Slope mass movement processes are specific in
value, and RV the old (nominal) value. Min and
their nature, hence separate analyses had to be
Max represent the minimum and maximum
performed and a different model development
original value within the factor, respectfully. For
had to be developed. In Slovenia, slope mass
the purpose of the development of the best and
movement
at the same time the most logical susceptibility
developed on national and on local level. In the
model, a weighted sum approach (Voogd, 1983)
case of the latter, which has an actual application,
was used (eq. 2).
value maps were developed only for some test
n
wj x fij
H=
eq. 2.
j=l
susceptibility
maps
have
been
areas. Thus several questions remain open and
∑
these are: when will the geohazard layer be
included as a compulsory part of the spatial
planning document, to what extent quality
relative
geological data will be used for the assessment,
phenomenon susceptibility (0 – 1), wj represents
and how the lack of detailed geological data
the factor weight, and fij represents a continuous
would be tackled.
Where
H
represents
standardised
Anschrift der Verfasser / Authors’ addresses:
Literatur / References:
Marko Komac
ALEXANDER, D.E., 2002.
Principles of emergency planning and management. Oxford University
Press, New York, 340 pp.
Dimiceva ulica 14
1000 Ljubljana
SI-Slovenia
[email protected]
Mateja Jemec
Dimiceva ulica 14
1000 Ljubljana
SI-Slovenia
[email protected]
BAVEC, M., BUDKOVIČ, T. AND KOMAC, M., 2005. Estimation of
geohazard induced by mass movement processes. The Bovec municipality
case study. Geologija, 48/2, 303-310.
BUDKOVIČ, T., 2002. Geo-hazard map of the municipality of Bovec.
Ujma, 16, 141-145.
KOMAC, M. 2005. Probabilistic model of slope mass movement
susceptibility - a case study of Bovec municipality, Slovenia. Geologija,
48/2, 311-340.
KOMAC, M., RIBIČIČ, M., 2006. Landslide susceptibility map of Slovenia
at scale 1:250,000. Geologija, 49/2, 295-309.
KOMAC, M., KUMELJ, Š. AND RIBIČIČ, M., 2009.
Debris-flow susceptibility model of Slovenia at scale 1: 250,000. Geologija,
52/1, 87-104.
SKABERNE, D., 2001.
Prispevek k slovenskemu izrazoslovju za pobočna premikanja. Ujma,
14–15, 454–458.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
KARL MAYER, ANDREAS VON POSCHINGER
Standards and Methods of Hazard Assessment for
Geological Dangers (Mass Movements) in Bavaria
Standards und Methoden zur Verminderung
von geologischen Gefährdungen durch
Massenbewegungen in Bayern
Zusammenfassung:
Informationen über geogene Gefährdungen (z.B. Steinschlag, Felsstürze, Rutschungen) sind
als GEORISK-Daten über das Bodeninformationssystem Bayern (BIS-BY) im Internet oder
Intranet abrufbar (www.bis.bayern.de). Dieses Informationssystem wird bereits von vielen
Fachstellen genutzt. Neben den Landkreisen sowie vielen Kommunen sind die Behörden der
Wasserwirtschaft, der Straßen- und Forstverwaltung sowie private Planer die Hauptnutzer. Im
BIS-BY ist bisher allerdings nur das Herkunftsgebiet von Gefährdungen dargestellt, nicht der
planungsrelevante Gefährdungsbereich. Dieser kann nur durch empirische oder numerische
Simulationen und Modellierungen abgegrenzt werden.
Die Gefahrenhinweiskarte gibt eine Übersicht über die Gefährdungssituation. Sie basiert
sowohl auf Modellrechnungen als auch auf empirischen Untersuchungen und wird mit dem
GEORISK-Ereigniskataster (BIS-BY) auf Plausibilität geprüft. Bezüglich der räumlichen Abgrenzung kann sie Ungenauigkeiten enthalten und die Gefährdung nicht in jedem Fall genau
wiedergeben. Die Gefahrenhinweiskarte hält für große Gebiete flächendeckend fest, wo
mit welchen Gefahren gerechnet werden muss. Daraus lassen sich mit geringem Aufwand
mögliche Konfliktstellen zwischen Gefahr und Nutzung ableiten. Die Gefahrenhinweiskarten
können einerseits in Flächennutzungspläne mit einfließen und dienen anderseits zur Prioritätensetzung beim Erarbeiten weitergehender Maßnahmen.
• Main data of the topic mass movements and
1. Introduction
Summary:
Information about geological hazards in the Bavarian Alps (e.g. rock falls, landslides) is
available in the Internet or intranet section Georisk of the Bodeninformationssystem Bayern
(BIS-BY) (www.bis.bayern.de). This information system is already used by a number of
departments such as district administrations, water and traffic management offices, forest
management as well as private users. By now the BIS-BY only shows the sites of origin of
geological hazards and not the whole endangered area, which would be relevant for land
use planning. This area, the so called process area, can only be defined by empirical or
numerical simulations and models.
A hazard map gives an overview of the situation. It is based on model calculations and
empirical analysis and can be verified by the Georisk-cadastre (BIS-BY). Concerning the
spatial extent of the process areas, possible inaccuracies may impair an exact expression
of the danger. The hazard map shows large areas where a special type of danger can be
assumed. Therefore, will be easier to deduce possible conflicts between hazards and land
use. Hazard maps can be included in the land development plan or can be used to assign
priorities while taking measures.
subrosion / karst with information about the
spatial positioning, about determination of
In Germany, geogenic natural hazards, such
coordinates, etc.
as mass movements, karstification, large scale
•Commonly shared technical data of the
flooding as well as ground subsidence and uplift
subject mass movements and subrosion /
affecting building ground, shall be recorded,
karst with information about the date
assessed and spatially represented using a common
of origin, about the land use and about
minimal standard in the future. For this purpose,
damage, etc.
the “Geohazards” team of engineering geologists
of the different German federal governmental
departments
of
geology
(SGD)
are
giving
•Specific technical data of the subject mass
movement and subrosion / karst
•Data concerning subsidence and uplift
recommendations on how to create a hazard map.
Computerized modelling increasingly allows
These recommendations of minimum requirements
the identification of hazard areas that have been
are directed at the employees of the SGD. An
verified using the landslide inventory or through
important component for developing hazard maps
evaluation of the results of field work. The
is the construction and evaluation of landslide
current emphasis in Germany is on hydrological
inventories (e.g. landslide or sinkhole inventories).
modelling of flood events that are used for
The recorded data in the inventories
water management issues in flood prevention.
should have a minimal nationwide standard and
Geotechnical modelling is used increasingly for
are divided into:
rock falls, avalanches and shallow landslides.
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2. Definition of a hazard map
3.2 Basis data for landslide modelling
4. Fall processes
clarification and assessment of given situations.
The federal geological surveys of Germany
Information about geological hazards such as
4.1 Minimum requirements in Germany
If necessary, in addition to the tools described
above, field studies will be needed for exact
In Alpine regions, natural hazards are
agreed on definitions for the terminology used
landslides, rock falls and earth falls, especially
a common phenomenon. Landslides, rock falls
for mapping of geological hazards (Personenkreis
in the densely populated areas in the Bavarian
In many states of Germany, only medium to long
and mudflows occur in the course of mountain
“Geogefahren” 2008) based on BUWAL (2005). A
Alps, is available in the section Georisk of
term, large-scale numeric modelling of rock
degradation that reflects the natural slope
hazard map gives a first overview of areas affected
the Bodeninformationssystem Bayern (BIS-BY,
fall hazards are possible using high resolution
instability of mountain areas. Landslides are mostly
by landslides (potentially endangered area) and
www.bis.bayern.de), a GIS-based inventory of
terrain models and specialised software. In the
triggered by extreme rainfall that will, according
can be a basis for the detection of conflicts of
Bavaria including numerous geological data. By
first stage, a “black and white map” is created
to climate scientists, become more relevant in
interests. By defining a most probable design
now (October 2010), about 4,500 landslide events
showing verified / potential rock fall areas derived
Alpine regions in particular (Umweltbundesamt
event and integrating it in the landslide modelling
have been detected and evaluated within the
from the landslide inventories and / or remote
2008). With an increase in heavy rainfall events
process, a hazard map also gives a qualitative
project area. Every event is described concerning
sensing (DEM). This map shows verified as well
an increase in landslide events must be expected.
statement about the probability of a landslide
its process type and dimension, the age and
as potential rock fall escarpments i.e. slopes with
With approximately 4450 km², the
event. The potential process areas of the expected
potential future trend of the landslide as well as
an inclination > 45° (in Alpine areas). The entire
Bavarian Alps cover about 6.3 % of Bavaria. The
landslides vary depending on the design event,
annotations about the source and the degree of
process area is, however, not depicted.
Bavarian Alps are the most important tourist region
the geological, topographical and morphological
information. Origin and accumulation zones of
of Bavaria and, therefore, of particular importance.
situation and the existence of forest. Modelling
landslides have been digitised and stored as well
the entire process area, is depicted. That means
Furthermore, they have a unique ecological value
parameters for rock fall and shallow landslide
as significant photos. With all of this the BIS-BY is
areas prone to rock falls due to the inclination, but
that has to be specially protected. Since it is more
simulations can be deduced and trivialised from
the most important source of information.
which are not confirmed. To define these areas,
and more difficult to ensure this protection by
comprehensive data.
estimated empiric angle methods or physical
structural activities, protective measures need
Generally the scale of a hazard map
of active areas that have been mapped by field
deterministic models can be used.
to be involved in the planning process and also
ranges from 1:10,000 to 1:50,000. Within this
work, aerial photo analysis and archive data for
allow sustainable and cost effective strategies.
project, despite the possibilities of the zoom
the main settlement areas. Within these maps
shadow angle and the geometric slope angle is
function of a GIS, the hazard map is produced for
landslides are classified into four levels of activity
applied. Both the shadow angle (e.g. 27°) as well
a scale of 1:25,000.
to give an indirect statement about the level of
as the geometric slope angle (e.g. 32°) can be
danger. These maps can be used to estimate the
used as the estimated angle (Mayer & Poschinger
extension of deep-seated landslides, for example.
2005). An angle of deflection from the vertical
slope can be used as a lateral boundary of the
The most effective and sustainable
method to prevent losses arising from hazardous
events is to avoid land use in the endangered
areas. In areas where construction already has
3. Material and methods
been established or where construction of new
infrastructure or buildings is unavoidable, it
3.1 Basis maps
is essential to determine areas endangered by
Also integrated in the BIS-BY are maps
Above all, results of two other projects
In the second stage, the run-out zone, i.e.
To determine rock fall escarpments, the
have been used: Within the project HANG
process area (e.g. 30°).
(historical analysis of alpine hazards), historical
In Bavaria this method is used for
geological hazards.
Essential data basis for modelling the hazard map
data of landslides have been evaluated and
huge rock masses. For single blocks, a physical
In May 2008, the Bavarian Environmental
is a high resolution digital elevation model (DEM)
digitised. Within the project EGAR (catchment
trajectory model from Zinggeler + GEOTEST is
Agency launched the project hazard map for the
derived from airborne laser scanning. The datasets
areas in alpine regions), the risk potential of
used (MAYER 2010).
Bavarian Alps. The aim of the project is to create
are used in different resolutions (1 m, 5 m, 10 m)
alpine torrents has been estimated analysing the
a hazard map for deep seated landslides, shallow
depending on the modelling approach. The
discharge and catchment potential.
landslides and rock fall areas for the whole of
vertical resolution is better +/- 0.3 m, except for
the Bavarian Alps. It will be finished during
very few areas where currently no laser scanning
December 2011.
data is available.
4.2 Modelling rock fall of single blocks (methods use in
Bavaria)
For the detection of potential starting zones of
rock falls, two empirical approaches can be
applied. In a first step, potential starting zones
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4.3 Modelling rock fall masses (Bavarian approach)
stored in the BIS-BY are extracted. These starting
by field work. As a result, a mean block size and
zones are detected by field work. In areas where
geometry that represents the most probable event
no information is available, an even more empiric
has been determined for every geological unit.
The trajectory model for rock fall (chapter 4.2)
decision for one global angle model can be
approach must be applied: it has to be assumed
This design event has been assigned to one of
calculates the reach of single blocks. For the run-
reached by the quotient of shadow angle tangent
that every slope steeper than 45° is a potential
four volume classes. For each of these classes the
out zone of larger rock fall volumes, an empirical
and geometrical slope tangent. If the quotient is
detachment zone (Wadge et al. 1993).
mean block mass has been calculated. The block
process model with a worst case approach is used.
below 0.88, the shadow angle has to be used.
mass of a geological unit is an input parameter for
Numerous papers (Lied 1977, Onofri & Canadian
Otherwise the geometrical slope angle is better
the simulation.
1979, Evans & Hungr 1993, Wieczorek et al. 1999,
suited to describe the maximum run-out zone
Fig. 1: Basic processes during rock fall simulation (Krummenacher et al. 2005).
Abb. 1: Schematische Darstellung der prinzipiellen Prozesse
der Steinschlagmodellierung (Krummenacher et al. 2005).
According to Meißl (1998) or Hegg &
The application of the different global
angles depends on slope morphology. A proper
The simulation of the block movement
Meißl 1998) show that a global angle method is an
(Mayer & von Poschinger 2005).
is carried out according to physical principles of
appropriate approach to determine the maximum
mechanics and is separated into falling, bouncing
run-out zone of rock fall. Two different global
with implemented functionalities of standard
and rolling (Fig. 1). The calculation is a succession
angles have been applied. The first and more
GIS programs. Within the project, the viewshed
of these processes with intermediate contacts to
important one is the shadow angle (β in Fig. 3). It is
function of Spatial Analyst in ArcGIS has been
underground and tree trunks.
defined as angle between the horizontal line and
employed. This function identifies all cells on
Global angles can easily be modelled
The loss of energy during tread mat
the connecting line from the block with maximum
a surface (DEM) that can be seen from selected
is controlled by deformability and surface
run out and the top of the talus. According to
observation points (Fig. 4). There are a number
roughness. These parameters have to be deduced
Evans & Hungr (1993) a shadow angle of 27°
of important attributes of every starting point
and trivialised from the basis data of the area to be
has been assumed. The other global angle is the
necessary for the modelling process: the vertical
investigated.
geometrical slope angle that spans between the
view angle, which is the predefined global angle
horizontal line and top of detachment zone (α in
(Fig. 3), the horizontal view angle that is defined
Fig. 3). A minimum geometrical slope angle of 30°
with 30°, as well as the aspect that can be
is presumed (Meißl 1998).
calculated out of the DEM.
Kienholz (1995) the process model can be divided
into two parts: the trajectory model calculating
the paths of the blocks as vectors and the friction
model calculating the energy along these paths
as well as the run-out length. In this project, the
vector based simulation model of Zinggeler &
GEOTEST (Krummenacher et al. 2005) is used.
Beside the topographical information derived from
the DEM, damping and friction characteristics of
the slope surface and the vegetation have to be
known. Furthermore it is very important to define
a design event for rock fall. That means that,
Fig. 2: 3D Trajectories with (red) and without (orange) the
protecting function of forest.
according to the geology, form and dimension of
Abb. 2: 3D Sturztrajektorien mit (rot) und ohne (orange)
Berücksichtigung der Schutzfunktion des Waldbestandes.
typical blocks have to be determined.
As the block dimension is the only
variable parameter within the simulation, it plays
The simulation has been run for two
an essential role in the calculation of the run- out
different scenarios. Within the first scenario, the
zone. To assess the design events, the starting zones
forest with the protecting function of the trees
already determined within the disposition model
has been considered. To simulate a worst-case
have been intersected with the geological map.
scenario, the forest has not been included in the
The affected geological units have been checked
second scenario.
Fig. 3: Global angle models: shadow angle (β) and geometrical slope angle (α) (Meißl 1998, modified).
Abb. 3: Pauschalgefällemodelle: Schattenwinkel (β) und Geometrisches Gefälle (α), verändert nach Meißl (1998).
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To identify of hazard areas, only important rock
potential
demonstrated that deep-seated landslides mostly
more related to water-related hazards and for this
fall areas with evidence of activity have been
landslide areas are determined in addition to
occur in areas already affected by landslides
reason not explained here in detail.
processed. Due to long-lasting field work, there
the verified landslide areas. That means areas
in the past. For this reason they can be used as
is an excellent overview of the situation within
prone to landslides due to the geological and
design events. To detect these areas, information
in the same way as the slide processes. The
the densely populated areas in the Bavarian Alps.
morphological situation and the land use (were
about known landslides, extracted from the
process occurring in the run-out zone of shallow
Beyond those areas it is assumed that all important
landslides have not yet taken place). These areas
databases listed in chapter 3.2 has to be evaluated.
landslides is also mostly a flow process. To estimate
rock fall areas are known. To start the modelling
can be found by using empirical methods due to
Permanent activity or more or less recurrent
this process as disposition model in Bavaria, the
process, first the global angle approach has to be
the geological and morphological circumstances
reactivation likely produces enlargement of the
physical computer model SLIDISP is used. To find
chosen (shadow angle or geometrical angle). After
and the land usage; alternatively / additionally:
landslide area identified in the disposition model,
the run-out zones and to simulate the process, the
digitizing the starting points and determination of
Visualisation of semi-automatically derived areas
both the detachment and run-out zone upward
model SLIDEPOT (GEOTEST) is applied.
necessary attributes, the viewshed modelling with
(cross-over between DEM / geological entity); e.g.
and downward.
ArcGIS can be executed.
using an additional signature
5. Slide processes
5.1 Minimum requirements in Germany
In
the
second
stage,
Since a numeric modelling of deep seated
The deep-seated landslides are handled
6.2 Modelling shallow landslides (methods used in Bavaria)
The distinction between shallow and
landslides is not available for a regional scale, the
deep-seated slides is optional when visualising
determination of the potential process area has
Shallow landslides are usually triggered by heavy
the hazard map. Near-surface landslides of
to be worked out with empirical methods, taking
rainfall, depending on the predisposition of the
a small volume (shallow slides) are either
into account the local geology and morphology.
slope. Like the rock fall simulation, the modelling
separately determined using above procedure or
Under extreme conditions, the process
of shallow landslides is carried out in two steps.
In the first stage, landslide inventories, e.g. all
are displayed simultaneously alongside the deep-
area can reach the next ridge, terrace or depression
The starting zones are calculated in the disposition
registered objects and the associated near-surface
seated slides.
in the greater surroundings of the landslide. In the
model and the run-out zones are calculated in the
case of small-scaled scars in smooth slopes, a margin
process model.
means affected by definite indications of active
5.2 Modelling deep seated landslides
of 20 – 30 m has been added to the detachment
and inactive landslides and landslides that have
(methods used in Bavaria)
areas to assess the potential process area.
deterministic numerical model SLIDISP (Liener
To determine the potential run out of an
2000 and GEOTEST AG) is used. This assumes an
processes, should be visually displayed. That
already occurred (reactivation or enlargement of
For
the
disposition
model,
the
the landslide area is possible). The areas can be
Deep-seated landslides are mostly result of the
active or reactivable landslide, the present run-
above average precipitation for a certain area. The
found using mapping (registers) or remote sensing
activation of predefined failure zones, i.e. by
out length has been determined by databases,
Infinite-Slope-Analysis is applied to calculate the
(DEM) methods.
long lasting rainfall. Experience shows that they
hillshades and field work in a first step. If there are
slope stability for every raster cell. Fundamental
can range from about 5 m up to more than 100
indications for active movements in the landslide
basic data are the slope angle, derived from the DEM
m in depth. To identify areas endangered by deep
toe, it is assumed that the run-out length will
from which the thickness of soil will be deduced
seated landslides, two different approaches have
proceed even further in case of a reactivation. The
and the geology which allows to determine friction
been applied. On the one hand, areas showing
danger area has to be dimensioned according to
angle and cohesion as geotechnical parameters.
evidence of previous deep-seated landslides, with
geomorphologic conditions.
The factor of safety F will be calculated for every
either ongoing activity or a clear probability of
reactivation, have been evaluated. On the other
raster cell to describe the ratio of retentive and
6. Flow processes
hand, the terrain has been evaluated concerning
an
increased
susceptibility
for
deep-seated
6.1. General approach
landslides.
Fig. 4: The viewshed function identifies all raster locations to
be seen from appointed starting points with defined global
angle.
Abb. 4: Die Viewshed-Funktion ermittelt alle Bereiche, die
von festgelegten Startpunkten mit einem definierten Vertikalund Horizontalwinkel gesehen werden.
impulsive forces (Fig. 5, Selby 1993).
The natural range in the variation of
different input parameters will be considered
using
a
Monte-Carlo-Simulation.
For
every
The locality of the origin of danger (areas
The procedure and depiction of flow processes
raster cell, the number of instable cases will be
showing a higher probability for the development
like deep-seated landslides (Talzuschub) is similar
determined. The higher the number of instabilities
of a deep seated landslide) has been identified
to the method used for slide processes. Flow
the higher is the probability of slope failure.
within the previously cited disposition model.
processes rarely occur in low mountain ranges.
Since the occurrence of forest affects the stability
In the German Alpine area, debris flows are
in an enormous way, the root strength will be
Previous experiences and analysis have
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
influences on karstification, can be noted in an
additional category. Optionally, a differentiation
between
carbonate,
sulphate
and
chloride
karstification can be implemented in the first or
second stage of the hazard map. If the information
is available in individual states, the spread of the
inner and outer salt slopes as well as intact salt
domes should be entered into the hazard map.
8. Discussion
The hazard map has been worked out for a regional
scale (1:25,000). Therefore the boundaries of the
hazard areas are not sharply bounded lines and
Fig. 6: Calculation of accumulation: for the central cell with
exposition of 210° –230°, the 20° sector identifies 3 cells
that are either starting zones or already show accumulation
(orange cells).
Fig. 5: Principle for the calculation of the factor of safety F for every raster cell (Selby 1993).
Abb. 6: Berechnung der Auslaufbereiche: Für die Rasterzelle
in der Mitte mit der Zellexposition 210°–230° wurden
drei Rasterzellen im Sektor von 20° ermittelt, die sowohl
Anbruchzone als auch Auslaufbereich sind (orange Rasterzellen).
Abb. 5: Grundlagen zur Berechnung des Sicherheitsgrades F einer Rasterzelle (Selby 1993).
a detailed view on particular areas or objects is
not allowed. In addition, the modelling of the
different processes can make no claim to be
complete. The maps show potentially endangered
areas that have been determined on the basis of
available information and that has been computed
integrated in the calculation of the factor of safety
angle. The expansion stops if a defined number
as an additional parameter. Considering the root
of expansion steps is achieved or if the calculated
strength and its effect on soil stability it is possible
value falls below a defined threshold.
Geological map, event register or remote sensing
into the models.
to simulate two scenarios with different intensities
The run-out zones will be calculated for
(e.g. DEM) methods. In the first stage, superficial
of the “root effect” (high and low).
both scenarios. In both cases, a maximum of 8
or near-surface subrosion features (e.g. sinkholes,
been considered. Instead, frequently occurring
Verified karstification features from the
with modern numerical models. Anthropogenic
preventive measures have not been introduced
Improbable and extreme events have not
To calculate the run-out zones. the
expansion steps have been calculated while the
depressions, clefts) are visualised. There is
events have been modelled since they are more
raster-based model SLIDEPOT is used (GEOTEST
degradation factor has been reduced in the forest.
no differentiation between fossil and current
representative and felt more as a risk. From a
AG). For every raster cell in the starting zone,
Because of uncertainties concerning complex
subrosion features. The second stage includes
geological view, rare and extreme events have
the accumulation will be modelled in the flow
edge conditions, the degradation factors have
the visualisation of the dispersion of karstifiable
to be accounted as an unavoidable residual and
direction. The model is based on neighbourhood
been defined quite pessimistically. With this the
sediments. Hazard fields can be derived using
remaining risk.
statistics. Above a potential accumulation cell, the
run-out zones are large enough and rather too
a point or area statistical evaluation (e.g. using
raster cells inside a 20° sector will be analysed
large in the case of doubt.
the feature density or a raster based density
blocks and rock fall masses and deep-seated
calculation), as well as using influencing factors,
landslides are based on field work for the most
such as geology, tectonics and hydrogeology.
part. On the contrary, the hazard areas of shallow
(Fig. 6). Accumulation will be calculated if there
is a starting zone and if the topography in the
7. Subrosion / karstification
The hazard maps for rock fall of single
The result of the second stage determines
landslides are solely based on computer models
expansion will analyse the neighbourhood up to a
Superficial or near-surface subrosion features
the differentiation of hazard areas. Where
and represent a typical susceptibility map.
defined distance (4 cells; red circle in Fig. 6). With
(sinkholes) and the knowledge of subrodable
applicable, the hazard areas can be coupled
Therefore, they are presented as hatched areas.
every step, the hypothetical starting volume and
sediments serve as criteria for the analysis of
with general geotechnical recommendations as
In the field, witnesses of former traces of shallow
the rest volume will be reduced by a degradation
a process area. In the first stage, the following
to construction work in karst landscapes. Special
landslides are hard to find due to weathering.
factor, which depends foremost on the slope
hazard areas are distinguished:
conditions in individual states, e.g. mining
However, if the predicted consequences of
sector named above is not convex. Every step of
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
climate change with an increase in extreme
To help potential users interpret the
rainfalls will come true, an increasing number of
hazard map, the results are presented to all
shallow landslides must be taken into account.
authorities. Furthermore, an intensive cooperation
Climate change predictions could be
with the Bavarian Environment Agency is offered.
implemented in the model if maps with predicted
In addition, a limited version of the hazard map is
precipitation on a local scale were available.
published on the Internet (www.bis.bayern.de).
This would allow the identification of hot spots
with heavy rainfall and, therefore, a higher
only region affected by geological hazards. The
susceptibility for landslides. The identification of
Alpine foothills and the Swabian-Franconian
such hot spots is one target in the Alpine Space
Jurassic-mountains are affected as well. For the
Programme project AdaptAlp that also focuses
mid-term, the goal is to develop hazard maps for
on evaluation, harmonizing and improvement of
the whole of Bavaria.
But the Alpine part of Bavaria is not the
different methods for hazard mapping.
9. Conclusions
Anschrift der Verfasser / Authors’ addresses:
A hazard map is a very helpful tool for planning
Karl Mayer
authorities to get an overview about land use
Bavarian Environment Agency (LfU)
conflicts and potentially endangered areas. It is
(Office Munich)
a general map created under objective scientific
Lazarettstraße 67
criteria and indicating geological hazards that
80636 Munich – GERMANY
have been identified and localized but not
analysed and evaluated in detail. A hazard map
Andreas von Poschinger
does not contain specifications about the degree
Bavarian Environment Agency (LfU)
of hazard or the intensity or probability of an
(Office Munich)
event.
Lazarettstraße 67
The map will be provided to local and
80636 Munich – GERMANY
regional planning authorities for water, traffic,
and forest management. It helps the planner
identify hot spots and make decisions concerning
Literatur / References:
measures of protection. On the other hand, it also
shows areas not endangered and free for planning.
In critical cases, the hazard map has
to disclose the requirement for further analysis.
In this cases a detailed expertise analysis has
to decide if measures are technically feasible,
economically reasonable and under sustainable
aspects really necessary.
BUNDESAMT
FÜR RAUMENTWICKLUNG, BUNDESAMT FÜR
WASSER UND GEOLOGIE, BUNDESAMT FÜR UMWELT, WALD UND
LANDSCHAFT (BUWAL) [eds.] (2005):
Empfehlungen Raumplanung und Naturgefahren. – 50 p., Bern.
EVANS, S. G. & HUNGR, O. (1993):
The assessment of rock fall hazards at the base of talus slopes. – Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 30 (4): 620-636, Ottawa (Nat. Res. Council of
Canada).
HEGG, C. & KIENHOLZ, H. (1995):
Deterministic paths of gravity-driven slope processes: The „Vector Tree
Model“. In: Carrara, A. & Guzzetti, F. (eds.): Geographical Information
Systems in Assessing Natural Hazards, 79 – 92, Dordrecht.
KIENHOLZ, H., ERISMANN, TH., FIEBIGER, G. & MANI, P. (1993):
Naturgefahren: Prozesse, Kartographische Darstellung und Maßnahmen.
– In: Tagungsbericht zum 48. Deutschen Geographentag in Basel, 293 –
312, Stuttgart.
MEISSL, G. (1998):
Modellierung der Reichweite von Felsstürzen. – In: Innsbrucker
Geographische Studien, 28: 249 p., Innsbruck (Selbstverl. des Instituts für
Geographie der Universität Innsbruck).
KRUMMENACHER, B., PFEIFER, R., TOBLER, D., KEUSEN, H. R., LINIGER,
M. & ZINGGELER, A. (2005):
Modellierung von Stein- und Blockschlag; Berechnung der Trajektorien auf
Profilen und im 3-D Raum unter Berücksichtigung von Waldbestand und
Hindernissen. – anlässlich Fan-Forum ETH Zürich am 18.02.2005, 9 p.,
Zollikofen.
ONOFRI, R. & CANDIAN, C. (1979):
Indagine sui limiti di massima invasione dei blocchi franati durante il sisma
del Friuli del 1976. – Regione Autonoma Friuli-Venezia Giulia e Università
degli Studi di Trieste, 41 p., Trieste (Cluet Publisher).
LIED, K. (1977):
Rockfall problems in Norway. – In: Istituto Sperimentale Modelli e Strutture
(ISMES), 90: 51-53, Bergamo.
LIENER, S., (2000):
Zur Feststofflieferung in Wildbächen. Geographisches Institut Universität
Bern. Geographica Bernensia G64, Bern.
MAYER, K. & VON POSCHINGER, A. VON (2005):
Final Report and Guidelines: Mitigation of Hydro-Geological Risk in Alpine
Catchments, “CatchRisk”. Work Package 2: Landslide hazard assessment
(Rockfall modelling). Program Interreg IIIb – Alpine Space.
MAYER, K., PATULA, S., KRAPP, M., LEPPIG, B., THOM, P., POSCHINGER,
A. VON (2010):
Danger Map for the Bavarian Alps. Z. dt. Ges. Geowiss., 161/2, p. 119-128,
10 figs. Stuttgart, June 2010
PERSONENKREIS “GEOGEFAHREN“ (2008):
Geogene Naturgefahren in Deutschland – Empfehlungen der Staatlichen
Geologischen Dienste (SGD) zur Erstellung von Gefahrenhinweiskarten;
not published.
SELBY, M.J. (1993):
Hillslope Materials and Processes, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
UMWELTBUNDESAMT [eds.] (2008):
Klimaauswirkungen und Anpassung in Deutschland – Phase 1: Erstellung
regionaler Klimaszenarien für Deutschland. – http://www.umweltdaten.de/
publikationen/fpdf-l/3513.pdf
WADGE, G., WISLOCKI, A.P. & PEARSON, E.J. (1993):
Spatial analysis in GIS for natural hazard assessment. In: Goodchild, M.F.,
Parks B.O. & Steyaert, L.T. (Hrsg.) – Environmental modelling with GIS:
332-338, New York, Oxford.
WIECZOREK, F. G., MORRISSEY, M. M., IOVINE, G. & GODT, J. (1999):
Rockfall Potential in the Yosemite Valley, California. – In: U.S. Geological
Survey Open-File Report 99-0578, http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1999/ofr-990578/.
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DIDIER RICHARD
Standards and Methods of Hazard Assessment
for Rapid Mass Movements in France
Standards und Methoden der Gefährdungsanalyse
für schnelle Massenbewegungen in Frankreich
Summary:
Hazard assessment is required for different purposes and is carried out through expertise
assessments at different levels, using various approaches. Hazard assessment and mapping
methods are standardized at least for their use in the frame of land-use planning in what is
called the plan for the prevention of natural hazards (plan de prévention des risques naturels
prévisibles, PPR). This is one of the main instruments used by the French national authorities
for preventing natural hazards while taking them into account in land use development.
Within this procedure, a general methodological guidelines document and other
documents specific to the different types of hazards specify the conditions and clarify the
method and approach proposed to draw up the PPR. One of these documents is dedicated
to mass movement hazards. In this procedure, the hazard map is an intermediate step in
elaborating the risk map, i.e. the regulations stemming from the PPR (together with the
associated regulations).
Various types of information available and databases can be used for hazard
assessment and hazard mapping, based on an inventory of phenomena and a back-analysis
of current and past events.
Hazard assessment must characterize a given hazard in terms of intensity and
frequency of occurrence. For mass movements, specific approaches are proposed, given the
specific characteristics of these phenomena.
dung im Rahmen der Flächennutzungsplanung standardisiert: Der Plan für die Verhinderung
von Naturgefahren (plan de prévention des risques naturels prévisibles, PPR) ist eines der
wichtigsten Mittel der französischen nationalen Behörden für die Vermeidung natürlicher
Gefahren und findet in der Flächennutzungsplanung Berücksichtigung.
Im Rahmen dieses Verfahrens beschreiben allgemeine methodologische Richtlinien
und andere, für die verschiedenen Arten von Gefahren spezifische Dokumente die Bedingungen und geben Aufschluss über die empfohlenen Methoden und Ansätze zum Erstellen
des PPR. Eines dieser Dokumente befasst sich mit den durch Massenbewegungen verursachten Gefahren. In diesem Verfahren ist der Gefahrenzonenplan ein Zwischenschritt in
der Erstellung des Risikoplans, d.h., die Vorgaben stammen vom PPR (gemeinsam mit den
zugehörigen Bestimmungen).
Für die Erstellung von Gefährdungsanalysen und die Gefahrenzonenplanung (Gefahrenkartierung) stehen – beruhend auf einem Bestand von Phänomenen und einer Analyse
aktueller und vergangener Ereignisse – verschiedene Arten von Informationen und Datenbanken zur Verfügung.
Gefährdungsanalysen müssen eine gegebene Gefahr in Bezug auf die Intensität und
Häufigkeit des Auftretens beschreiben. Für Massenbewegungen sind spezifische Ansätze
empfohlen, welche die spezifischen Merkmale dieser Erscheinungen berücksichtigen.
of territorial coherence at an inter-urban scale and
Introduction
local urban planning at the community scale.
Typically, urban planning procedures
Hazard assessment of rapid mass movements
and decisions, under the jurisdiction of national or
is required for different purposes than for other
local authorities, must integrate natural hazards.
natural phenomena. Depending on the objectives,
The plan for prevention of natural hazards (plan de
this must be carried out at different scales. Hazard
prévention des risques naturels prévisibles - PPR)
assessment can also take different forms, but
established by the law of February 2, 1995, is now
most often its final outcome is a hazard map.
one of the national authority’s main instruments
Different types of expertise from various experts
for preventing natural hazards. The PPR is a
and approaches contribute to hazard assessment.
specific procedure designed to take into account
Therefore, establishing standardized approaches,
natural hazards in land-use development.
methods and tools is demanding. The field of land-
use planning, however, integrates standardized
of the department’s prefect, which approves it
hazard assessment and mapping methods.
after formal consultation with municipalities and
The PPR is elaborated under the authority
a public inquiry. The PPR involves the local and
Zusammenfassung:
Gefahrenbeurteilungen sind für verschiedene Zwecke erforderlich und werden in Form von
fachlichen Gutachten auf unterschiedlichen Ebenen anhand verschiedener Ansätze vorgenommen. Gefährdungsbeurteilung und Kartierungsmethoden sind zumindest für die Verwen-
Hazards mapping and land-use planning
regional authorities concerned from the very first
steps of its preparation (Fig. 1). It can cover one
Natural hazards must be taken into account in land-
or several types of hazards and one or several
use planning documents. These are mainly schemes
municipalities.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
craft, commercial or industrial activity, for their
are exposed to various phenomena stemming
completion, use or exploitation and requirements
from the instability of slopes and cliffs (collapses,
of any kind can be used, up to total prohibition.
rock falls, landslides).
The PPR may also define general preventive,
protection and safety measures that must be
of the gravitational movement of ground masses
Fig. 1: PPR
elaboration
scheme (Source: V.
Boudières; 2008)
taken into account by communities as well as
destabilized under the influence of natural
individuals. This option particularly concerns
solicitations (snow melting, abnormally heavy
measures relating to the safety of persons and the
rainfall, an earthquake, etc.) or human activities
Abb. 1: Programm
zur Ausarbeitung
eines PPR (Quelle:
V. Boudières; 2008)
organization of rescue operations as well as all
(excavation, vibration, deforestation, exploitation
general measures that are not specifically related
of materials or groundwater, etc.).
to a particular project.
Finally, the PPR may take an interest
the multiplicity of triggering mechanisms (erosion,
in existing structures as well as new projects.
dissolution, deformation and collapse under
However, for property construction that has been
static or dynamic load), themselves related to the
allowed in the past, only limited improvements
complexity of the geotechnical behaviour of the
whose cost is less than 10% of the market or
materials (geologic structure, geometry of the
fracture networks, groundwater characteristics, etc.)
Mass movements are demonstrations
They vary greatly in form, resulting from
For areas exposed to greater hazards, the PPR is
applied when the safety of persons is involved.
estimated value of the property can be required.
a document which informs the public on zones
In other cases, this principle remains particularly
that expose populations and property to hazards.
warranted by the cost of preventive measures to
tool of the French national authorities’ natural
According to the velocity of movement, two
It regulates land use, taking into account natural
reduce the vulnerability of future constructions
hazards prevention action – other procedures
groups can be distinguished:
hazards identified in this zone and goals of
and the cost of compensation in cases of
and tools are designed to provide preventive
• Slow movements, for which the deformation
nonaggravation of risks. This regulation extends
disaster, financed by society. However, since
information that must be provided to inhabitants
is progressive and can be accompanied by
from authorising construction under certain
the prevention objectives are then based on
possibly exposed to hazards (information tools:
collapse but in principle without sudden
conditions to prohibiting construction in cases
economic considerations, it is possible to discuss
DDRM, DCS, DICRIM, IAL, etc.) as well as
acceleration:
where the foreseeable intensity of hazard or the
the limits of prohibitions and requirements with
measures relating to the safety of persons and the
nonaggravation of existing risks warrants such
local actors, elected officials and economic and
organization of rescue operations that must be
to changes in natural or artificial
action. This guides development choices on less
consumer representatives without departing from
taken into account by communities and private
subterranean cavities (quarries or mines);
exposed land in order to reduce harm and damage
this principle. Adjustments can be accepted when
individuals (safety measures plan: PCS). These
Compaction by shrinkage of clayey
to persons and property.
the situation does not allow alternatives. For
procedures are mandatory for the municipalities
grounds and by consolidation of certain
The PPR is designed for urban planning
example in urban centres, where requirements
with an existing PPR. Danger studies are also
compressible grounds (muck, peat);
and is incumbent on everybody: individuals,
to reduce the vulnerability of projects and
mandatory for certain classes of hydraulic works
Creep of plastic materials on low slopes;
companies,
preventive,
measures
(new regulations for dams and dikes). Adequate
Landslides, i.e. a mass movement along
authorities, especially when delivering building
allowing the organization of emergency services
hazard assessment (and mapping) is of course also
a flat, curved or complex discontinuity
permits. It must therefore be annexed to
will be set up.
necessary for all these prevention tools.
surface of cohesive grounds (marls and
the local urban planning plan when such a
document exists.
directly at risk, but also in other zones that are
communities
and
government
protection
and
safety
As a complement to the PPR – the central
Ground
subsidence
consecutive
clays);
The PPR may operate in zones that are
Rapid mass movements
Shrinkage or swelling of certain clayey
materials depending on their moisture
The basis for the regulation of projects
not in order to avoid aggravating existing risks
in the perimeter of a PPR is to discontinue
or causing new ones. It regulates projects for
Approximately 7,000 French municipalities are
development in areas with the greatest hazard
new installations. It may prohibit or impose
threatened by mass movements, one-third of
•Rapid movements which can be split into
and, therefore, to prohibit land development
requirements on any type of construction,
which can be highly dangerous for the population.
two groups, according to the propagation
and construction. This principle must be strictly
structure, development or any farming, forestry,
Most of these towns, located in mountain regions,
mode of materials:
content.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
The first group includes:
Standards and methods
Subsidence resulting from the sudden
sinking, collapse, rock falls, landslides, and
The regulations define the conditions
associated mud flows, but it excludes debris flows
required
in general.
prevention, protection and safety measures
for
carrying
out
projects,
collapse of the top of natural or artificial
In
subterranean cavities, without damping
organization, certain activities and policies remain
The general guide, published in August
that must be taken by individuals or
by the surface layers;
the jurisdiction of centralised authorities, such as
1997, presents the PPR, specifies how it should
communities, but also measures applicable
Rock falls resulting from the mechanical
the policy for natural risk prevention, overseen by
be drawn up and tries to answer the numerous
alteration of fractured cliffs or rocky
the Ministry of the Environment. This is probably
questions that may arise for their implementation.
The regulatory zoning of the PPR is based on
scarps (volumes ranging from 1 dm3 to
one of the most significant differences compared
The other guidelines, such as the one dedicated
risk assessment, which depends on the analysis
10 or 10 m );
with other Alpine countries. One consequence
to mass movements, clarify the method and
of the natural phenomena that may occur and
is the willingness to maintain a minimum
approach proposed for the various types of risks.
of their possible consequences in terms of land
homogeneity and coherence at the national level
The general methodology establishes that the PPR
use and public safety. This analysis includes four
and in the way different types of natural hazards
is composed of:
preliminary stages:
4
5
3
Some rock slides.
The second group includes:
Debris flows, which result from the
France’s
administrative
and
institutional
are treated.
•
a presentation
report
explaining
the
transport of materials or viscous or fluid
Within the framework of this common
analysis of the phenomena considered
to existing property and activities.
•Determination of the risk basin and the
study perimeter;
mixtures in the bed of mountain streams;
procedure, a general methodological guidelines
and the study of their impacts on people
• Knowledge of the historic and active natural
Mud flows, which generally result from
document has been published, followed by others
and existing or future property. This report
phenomena: inventory and description;
the evolution of landslide fronts. Their
specific to the different types of hazards: floods,
explains the choices made for prevention,
•Hazard qualification: characterization of
propagation mode is intermediate between
forest fires, earthquakes, snow avalanches (to be
stating the principles the PPR is based on
natural phenomena which can arise within
mass movement and fluid or viscous
approved), torrential floods (to be approved)…
and commenting the regulations adopted.
the study perimeter;
transport.
One of these guideline documents is dedicated
•a regulatory map at a scale generally
to geological hazards, including subsidence,
between 1:10,000 and 1:5,000, which
•
Evaluation of the socioeconomic and
human stakes subjected to these hazards.
delineates areas controlled by the PPR.
The elaboration of the PPR generally begins
These are risk-prone areas but also areas
with the historical analysis of the main natural
where development could aggravate the
phenomena that have affected the studied
risks or produce new sources of risk.
territory. This analysis, possibly supplemented
•regulations applied to each of these areas.
by expert advice on potential hazards, results
Fig. 2: The PPR
methodological
guidelines collection
Abb. 2: Die
Sammlung methodologischer
Richtlinien für
einen PPR
Fig. 3: Positioning of the
hazard map within the
general procedure of PPR
elaboration
Abb. 3: Positionierung des
Gefahrenzonenplans in der
allgemeinen Ausarbeitungsphase eines PPR
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
in a hazard map that evaluates the scope of
and field surveys. Priority must be given to these
predictable phenomena. This map, including an
elements, as stipulated by article 3 of the decree
analysis of the territory outcomes carried out in
of October 5th, 1995, which specifies that the
consultation with the various local partners, is
elaboration of PPR takes into account the current
the basis for reflection during the elaboration
state of knowledge.
of the PPR. Combining the levels of hazard and
The main information sources are:
•Municipal archives (technical documents,
outcomes allows defining risk zones.
Therefore, in this procedure the hazard
deliberations, miscellaneous documents,
map is an intermediate step necessary to elaborate
petitions, general reports or accident
the risk map, i.e. the real regulatory outcome of
reports, etc.);
the PPR (together with the associated regulations).
•Parochial archives;
The study of phenomena by risk basin produces
•Departmental sources (archive and quarry
the hazard map, which is combined with the
services, miscellaneous diagnoses, etc.);
identification of elements at risk in drawing up the
•Engineering consulting firm documents
Fig. 5:
Geological
maps and
databases
(www.
brgm.fr)
Abb. 5:
Geologische
Karten und
Datenbanken (www.
brgm.fr)
(geotechnical and geological reports, civil
risk map.
engineering studies and reports, field visit
Data and information
reports, etc.);
•General and research documents (scientific
papers, geological guides, monographs,
The first step in elaborating hazard maps consists
PhD theses, etc.);
of collecting all available data and information
that can be exploited for hazard assessment.
•Field surveys and eye witness accounts;
Priority is given to the qualitative general studies
•
Existing
databases
and
maps,
aerial
photographs.
and to the back-analysis of past events. The
general studies are conducted based on existing
Historical and existing studies as well as field
data, the back-analysis of past or current events
investigations are collected for the study of the
Study of phenomena
by risk basin
Identification of
elements at risk
Historical and existing
studies, field investigation
Available maps and data bases
Informative map of
natural phenomena
Elements at risk
appreciation
Regulatory
documents
Risk Prevention
Plan (PPR)
Hazard map
Necessary information and consultation
Risk management
Annexation as
servitude in the PLU
Fig. 4:
The first
step of
hazard
mapping
Abb. 4:
Der erste
Schritt
der
Gefahrenzonenplanung
Fig. 6:
Example of
a ZERMOS
map
Abb. 6:
Beispiel
eines
ZERMOSPlans
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Intensity level
Low
Medium
Fig. 7: The
BDMVT,
French
database
of mass
movements
(www.
bdmvt.net)
Abb. 7:
BDMVT
– französische Datenbank für
Massenbewegungen
(www.
bdmvt.net)
Coutermeasures importance level
Can be financed by an individual owner
Can be financed by a limited group of owners
High
Concerns a spatial area larger than the individual
ownership scale and/or very higth cost and/or technically
difficult
Major
No possible technical countermeasure
Only a few cases in France (Séchilienne, la Clapière...)
Fig. 8: Example of relationships proposed between the importance of countermeasures and intensity level
Abb. 8: Beispiel der empfohlenen Beziehungen zwischen der Bedeutung der Gegenmaßnahmen und der Intensitätsstufe
implement. Different classes of intensity can
In most cases, the occurrence probability is not
be identified if these measures remain within
a true probability, but is simply a scale of relative
the domain of an individual owner or a group
susceptibility, relying on elements such as slope
of owners or if they require community
angle, lithology, fracturing of the rock mass,
intervention and investment (Fig. 8).
presence of water, etc.
Geological hazard qualification is based on
The hazard is graded by combining the
phenomena step. Maps and databases are available
it is difficult to directly translate their physical
qualitative criteria, such as the observed or expected
time occurrence and the intensity, typically in a
for this work: geological maps at a 1:50,000 scale,
characteristics in terms of intensity, except by
damage or impacts or the cost range of possible
2D table (Fig. 10). There is no general specification
covering France (Fig. 5 - www.brgm.fr); a few
defining as many hazards as movement types,
countermeasures for the intensity evaluation.
for this stage of the hazard evaluation, but
Zermos maps (Fig. 6) of zones exposed to soil
which would make the hazard zoning document
presenting the key of the hazard evaluation is
movement hazards, a combination of susceptibility
difficult to read. It is therefore necessary to refer to
the basis of the historical events identified on
strongly recommended.
levels and geomorphologic features, which are
more global criteria so they can be compared and
the site. The reference hazard is the most severe
quite old and not exhaustive; a French database
their use for regulatory zoning facilitated.
potential events considered by the expert as likely
and
of mass movements (Fig. 7 - www.bdmvt.net);
Different methods are possible to assess a
to occur in a 100-year period (or more frequently
tools specifying the spatial extension of the
and an events database of the RTM services that
representative intensity level for all phenomena:
if human lives are concerned), or the most severe
phenomena, thus reducing uncertainty, can be
historical event identified on an equivalent site.
used: run-out modelling for rock falls, geophysics
translated in terms of potential for damage,
The probabilistic approach based on
surveys delineating underground mines, etc. In
using parameters such as the volume of
a frequency analysis is possible only for some
case of rock falls and related phenomena, hazard
soil or rock involved, the depth of the
phenomena such as rock falls. This assumes that
evaluation includes both the stability analysis
Hazard evaluation includes three components:
failure surface, the final displacement,
sufficient data are available, which is actually
of rock masses and run-out distance evaluation.
the intensity of mass movements, the time of
the kinetic energy, etc. However, damage
rare. As most mass movements are not repetitive
Numerical tools are increasingly used to estimate
occurrence and the spatial extension. Once
potential depends not only on the physical
processes, contrary to earthquakes or floods, it is
the maximal run-out distance, but the reliability of
translated into regulatory zoning, the information
phenomenon, but also on the vulnerability
necessary to consider a probability of occurrence
the results is highly dependent on the experience
of buildings, which introduces a bias.
will soon be on line.
Hazard assessment
•
As for earthquakes, intensity can be
The frequency of events is estimated on
In the presence of substantial human
socioeconomic
danger,
methods
and
of an event qualitatively over a given period (e.g.
of the engineering geologist.
plan land development and construction works.
•Intensity can be assessed according to
50 or 100 years), without reference to numerical
Hazards are thus qualified in terms of intensity.
the importance and the cost of protection
values. For instance, three levels or probabilities
the IGN (National Geographic Institute) 1:25,000
Considering the variety of mass movements,
measures that would be necessary to
may be used: low, medium and high.
map, enlarged to 1:10,000. In presence of
contained in this map will be used to manage and
Generally, the topographic basis used is
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
Methods assessing hazards for rapid mass
Jean-Louis
movements are still mostly empirical and rely
l'environnement et du développement durable.
on the experience of the engineering geologist.
Alison Evans, Service de Restauration des Terrains
The PPR guidelines give a general framework
en Montagne de Haute-Savoie.
Durville,
Conseil
général
de
and general principles for hazard assessment and
mapping. Precise rules are not yet available at the
The person to contact for more information on this
national level. The geological analysis remains the
policy within the French Ministry of Sustainable-
basis of hazard evaluation, but numerical tools as
development,
GIS and computer simulation are also used. The
[email protected]).
is
François
Hédou
(Francois.
main requirement is that the method used should
be explained.
Literatur / References:
Anschrift des Verfassers / Author’s address:
Didier Richard
Fig. 9: Decision process for assessing the reference hazard
Abb. 9: Entscheidungsprozess zur Bewertung der Bezugsgefährdung
WEBSITE OF THE FRENCH MINISTRY IN CHARGE OF RISK PREVENTION
POLICY: http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/
“érosion torrentielle, neige et avalanches”
FRENCH MASS MOVEMENTS DATABASE: http://www.bdmvt.net/
substantial damage potential or if the precision
or Séchilienne (Isère), involving more than 10
Tel. : +33 4 76 76 27 73
of the study and the amount of available data
million cubic metres of material, ad hoc methods
mail : [email protected]
allow it, it is possible to map the hazards on a
of hazard assessment have been set up, including
1:5,000-scale map.
the
computer simulations.
As far as very large mass movements are
of
movement
and
various
concerned, such as La Clapière (Alpes-Maritimes)
Medium
High
Intensity level
Determining factors
identified on the site are
diffuse, poorly determined.
Many determining factors are
identified on the site. Some
factors unlisted can appear
with time.
Some nonidentified determining factors on the
site. The intensity of the
factors is high.
Low
Very low to low
hazard
Very low to low hazard
/
Rock Falls < 100 m3
Medium
Very low to low
hazard
Medium hazard
High hazard
High
/
High hazard
High hazard
Rock Falls < 1 dm3
Collapses > 100 m3
Abb. 10: Beispiel für die Erstellung einer Übersichtstabelle über Steinschlaggefahr (von CETE du sud-ouest)
Fig 10: Example of hazard table determination for rock fall hazard (from CETE du sud-ouest)
BRGM (bureau de recherches géologiques et minières) Website: http://
www.brgm.fr/
LCPC (1999)
L'utilisation de la photo-interprétation dans l'établissement des plans
de prévention des risques liés aux mouvements de terrain. Collection
Environnement, 128 p.
LCPC (2000)
Caractérisation et cartographie de l'aléa dû aux mouvements de terrain.
Collection Environnement, 91 p.
MINISTÈRE DE L'AMÉNAGEMENT DU TERRITOIRE (1999).
Plans de prévention des risques naturels (PPR). Risques de mouvements de
terrain. La Documentation française, 71 p.
Probability of occurrence
Low
RISK MAPPING:
http://cartorisque.prim.net/
Cemagref – Unité de Recherche
BP 76 – F 38402 Saint-Martin-d’Hères Cedex
monitoring
RISK PREVENTION FRENCH WEBPORTAL: www.prim.net
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Geological Hazard Prevention Map of Catalonia
Introduction
1:25,000 (MPRGC25M)
With Law 19/2005, the Parliament of Catalonia
PERE OLLER, MARTA GONZÁLEZ, JORDI PINYOL, JORDI MARTURIÀ, PERE MARTÍNEZ
Geohazards Mapping in Catalonia
Kartierung von geologischen Gefahren in Katalonien
approved the creation of the Geological Institute
The most important mapping plan is the Geological
of Catalonia (IGC) assigned to the Ministry of
Hazard Prevention Map of Catalonia 1:25,000
Land Planning and Public Infrastructures (DPTOP)
(MPRGC25M). This project started in 2007. The
of the Catalonian Government.
MPRGC includes the representation of evidence,
One of the functions of the IGC is to
phenomena, susceptibility and natural hazards
“study and assess geological hazards, including
of geological processes. These are the processes
avalanches, to propose measures to develop
generated by external geodynamics (such as slope,
hazard forecast, prevention and mitigation and
torrent, snow, coastal and flood dynamics) and
to give support to other agencies competent in
internal (seismic) geodynamics. The information
land and urban planning, and in emergency
is displayed by different maps on each published
management”. Therefore, the IGC is in charge of
sheet. The main map is presented on a scale of
making official hazard maps for such a finality.
1:25,000, and includes landslide, avalanche and
These maps comply with the Catalan Urban Law
flood hazard. The hazard level is qualitatively
(1/2005) which indicates that building is not
classified as high (red), medium (orange) and low
allowed in those places where a risk exists.
(yellow). The methods used to analyze hazards
basically consist of geomorphological, spatial and
and
The high density of urban development
infrastructures
geo-thematic
in
information
Catalonia
for
requires
planning.
As
statistical analysis.
Several complementary maps on a
a component of the Geoworks of the IGC,
1:100,000 scale show hazards caused individually
the strategic programme aimed at acquiring,
by different phenomena in order to facilitate the
elaborating, integrating and disseminating the
Summary:
This paper presents the different lines of work being undertaken by the Geological Institute
of Catalonia (IGC) on geological hazard mapping. It describes the different map series, scales
of representation, methodologies and its expected use.
Keywords: hazard mapping, geohazards, Catalonia.
Zusammenfassung:
Diese Abhandlung bietet einen Überblick über die verschiedenen Aktivitäten des Geologischen Instituts Katalonien (IGC) für die Kartierung geologischer Gefahren. Sie beschreibt die
unterschiedlichen Kartenserien, den Umfang der Darstellungen, die angewandte Methodik
und den erwarteten Gebrauch der Karten.
Schlüsselwörter: Gefahrenkartierung, Geogefahren, Katalonien.
basic geological, pedological and geothematic
information concerning the whole of the territory
in scales suitable for land and urban planning.
Geo-hazard mapping is an essential part of this
information. Despite some tests carried out with
wide land recovery (Mountain Regions Hazard
Map 1:50,000 [DGPAT, 1985], Risk Prevention
Map of Catalonia 1:50,000 [ICC, 2003]), at
present the work is done mainly on two scales:
land planning scale (1:25,000), and urban
planning scale (1:5,000 or more detailed). These
scales imply different approaches and methods to
obtain hazard parameters used for such a purpose.
The maps are generated in the framework of a
mapping plan or as the final product of a specific
hazard report. These different types of hazard
mapping products are explained below.
Fig. 1: First published sheet, Vilamitjana (65-23), in 2010.
Abb. 1: Das erste veröffentlichte Blatt,
Vilamitjana (65-23), 2010.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
reading of the sheet and understanding of the
4.Population inquiries: the goal of this stage is to
equate the parameters that define them. The
An epigraph is assigned, to identify the hazard
mapped phenomena. Two additional maps for
complement the information obtained in the
same frequency/activity values were used for all
level and the phenomena that causes it, especially
flooding and seismic hazards, represented on
earlier stages, especially in aspects such as the
phenomena, but magnitude values were adapted
in overlapping areas (Fig. 5). This epigraph
a 1:50,000 scale, are added to the sheet. The
intensity and frequency. It is done through a
to each of them.
consists of two characters, the first in capital
map is to provides government and individuals
survey to witnesses who live and/or work in the
some
letters, indicates the value of hazard (A for high
study areas.
Each
hazard
level
contains
considerations for prevention (Fig. 3). These
hazard, M for medium hazard and B for low
geological hazards, identifying areas where it is
In a second step, areas susceptible to be
considerations inform about the need for further
hazard), and the second, in lower-case, indicates
advisable to carry out detailed studies in case of
affected by the phenomena are identified from the
detailed studies and advise about the use of
the type of phenomena (e for large landslides, s
action planning. At the same time, a database
starting zone to the maximum extent determinable
corrective measures.
for landslides, d for rockfalls, x for flows, a for
is being implemented. It will incorporate all the
at the scale of work. Their limits are drawn taking
avalanches and f for subsidence and collapses).
information obtained from these maps. In the
into account the catalogue of phenomena,
The higher the overlapping is, the longer the
future it will become the Geological Hazard
geomorphological indicators of activity, and from
epigraph will be.
Information System of Catalonia (SIRGC).
the identification of favourable lithologies and
with an overview of the territory with respect to
morphologies of the terrain. This phase includes
The procedure followed in the main map consists
the completion of GIS and statistical analysis
of three steps:
to support the determination of the starting and
1.Catalogue of phenomena and evidences
run-out zone. It can be extensively applied with
2.Susceptibility determination
satisfactory results with regard to the scale and
3.Hazard determination
purpose of the work.
Finally, hazard is estimated on the basis
Fig. 3: Prevention recommendations.
Abb. 3: Empfohlene Präventivmaßnahmen.
The catalogue of phenomena and evidence is
of the analysis of the magnitude and frequency (or
the base of the further susceptibility and hazard
activity) of the observed or potential phenomena.
analysis. It consists of a geomorphologic approach
Susceptibility areas are classified according to
analyzed individually. The main challenge of the
and it comprises the following phases:
the hazard matrix represented in Fig. 2. Hazard
map is to easily present the overlapping hazard of
1.
Bibliographic and cartographic search: the
zones are represented as follows: areas where
different phenomena. A methodology identifying
information available in archives and databases
no hazard was detected (white), zones with low
that this overlap exists has been established
is collected.
hazard (yellow), medium hazard zones (orange),
with this objective in mind. It indicates what the
Hazard
from
each
phenomena
is
and areas with high hazard (red).
maximum overlapped hazard is (Fig. 4), but in any
aerial photos of flights from different years
case, without obtaining new hazard values.
(1957, 1977, 1985, 2003, etc.). The observation
for each phenomena, an effort was made to
2.
Photointerpretation: carried out on vertical
In order to obtain an equivalent hazard
Fig. 5: Example of multi-hazard representation.
Abb. 5: Beispiel von Mehrfachrisiken.
of the topography and the vegetation allows
the identification of areas with signs of
instability coming from the identification and
characterization of events that occurred recently
or in the past, and from activity indicators.
3.Field survey: checking and contrasting on the
field, the elements identified in the previous
Fig. 6: Main map 1:25000, which includes landslides, avalanches, sinking and flooding according to geomorphologic
criteria.
phases. Field analysis allows a better approach
and understanding, and therefore identifying
signs and phenomena are not observable
through the photointerpretation.
Fig. 2: Hazard matrix (based on Altimir et al, 2001).
Fig. 4: Multi-hazard representation.
Abb. 2: Gefahrenmatrix (auf der Grundlage von Altimir et al, 2001).
Abb. 4: Darstellung von Mehrfachrisiken.
Abb. 6: Hauptkarte 1:25000; sie veranschaulicht die Gefahren
hinsichtlich Bergstürze, Lawinen, Absenkung und Hochwasser nach geomorphologischen Kriterien.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Complementary maps
The final map (Fig. 8) also represents the values of
the basic seismic acceleration of the compulsory
Complementary maps represent the hazard
"Norma
de
Construcción
Sismorresistente
established for each individual phenomena at
Española" (NCSE-02) for a placement in rock,
1:100,000 scale. The purpose of these maps is
and the intensity of the seismic emergency plan
to facilitate the interpretation of the main map.
(SISMICAT).
Depending on the type of phenomena identified
in the main map, the number of complementary
maps can vary from 1 to 6.
Fig. 10: Flooding hazard map 1:100,000 based on hydraulic
modeling.
Fig. 12: First published Avalanche Paths Map, “Val d’Aran
Nord”, in 1996.
Abb. 10: Hochwasser-Gefahrenzonenkarte 1:100.000 auf der
Grundlage hydraulischer Modellierung.
Abb. 12: Erste veröffentlichte Lawinenzugkarte „Val d’Aran
Nord“, 1996.
The termination of the MZA allows a first global
vision of the avalanche hazard distribution in this
Fig. 8: Seismic hazard map 1:100,000.
region. The area potentially affected by avalanches
Abb. 8: Seismische Gefahrenzonenkarte, 1:100.000.
covers 1,257 km2. That is at 3.91% of the Catalan
country, and considering the Pyrenean territory, it
Fig. 7: Complementary map of surface landslide hazard.
affects 36%.
Abb. 7: Komplementärkarte über Erdrutschrisiken.
Fig. 11: Flooding hazard map symbology.
Abb. 11: Symbologie Hochwasser-Gefahrenzonenkarte.
Seismic hazard map
At present, all the avalanche information
is stored in the avalanche database of Catalonia
(BDAC). New events, coming from avalanche
observation, are added to this database. The
Avalanche Paths Map (MZA)
This map was obtained from the map of seismic
http://www.icc.cat/msbdac/.
areas for a return period of 500 years, for a
middle ground, and considering the effects of soil
A second mapping plan, already finished, is
amplification.
the Avalanche Paths Map (MZA). It was begun
in 1996 and finished in 2006. An extent of
To take into account the amplification
of the seismic motion due to soft ground, a
geotechnical classification of lithologies from
the Geological Map of Catalonia 1:25,000 into
Fig. 9: Seismic hazard map symbology.
Abb. 9: Symbologie seismische Gefahrenzonenkarte.
4 types was carried out: R (hard rock), A (compact
rocks), B (semi-compacted material) and C (non
information is available via the Internet at:
Flooding hazard map
Hazard maps for urban planning
5,092 km2 was surveyed. During this process
At present, for all the municipalities that want to
17,518 avalanche paths were mapped. This is
increase their building limits, the procedure is
a susceptibility map on a scale of 1:25,000,
first of all to make a preliminary hazard map on a
useful for land planning in the Pyrenean areas.
1:5,000 scale. This element is, in fact, just a map
The methodology is based on the French “Carte
of “yes or no”, which states if a hazard exists or
de Localisation des Phénomènes d’Avalanches”
not. If the municipality decides not to develop in
the speed of the S-wave through them (Fleta et al.,
The flooding hazard map at 1:50,000 scale shows
(Pietri, 1993). On this map, the avalanche paths,
hazardous areas, the process finishes. In the case
1998). The proposed amplifications were assigned
the limits of the hydraulic modeling for periods of
mapped from terrain analysis (photointerpretation
that the municipality wants to build in the hazard-
to each group of lithologies. For types R and A no
50, 100 and 500 years provided by the Catalan
and field work), are represented in orange, and the
zone areas, more detailed studies have to be
additions of any degree of intensity were made,
Water Agency (ACA). A flooding map according to
inventory information (witness surveys, historical
completed. These studies include complex data
but for types B and C, there was an addition of
geomorphologic criteria was done in those streams
documents, field surveys and dendrochronology)
collection, usually via drilling specific boreholes,
0.5 degrees of intensity.
were hydraulic modeling was not performed.
is represented in violet.
other geotechnical work, and advanced modelling.
cohesive material). This classification is based on
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Anschrift der Verfasser / Authors’ addresses:
Pere Oller, Marta González, Jordi Pinyol,
Jordi Marturià, Pere Martínez
Institut Geològic de Catalunya
C/ Balmes 209/211
08006 Barcelona
Fig. 13: Interface of the avalanche data server
Abb. 13: Benutzeroberfläche des Lawinendatenservers
The phenomena taken into account are landslides,
rock falls, sinking and snow avalanches. In these
maps, the hazard mapping is obtained from
frequency/intensity analysis. Advanced modelling
analysis is performed in order to obtain the most
accurate results, and to support the observational
data and expert criteria. Up to the present day,
there is no standard methodology. The current
challenge for the IGC is to prepare guidelines for
such a goal in order to guarantee the standards of
quality and homogeneity.
There are preliminary studies of a hazard
mapping plan 1:5,000 for snow avalanches. In
this map terrain is classified into high hazard (red),
medium hazard (blue) and low hazard (yellow).
Urban planning implications regarding hazard
have not been defined yet. An analysis of the MZA,
supported by the statistical α−β model, resulted in
the identification of 24 urban areas to be mapped.
The mapping methodology includes terrain
analysis, avalanche inventory, nivometeorological
analysis and numerical modelling to complete the
information.
Literatur / References:
PIETRI, C., 1993:
Rénovation de la carte de localisation probable des avalanches. Revue de
Géographie Alpine nº1. P. 85-97.
AGÈNCIA CATALANA DE L’AIGUA (Departament de Medi Ambient i
Habitatge). Directrius de planificació i gestió de l’espai fluvial. Guia
tècnica. 45 pp.
ALTIMIR, J.; COPONS, R.; AMIGÓ, J.; COROMINAS, J.; TORREBADELLA,
J. AND VILAPLANA, J.M. (2001):
Zonificació del territori segons el grau de perillositat d’esllavissades al
Principat d’Andorra. Actes de les 1es Jornades del CRECIT. 13 I 14 de
setembre de 2001. P. 119-132.
FLETA, J., ESTRUCH, I. I GOULA, X. (1998).
Geotechnical characterization for the regional assesment of seismic risk in
Catalonia. Proceedings 4th Meeting of the Environmental and Engineering
Geophysical Society, pàg. 699-702. Barcelona, setembre 1998.
NCSE-02 (2002).
Norma de Construcción Sismorresistente Española. Parte General y de
Edificación, Comisión Permanente de Normas Sismorresistentes, Real
Decreto 997/2002 del 27 de septiembre de 2002, Boletín Oficial del
Estado nº 244, viernes 11 de octubre de 2002. Ministerio de Fomento. P.
35898-35987.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
CLAIRE FOSTER, MATTHEW HARRISON, HELEN J. REEVES
Standards and Methods of Hazard Assessment for
Mass Movements in Great Britain
Standards und Methoden der Gefahrenbewertung
von Massenbewegungen in Großbritannien
Summary:
With less extreme topography and limited tectonic activity, Great Britain experiences a
different landslide regime than countries in many other parts of the world e.g. Italy and
France. Glacial modification of the landscape during the Pleistocene, followed by severe
periglacial conditions have led to the presence of high numbers of ancient or relict landslides.
Debris flows and rock falls common to higher relief areas of Europe occur but are less likely
to interfere with development and population centres. Despite the often subdued nature of
landslides in Great Britain, numerous high profile events in recent years have highlighted the
continued need to produce useable, applied landslide information. The British Geological
Survey has developed a national landslide susceptibility map which can be used to highlight
potential areas of instability. It has been possible to create the national susceptibility map
(GeoSure) because of the existence of vast data archives collected by the survey such as the
National Landslide Database, National Geotechnical Database and digital geological maps.
This susceptibility map has been extensively used by the insurance industry and has also
been adopted for a number of externally funded projects targeting specific problems.
Keywords
British Geological Survey, Landslides, GeoSure, National Landslide Database
Zusammenfassung:
Aufgrund einer weniger extremen Topographie und der beschränkten tektonischen Aktivität des
Landes unterscheiden sich Auftreten und Verlauf von Erdrutschen in Großbritannien von denen
in vielen anderen Ländern der Welt, z.B. Italien und Frankreich. Glaziale Veränderungen
der Landschaft während des Pleistozäns, denen schwierige periglaziale Bedingungen folgten, haben eine hohe Anzahl von vorzeitlichen oder relikten Bergstürzen verursacht. Die für
höhere Entlastungszonen in Europa typischen Muren und Felsstürze treten zwar auf, doch ihre
Wahrscheinlichkeit, Entwicklungs- und Bevölkerungszentren zu beschädigen, ist gering. Trotz
des häufig geringen Ausmaßes von Erdrutschen in Großbritannien heben zahlreiche bekannte
Ereignisse der letzten Jahre nach wie vor die Notwendigkeit hervor, anwendbare Informationen
über Rutschungen zu erstellen. Vom British Geological Survey (BGS) wurde eine nationale Gefahrenhinweiskarte für Rutschungen entwickelt, anhand derer potentielle Bereiche von Instabilität aufgezeigt werden können. Die Erstellung der nationalen Gefahrenhinweiskarte (GeoSure)
war auf der Grundlage umfangreicher Datenarchive möglich, die vom BGS zum Beispiel auf
der Grundlage der National Landslide Database, der National Geotechnical Database und von
digitalen geologischen Karten angelegt wurden. Diese Gefahrenhinweiskarte findet beispielsweise in der Versicherungsbranche Anwendung und wurde für eine Reihe extern finanzierter
Projekte übernommen, die auf bestimmte Probleme abzielen.
Schlüsselwörter
British Geological Survey, Rutschungen, GeoSure, National Landslide Database
planners. This view led to national assessments
Background on landslide research and planning in
of landslides being carried out in the 1980’s and
Great Britain
1990’s on which the current national policy is
largely based. These assessments provided the
Prior to the 1966 Aberfan disaster, which
basis for planning policies and guidance that, to
led to the deaths of 144 people, landsliding
some degree, continue to control development
was not widely considered to be particularly
on or around unstable ground. However, limited
extensive or problematic in Great Britain (GB).
resources since this initial push to understand the
In the years following the disaster, a limited
problem meant that these initiatives have failed
amount of research into landslide distribution
to develop into an effective, integrated, national
and mechanisms was undertaken but failed to
response to deal with landslides in GB. The
lead to a structured regulatory framework for
current systems, which are neither centralized nor
managing landslide risk. The Aberfan landslide
legally binding, comprise a system of planning
and costly disruptions to infrastructure projects
regulations (Town and Country Panning Act
in the 1960/70’s (Skempton & Weeks 1976 and
1990), guidance notes, operational regulations
Early & Skempton 1972) strengthened the view
and building codes (Building Regulations, 2006).
that the extent of ground instability was neither
With the exception of the Building Regulations,
well understood nor managed by developers or
none of these legal statutes specifically mention
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
landslides. The majority of the legislation can
GIS and advises that citizens consult geological
The BGS has since developed a Geographical
were assessed as an important causative factor
be interpreted as placing responsibility with the
maps and the now defunct Department of the
Information System (GIS)-based system (GeoSure)
as they reflect the mass strength of a material, its
developer, utility operator or landowner to ensure
Environment Landslide Database. These sources
to assess the principal geological hazards across the
susceptibility to failure and its ability to allow water
landslides are not an issue.
of information have been superseded by the BGS’s
country (Foster et al. 2008, Walsby 2007, 2008).
to penetrate a rock mass. Scores were defined in
regulatory
‘GeoSure’ and continually updated National
One output is a GIS layer that provides ratings of
line with those used in the British Standard 5930:
information regarding slope instability issues
Landslide Database. Despite the availability of
the susceptibility of the country to landsliding on
Field Description of Rocks and Soils (British
is contained within Planning Policy Guidance
these resources, national guidance has never
a rating scale of A (low or nil) to E (significant),
Standards Institute 1990) and by Bieniawski (1989).
Note 14 (PPG14) and its associated Annex (Anon
been updated to take this into account. Despite
which has been simplified for Fig. 1. Importantly, a
Analysis of known landslides showed that slope
1990, 1994). The Annex sets out the procedure for
the advances in landslide mapping and hazard
high susceptibility score does not necessarily mean
angle is one of the major controlling factors and
landslide recognition and hazard assessment and
mapping, there is still no legal compulsion to use
that a landslide has happened in the past or will
this was derived from the NEXTMap digital terrain
emphasises the need to consider ground instability
or consider it within a planning application in GB.
do so in the future, but where a landslide hazard
model of Britain at a 5m resolution. The scores
is most likely to occur if the slope conditions are
for all the causative factors at each grid cell are
The
main
source
of
throughout the whole development process from
land-use planning, through design to construction.
Development of landslide susceptibility maps and
adversely altered by a change in one or more of
combined in an algorithm to give an overall score
These
databases in GB
the factors controlling slope instability (Fig. 1).
based on the relative susceptibility to landsliding.
documents
provide
recommendations
GeoSure is produced at 1:50,000 scale and can
The method is flexible enough to allow alteration
planning decision. If landsliding is a known
BGS began to map geological hazards digitally in
be integrated to show the spatial distribution of
(nationally or locally) of the algorithm in the future
issue, ‘a developer’ must provide evidence that
the mid 1990’s. These early steps have paved the
landslide susceptibility in relation to buildings and
and include other factors such as the presence and
any development activity will not exacerbate
way for the development of much more detailed
infrastructure. According to the dataset, 350,000
nature of superficial deposits.
landslide activity and that any building will be
hazard maps that cover the whole of Great Britain
households in the UK, representing 1% of all
safe. However, PPG14 is not legally compulsory
and are complimented by detailed landslide
housing stock, are in areas considered to have a
and only recommends that the local planning
mapping and an extensive National Landslide
'significant' landslide susceptibility (Rated E).
authorities should endeavour to make use of
Database (NLD).
any relevant expertise when assessing whether a
of
factors of landsliding: lithology, slope angle and
planning application may be affected by ground
hazards was triggered by the insurance industry
discontinuities being of prime importance. This has
instability. The guidance notes do not specifically
after it identified a need to better understand
been made possible through the use of GIS due
refer to geological or geotechnical expertise
geological hazards. Insurance losses caused
to its ability to spatially display and manipulate
but details of some information sources of are
by ground movements (including subsidence)
data (Soeters & Van Westen, 1996). The GeoSure
provided, including BGS data. Despite this, there
between 1989 and 1991 reached around £1-
methodology uses a heuristic approach to assess and
is no legal compulsion for a planning authority
2bn following a particularly dry period and, as
classify the propensity of a geological formation to
to understand the extent or nature of landslide
a result, a digital geohazard information system
fail as well as to score the relevant causative factors.
hazards within their area of concern and, thus,
(GHASP – GeoHAzard Susceptibility Package)
The BGS holds large amounts of information about
include them in planning decisions. Building
was developed by the BGS. This first decision
the lithological nature of the rocks and soils within
regulations put further emphasis on the role of
support system (DSS) gave a weighted averaged
Great Britain. The National Geotechnical Physical
the developer to control the impact of instability
result for each of the 10000 postcode sectors
Properties database contains information on the
requiring that “The building shall be constructed
in GB and came to be used by around 35% of
geographical distribution of physical properties
so that ground movement caused by…. land-slip
the Industry (Culshaw & Kelk, 1994). Since
(such as strength) of a wide range of rocks and soils
or subsidence (other than subsidence arising from
the development of GHASP, improvements in
present in GB. This information is vitally important
shrinkage), in so far as the risk can be reasonably
GIS technology and the availability of digital
in determining the propensity of a material to
foreseen, will not impair the stability of any part of
topographical and geological mapping for 98%
fail. The scores assigned to each lithology are
the building.” (Anon. 2004).
of GB have led to advances in the methods used
based on material strength, permeability and
to map geohazard potential.
known susceptibility to instability. Discontinuities
that slope instability be considered in any
The current PPG14 predates the era of
The
first
systematic
assessment
GeoSure works by modelling the causative
Fig. 1: GeoSure layer showing the potential for landslide
hazard
Abb. 1: GeoSure-Schicht veranschaulicht das Potential von
Rutschungsgefährdungen.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Another important tool to both inform and assess
'style of activity.' Whilst the NLD follows the
are most likely to occur in the future. An initial
landslide susceptibility in GB is the National
style of activity definitions, it has simplified the
study determined five main components which
Landslide Database (NLD). Landslide databases
state of activity terms defined by Varnes (1978)
should be considered when determining the
are commonplace in Europe but there is variability
into active, inactive and stabilised whilst also
hazard potential of debris flows affecting the road
in their complexity and amount of further work
adding descriptions on the state of development
network:
carried out to further enhance or update the
(Advanced, degraded, incipient). Whilst activity
1.Availability of debris material
datasets. Assessing an area’s susceptibility to
state and style have been described in the WP/
2.Hydrogeological conditions
landsliding requires knowledge of the distribution
WLI definitions (WP/WLI, 1993), age has been
3.Land use
of existing failures and also an understanding of
somewhat neglected. Data for modern landslides
4.Proximity of stream channels
the causative factors and their spatial distribution.
observed either at the time of the event or through
5.Slope angle
This type of information is only available from a
comparison of aerial photographs and geological
It was considered that information regarding each
detailed database of past events from which one
mapping, is included in the NLD. To record cause,
of these could be extracted from existing digital
can draw out relevant information which may
the NLD has incorporated both triggering and
datasets. The resulting interpreted data were
inform the user of where landslides may occur
preparatory factors, limited to those most likely to
combined to produce a working model of debris
in the future. The National Landslide Database
be identifiable and relevant in GB. The definitions
flow hazard that could be validated by comparing
is the most comprehensive source of information
are based upon the WP/WLI (1990).
with known events (Fig. 2). The A85 debris flow
on recorded landslides in GB and currently holds
event in 2004 is shown alongside the modelled
records of over 15,000 landslide events (Fig.
Further adaptations of landslide susceptibility maps
susceptibility layer, existing drainage channels
2). Each of the 15,000+ landslide records can
in Great Britain
are shown as particularly susceptible to failure
hold information on over 35 attributes including
location, dimensions, landslide type, trigger
mechanism, damage caused, slope angle, slope
aspect, material, movement date, vegetation,
hydrogeology, age, development and a full
through debris flows. Whilst the assessment of
Fig. 2: Distribution of landslide database points from the
National Landslide GIS database. OS topography © Crown
Copyright. All rights reserved.
Following
Abb. 2: Verteilung der Rutschungs-Datenbankpunkte von der
National Landslide GIS Datenbank. OS Topographie © Crown
Copyright. Alle Rechte vorbehalten.
has
the
worked
Geosure
within
a
consortium including the Transport Research
debris flows highlights areas where they may
occur in the future, it does not attempt to model
the run-out of such failures.
Laboratory (TRL) and the Scottish Executive to
has been developed at BGS to enable capture
internationally
of landslide information. The first stage of the
process involves using digital aerial photograph
the conventions set out by Varnes (1978), the
to two debris flows trapping 57 motorists on the
Currently, work is ongoing to validate the current
interpretation software (SocetSet) to capture
EPOCH project (Flageollet, J.C., 1993) and the
A85 trunk road in Scotland. As a consequence
methodology against statistical methods such
digital landslide polygons which can then be
WP/WLI (1990). Age and activity of a landslide
of this event and others during the same period,
as bivariate statistical analysis and probabilistic
altered through field checking using BGS·SIGMA
are important factors to record within a landslide
the Scottish Executive commissioned a study to
methods. The GeoSure method is based upon
mobile technology (Jordan 2009; Jordan et al.
inventory. Temporal landslide data is as important
assess the potential impact of further debris flows
expert knowledge and a heuristic approach
2005). BGS·SIGMAmobile is the BGS digital field
to understanding the geomorphic evolution of an
on the transport network of Scotland (Winter et
which is being tested against more statistic-based
data capture system running on rugged tablet PCs
area as the spatial distribution of slides. However,
al., 2005). BGS was involved in the provision of a
approaches to assess its validity. Naranjo et al.,
with integrated GPS units, and is used extensively
it is extremely difficult to date ancient landslide
GIS layer highlighting slopes susceptible to debris
(1994) consider statistical methods to be the
for all geological mapping activities within the
events with any degree of accuracy and, as such,
flows. Debris flows, one of the five main types
most appropriate method for mapping regional
British Geological Survey (Jordan et al., 2008).
the ages assigned to landslides only provide an
of landslides, have a specific set of preparatory
landslide susceptibility because the technique is
When collecting landslide information,
arbitrary indication of age. The WP/WLI (1990)
criteria which differs from translational and
objective, reproducible and easily updateable.
either for the NLD or for digital maps,
regrouped the Varnes (1978) definitions on
rotational
assessment
Bivariate analysis for instance relies upon the
internationally recognised standards have been
age and activity under the following headings:
sought to digitally capture this set of criteria and
availability of landslide occurrence and causal
followed
'state of activity,' 'distribution of activity' and
create a layer showing areas where debris flows
parameter maps, which are compared against
The
database
using
create a digital hazard layer specifically for debris
For
flows. This work was triggered in August 2004
landslide type, the dictionary definitions follow
following a period of intense rainfall which led
recognised
produced
BGS
of
dictionaries
appropriate.
been
methodology,
creation
bibliographic reference. A fully digital workflow
where
have
the
terminology.
slides. This
modified
Future Developments
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
distributed data and causal factor information
contained in the National Landslide Database of
Great Britain, assesses the landslide susceptibility
in Great Britain. It uses a heuristic approach to
model the causative factors that cause these
events. It assesses and classifies the propensity of
a geological formation to fail as well as to score
the relevant causative factors (e.g. slope angle).
By using these methodologies and datasets, a
national assessment of the potential hazard to
landsliding mass movement events in Great
Britain can therefore be undertaken.
Anschrift der Verfasser / Authors’ addresses:
Dr. Helen J. Reeves
Head of Science Land Use
Fig. 3a: Extract from the debris flow susceptibility layer along with
b: the Glen Ogle debris flow of 2004.
Planning & Development
Abb. 3a: Ausschnitt der Gefahrenhinweiskarte für Muren, gemeinsam mit b: dem Murgang in Glen Ogle, 2004.
British Geological Survey,
Kingsley Dunham Centre,
each other to create a weighted value for each
in the future by numerical methods for smaller,
Keyworth, Nottingham.
parameter determined by calculating the landslide
regional studies.
United Kingdom, NG12 5GG.
density (Aleotti and Chowdhury, 1999 and Süzen
Direct Tel:- +44 (0)115 936 3381
and Doyuran, 2004). Results from an initial pilot
methodology, similar to those used to assess
Mobile:- +44 (0)7989301144
study suggest that, in small areas, where detailed
debris flows, are planned for the future. Rock fall
Fax:- +44 (0)115 936 3385
landslide mapping exists, bivariate (conditional
hazard could be another type of mass movement
E-mail:- [email protected]
probability) and probabilistic approaches are able
that is investigated using the heuristic GeoSure
to more accurately predict landslide susceptibility
approach applying different causal factors and
than GeoSure. However, this approach only
scoring algorithms.
Further adaptations to the GeoSure
works where landslides have been mapped. This
technique cannot be used where no landslide
Conclusion
mapping has been undertaken. Another issue
with the conditional probability technique is that
In Great Britain, landsliding does not have a
it relies on the assumption that all the parameters
structured regulatory framework, but historical
are mutually exclusive. The value of the heuristic
events, such as the Aberfan disaster and Scottish
approach is its ability to highlight areas where
debris flow events (Winter et al, 2005), have
there are no known landslides but where there is
highlighted the importance of understanding
existing knowledge on the underlying causative
the distribution and mechanisms that cause
factors. The heuristic approach is able to produce
landslide mass movement events in Great Britain.
national scale assessments which could be refined
The BGS GeoSure methodology, using spatially
Literatur / References:
ALEOTTI, P., AND CHOWDHURY, R. 1999.
Landslide hazard assessment: Summary review and new perspectives.
Bulletin Engineering Geology and Environment, Vol. 58, pp. 21–44.
ANON. (1990).
Planning Policy Guidance 14: Development on Unstable Land. Department
of the Environment, Welsh Office. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
ANON. (1994).
Planning Policy Guidance 14 (Annex 1): Development on Unstable Land:
Landslides and Planning. Department of the Environment, Welsh Office.
Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
Anon. (2004). The Building Regulations 2000 (Structure), Approved
Document A, 2004 Edition. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. Her
Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
CULSHAW, MG & KELK, B (1994).
A national geo-hazard information system for the UK insurance industry
- the development of a commercial product in a geological survey
environment. In: Proceedings of the 1st European Congress on Regional
Geological Cartography and Information Systems, Bologna, Italy. 4, Paper
111, 3p.
BIENIAWSKI Z T (1989).
Engineering Rock Mass Classifications. Wiley Interscience, New York, 272 p
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE. (1990).
BS 5930. The Code of practice for site investigations. HMSO, London, 206 p
EARLY, K.R. & SKEMPTON, A. 1972.
Investigation of the landslide at Walton's Wood, Staffordshire. Quarterly
Journal of Engineering Geology, 5, 19-41.
FLAGEOLLET, J. C. (Ed) 1993.
Temporal occurrence and forecasting of landslides in the. European
Community. EPOCH (European Community Programme).
FOSTER, C, GIBSON, AD & WILDMAN, G (2008).
The new national landslide database and landslide hazards assessment
of Great Britain. In: Sassa, K, Fukuoka, H & Nagai, H + 35 others (eds),
Proceedings of the First World Landslide Forum, United Nations University,
Tokyo. The International Promotion Committee of the International
Programme on Landslides (IPL), Tokyo, Parallel Session Volume, 203-206.
JORDAN, C. J., 2009. BGS∙SIGMAmobile; the BGS Digital Field Mapping
System in Action. Digital Mapping Techniques 2009 Proceedings, May 1013, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA, Vol. U.S. Geological Survey Openfile Report.
JORDAN, C. J., BEE, E. J., SMITH, N. A., LAWLEY, R. S., FORD, J.,
HOWARD, A. S., AND LAXTON, J. L., 2005.
The development of digital field data collection systems to fulfil the British
Geological Survey mapping requirements. GIS and Spatial Analysis:
Annual Conference of the International Association for Mathematical
Geology, Toronto, Canada, York University, 886-891.
NARANJO, J.L., VAN WESTEN, C.J. AND SOETERS, R. 1994.
Evaluating the use of training areas in bivariate statistical landslide hazard
analysis: a case study in Colombia. International Institute for Aerial Survey
and Earth Sciences. 3 : 292–300
SKEMPTON, A. & WEEKS, A. 1976
The Quaternary history of the Lower Greensand escarpment and Weald
Clay vale near Sevenoaks, Kent. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society, A, 283, 493-526.
SOETERS, R. & VAN WESTEN, C.J. 1996.
Slope instability recognition, analysis and zonation. In: Transportation
Research Board Special Report 247, National Research Council, National
Academy Press, Washington, D. C., 129-177.
SUZEN, M.L. AND DOYURAN, V. 2004.
A comparison of the GIS based landslide susceptibility assessment methods:
multivariate versus bivariate. Environmental Geology, 45, 665- 679.
THE BUILDING
AND APPROVED INSPECTORS REGULATIONS
(Amendment). 2006. HMSO.
TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING ACT. 1990. HMSO.
VARNES D. J.: Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster R. L. &
Krizek R. J. Ed., Landslides, analysis and control. Transportation Research
Board Sp. Rep. No. 176, Nat. Acad. oi Sciences, pp. 11–33, 1978.
WALSBY, JC (2007).
Geohazard information to meet the needs of the British public and
government policy. Quaternary International, 171/172: 179-185.
WALSBY, JC (2008).
GeoSure; a bridge between geology and decision-makers. In: Liverman,
D.G.E., Pereira, CPG & Marker, B (eds.) Communicating environmental
geoscience. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 305: 81-87.
WINTER, M. G., MACGREGOR, F & SHACKMAN, L (Eds) 2005.
Scottish Road Network Landslides Study. The Scottish Executive. Edinburgh.
WP/ WLI. 1993.
A suggested method for describing the activity of a landslide. Bulletin of the
International Association of Engineering Geology, No. 47, 53-57.
WP/ WLI. (International Geotechnical Societies UNESCO Working Party on
World Landslide Inventory) 1990.
A suggested method for reporting a landslide. Bulletin of the International
Association of Engineering Geology, No. 41, 5-12.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
KARL MAYER, BERNHARD LOCHNER
International Comparison: Summary of the Expert
Hearing in Bolzano on 17 March 2010
Internationaler Vergleich: Zusammenfassung
des Expert Hearings in Bozen vom 17. März 2010
Summary:
The AdaptAlp work package 5 “Expert Hearing” on March 17th, 2010 in Bolzano was
attended by 28 experts from eight countries. It was dedicated to the goals of action 5.1: The
creation of a multilingual glossary on landslides and especially the elaboration of minimum
requirements for “hazard mapping”. Beside a short presentation on the progress and the
further approach of the multilingual glossary, the “state of the art” in hazard mapping
for each involved region was presented by several people responsible. Based on these
presentations, which build the basis for the further approach, short abstracts were composed
for each region. These short descriptions can be seen inside the official Hearings report
published on the AdaptAlp Homepage (www.adaptalp.org). In a further step, based on these
abstracts and the presentations, two tables were created. On the one hand, all used maps
were grouped according to different types and on the other hand diverse characteristics of
maps were summarized and compared at the country level. With these matrices, similarities
and differences between the involved regions become visible and a “least common
denominator” could be elaborated. These denominators should be discussed at the next
meeting (December 2010) and, as a result, a compilation of minimum requirements to the
creation of “Danger, Hazard and Risk maps” will be published.
Zusammenfassung:
Das AdaptAlp Workpackage 5 „Expert Hearing“ am 17. März 2010 in Bozen wurde von 28 Experten aus acht Ländern besucht und widmete sich inhaltlich vollständig den Zielen von Action
5.1: Der Aufbau eines mehrsprachigen Glossars zu Hangbewegungen und insbesondere die
Erarbeitung von Mindestanforderungen zur Erstellung von Gefahrenkarten. Neben einer kurzen
Vorstellung des Projektfortschrittes und der weiteren Vorgehensweise hinsichtlich der Erarbeitung
eines mehrsprachigen Glossars wurde von Vertretern aus allen beteiligten Ländern der jeweilige
„State oft the Art“ bezüglich Gefahrenkartierung vorgestellt. Ausgehend von diesen Präsentationen, welche die Grundlage für das weitere Vorgehen bilden, wurden im Anschluss an das Treffen
Kurzzusammenfassungen für jede Region verfasst, welche innerhalb eines Gesamtberichtes auf
der AdaptAlp Homepage (www.adaptalp.org) einzusehen sind. In einem weiteren Schritt wurden auf Basis dieser Beiträge zwei Tabellen erstellt, welche einerseits alle verwendeten Karten
strukturiert nach verschiedenen Typen und andererseits unterschiedliche Charakteristiken von
Karten zusammenfassen und auf Länderebene vergleichen. Mithilfe dieser Matrizen werden Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede zwischen den beteiligten Regionen sichtbar und ein „kleinster
gemeinsamer Nenner“ kann erarbeitet und in einem nächsten Meeting (Dezember 2010) fixiert
werden. Ergebnis dieses Vorgehens und des Projektteiles wird eine Zusammenstellung von Mindestanforderungen zur Erstellung von Gefahrenhinweiskarten und Gefahrenkarten sein.
processes, a large variety of maps and methods
1. Introduction
are used in the different European countries to
prevent natural disasters.
In
dealing
geotechnical
with
geological
(active)
and
hazards
spatial
today,
(passive)
Exactly this variety, which reaches
from simple danger mappings to legally binding
measures come to implementation to minimize
“Hazard
risk. Because of a time limitation of active
should be shown inside this part of the AdaptAlp
Zone
Plans”
(Gefahrenzonenplan),
measures (e.g. protective walls) and the decrease
project. However main goal of work package 5
of space for permanent settlings, spatial planning
(WP 5) is not only the description of this variety, but
gets more and more important. Due to avalanche
a development of a “least common denominator”
catastrophes in the 1950’s which were affecting
which includes the minimum requirements for the
large parts of the Alps, in 1954 in the Swiss
creation of Danger, Hazard and Risk maps.
municipal Gadmen, the first “Avalanche-Zone-
Plan” was passed. This was the first time a natural
“Expert Hearing” from 17 March 2010 take place
hazard was considered in spatial planning (cf.
in Bolzano and which dedicates the contents of
Glade a. Felgentreff 2008, p 160f).
work package 5. In the following sections, the
This article focuses on the AdaptAlp
Nowadays, almost 60 years later, “hazard
main goals of this meeting and the contributions
mapping” is a central part in risk management.
from the involved experts were shown. In the
Countless types of “Danger, Hazard and Risk
final chapter, first basic approaches concerning a
maps” are produced for all kinds of risks. With
possible synthesis out of the big variety of “hazard
regard to natural hazards, especially geological
planning methods” is pointed out.
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
2. Main goals of the “Expert Hearing”
addressed inside a short presentation at the
“harmonisation”. Within the hearing in Bolzano,
•Specific technical data of the subject area
beginning of this meeting. The rest of this one-day
the plenum discussed the possible commitment
The topics of the expert hearing are all about the
session was dedicated to the contents of hazard
of such a report for each country. However the
goals of the AdaptAlp Work package 5 – “Hazard
mapping. Due to this and the fact that the glossary
title of the project contained the term “minimum
Mapping”:
part is already described in detail within chapter
standards”, which rather sounds like a legal
Regarding landslides, slide, fall, flow and
2.6 of this publication, this article only refers to
term, the involved experts decided to switch to
subrosion
the hazard mapping part.
word standards with “requirements”. So this legal
inventories. Methods lasting from field studies to
character is avoided and the final report will
computerized modelling are used for the creation
include a part with “minimum requirements to the
of these “danger maps”. In Germany, danger
creation of danger, hazard and risk maps”.
maps serve as a first estimation of possible natural
“Hazard zones are designated areas
threatened by natural risks such as avalanches,
landslides or flooding. The formulation of these
hazard zones is an important aspect of spatial
3. Hazard mapping in the Alpine regions
planning. AdaptAlp will evaluate, harmonise and
mass movement and subrosion / karst
•Surface data concerning subsidence and
uplift
processes
are
recorded
in
the
improve different methods of hazard zone planning
At the beginning of this chapter, it is important
applied in the Alpine area. Focus will be on a
to clarify that, because of the scheduled timing
4. Short summary from the “expert-contributions”
and should serve as a planning reference for
comparison of methods for mapping geological
of the project, at this time no final results can be
in Bolzano
possible investigations of individual objects where
and water risks in the individual countries. A
presented. Nevertheless, the theoretical approach
glossary will facilitate transdisciplinary and
and the already achieved marks can be shown. In
In the following sections, the “state of the art -
natural hazards are possible are not delineated
translingual cooperation as well as support the
general the course of action in getting a “synthesis”
presentations” from several experts in Bolzano are
precisely and local conditions (e.g. prevention
harmonisation of the various methods. In selected
to hazard mapping is structured in three steps.
shown in short summaries for each country.
schemes, topographic peculiarities) are not taken
model regions, methods to adapt risk analysis to
First step is the evaluation of the “state of the art”
the impact of climate change will be tested. This
in hazard mapping in each country involved.
should support the development of hazard zone
Exactly this point was the intention and the
planning towards a climate change adaptation
main goal of the hearing in Bolzano. Two main
In Germany, geogenic natural hazards, such
strategy. The results will be summarized in a
questions remained to be answered:
as mass movements, karstification, large scale
1:25,000 scale and is not precise. It serves as a
flooding, as well as building ground that is
first estimation of possible engineering geological
affected by subsidence and uplift, shall in future
hazards and cannot replace a geotechnical
be recorded, assessed and spatially represented
survey. Areas within the immediate vicinity of
using
• What kinds of danger, hazard and risk maps
synthesis report (www.adaptalp.org).
are officially applied in each country?
The official description of WP 5 shows
•Which standards are these maps based on?
two main parts (goals), which are worked out in
hazards caused by certain geological conditions
necessary. On the danger map, the areas in which
into consideration in every case. Because of these
4.1 Germany
reasons, it is recommended adding the following
annotations for each subject area:
An
danger fields can also be affected. The intensity
Environment Agency (LfU) in collaboration with
To answer these questions, each participant gave
important component for developing danger maps
and probability of a possible event cannot be
the alpS – Centre for Natural Hazard and Risk
a short overview of the official used danger,
is the construction and evaluation of landslide
extracted from the map.”
Management in Innsbruck and with the inputs
hazard and risk maps and also information on
inventories (e.g. landslide or sinkhole inventories).
from the international experts of the project
the creation of such maps were given in short
The recorded data in the inventories should have a
partners.
presentations.
minimal nationwide standards and are divided into:
Action 5.1 under the leadership of the Bavarian
second
step
will
be
minimum
standard.
4.2 Austria
•
Main data on the topic area mass
At this time there is no regulatory framework or
of a “multilingual glossary to landslides” and the
“harmonisation” of the different methods used in
movements and subrosion / karst with
technical norm concerning mass movements in
development of “minimum standards to create
several countries. Therefore similarities should be
information about the spatial positioning,
Austria. Only the course of actions concerning
danger, hazard and risk maps”.
worked out and the “least common denominator”
about determination of coordinates, etc.
floods, avalanches and debris flows are regulated
As announced in the introduction,
in the methods of hazard mapping should be
the main focus of the hearing in Bolzano lies
on the elaboration of basics for the definition
The two main goals are the elaboration
The
common
the
a
“The following map was created for a
of
by law. This includes the generation of “hazard
found. This second step is to be discussed in detail
the subject area mass movements and
zoning maps” (“Gefahrenzonenplan”). These are
in the next workshop at the end of 2010.
subrosion / karst with information about
generated by the Austrian Service for Torrent and
of minimum standards for hazard mapping.
the date of origin, about the land use and
Avalanche Control (Forsttechnischer Dienst für
Therefore the progress of the glossary was only
of a report, which includes the results of this
about damage, etc.
Wildbach- und Lawinenverbauung, WLV).
The final part will be the creation
•
Commonly
shared
technical
data
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
As there are no legal instructions or standards
elementary form of a hazard map and, based
for developing these maps are outlined in the
documents is dedicated to geological hazards,
in Austria about if or how to deal with the
on this, enforce rules and obligations addressing
federal guideline where a three step procedure is
which includes subsidence, sinking, collapse,
evaluation of mass movements, the federal states
landslide hazard reduction: only existing hamlets
proposed:
rock falls, landslides, and associated mud flows,
are all following a different course of action.
and villages can extend on dormant landslides;
The status of available data is very different in
on active ones, all new construction is forbidden.
1)Firstly, an indispensable prerequisite for the
the individual states. In some of the federal
Otherwise, the use of a purely descriptive
landslide hazard identification is obtaining
states almost no data is available, others have a
terminology
the
information about past slope failure events:
lot of data but not digitally available. And then
usability of this map, being often obsolete, and is
the maps of phenomena and the registration
Up until 1966, the UK Government were not
there are states that can rely on a lot of digitally
therefore a frequent bone of contention.
of events (database).
interested in Geohazards, they were more
available data and are working on generating
In the federal state law from 11 August
2)Secondly, hazard assessment implies the
interested in finding oil and gas to help the UK
landslide susceptibility maps.
1997, the base for the approval of guidelines to the
determination of magnitude or intensity
economy develop and expand. After the Aberfan
creation of hazard plans (Gefahrenzonenpläne) for
over time. Five classes of hazard are
disaster (where 144 people, 116 of them children),
South Tyrol was laid. Also the role of municipalities
determined in Switzerland: high danger
the UK government were much more interested
was defined to carry out the planning within
(red zone), moderate danger (blue zone),
and funded a number of research projects to look
In Italy the national law (high level, n. 445/1908)
three years. Finally, the approval of plans and the
low danger (yellow zone), residual danger
at the UK’s geohazards.
and Royal Decree R.D. (n. 3267/1923) were the
role of coinvolved partners are also part of this
(yellow-white zone) and no danger (white
first public regulations on land use planning. At
law. The scale of this legal binding hazard plan
zone).
building an understanding of the occurrence of
the beginning of ‘70s the land use management
(“Gefahrenzonenplan”) in South Tyrol tends to the
3)Based on the hazard maps and risk analysis,
geohazards. Currently BGS maintains two main
was transferred to regions.
working level of detail for the analyzed area. In
three kinds of measures can be then taken
shallow geohazard databases: the National
4.3 Italy (Piemonte, Emilia-Romagna, Province Bolzano)
(active,
dormant),
restricts
but excludes debris flows.
4.6 England
An
inventory
is
the
first
step
in
183/1989
settlements, a 1:5,000 scale and in other regions a
(third step): planning measures, technical
Landslide and Karst Database (www.bgs.ac.uk).
introduced land use planning at a basin scale.
1:10,000 scale is used and landslides, hydrological
measures and organizational measures.
These inventories provide the basis for analysing
The government sets the standards and general
hazards and avalanches are analyzed.
The
national
Law
n.
evaluate the dangers, hazards and risks related
the spatial distribution of the geohazard and
4.5 France
aims without fixing a methodology to analyse and
their causal factors. From this understanding
4.4 Switzerland
to natural phenomena. The same law designated
susceptibility can be assessed. In 2002, BGS
The plan for prevention of natural hazards (plan
developed a nationwide susceptibility assessment
the Autorità di Bacino (Basin Authority) whose
Switzerland is a hazard-prone country exposed
de prévention des risques naturels prévisibles -
of deterministic geohazards such as landslides,
main goal is to draw up the Basin Plan, a tool for
to many mass movements, but also to floods and
PPR) established by the law of 2 February 1995
skrink-swell, etc. called GeoSure (http://www.bgs.
planning actions and rules for conservation and
snow avalanches. Active and dormant landslides
is the “central” tool of the French State's action
ac.uk/products/geosure/).
protection of the territory.
take some 6% of the national surface. Most of the
in preventing natural hazards. The elaboration
One of the available tools produced by
landslides are very slow or slow reaching some
of the PPR is conducted under the authority of
ARPA Piemonte is the Italian Landslides Inventory
millimetres to centimetres of displacement per
the prefect of the department, which approves it
(IFFI). It is a national program of landslides
year. Sudden slope movements with velocities up
after formal consultation of municipalities and a
The Parliament of Catalonia approved, with Law
inventory, sponsored by national authorities and
to 40 m/s are also observed (e.g. rock avalanches).
public inquiry. The PPR is achieved by involving
19/2005, the creation of the Geological Institute
made locally by the regions. It is the first try of
The federal laws came into force in 1991 and are
local and regional concerned authorities from the
of Catalonia (IGC), assigned to the Ministry
an inventory based on common graphical legend
based on an integrated approach to protect people
beginning of its preparation. It can handle only
of Land Planning and Public Infrastructures
and glossary.
and property from natural hazards. The non-
one type of hazard or more and cover one or
(DPTOP) of the Catalonian Government. The
4.7 Spain (Catalonia)
The Emilia-Romagna Landslide Inventory
technical, preventive measures are of particular
several municipalities.
most important mapping plan is the Geological
Map (LIM) reports over 70,000 landslides, while
importance: land-use planning, zoning, building
Hazard Prevention Map of Catalonia 1:25,000
the historical data base contains about 6,600
codes. The reference documents in Switzerland
a general methodological guidelines document
(MPRGC25M).
landslide events. LIM may be considered as an
are the natural hazard maps. The techniques
has been published. One of these guideline
Geoworks of the IGC, the strategic program
In the frame of this common procedure,
As
a
component
of
the
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Comparison of different maps and their scales
Austria
basic
Level
Type of map
Geomorphologic map
Geotechnical map
Engineering geological map
GBA and Kärnten
WLV
Germany
Switzerland
Slovenia
Bayern
CH
Slovenia
large scale
variable scales
1:5,000-1:50,000
1:200,000
1:5,000 (landslides)
Italy
Arpa
Piemonte
South Tyrol
Emilia
Romagna
1:10,000
1:5,000
1:10,000
France
Spain
UK
France
Catalonia
UK
1:10,000
1:250,000
Level of attention
inventory
Inventory map
suscepti-bility
Municipal
1:25,000 to 1:50,000
1:5,000 to 1:2,000
and 1:25,000 to
1:50,000
1:50,000 and bigger
Map of area of activity
Landslide susceptibility
map, danger map
(Gefahrenhinweiskarte)
hazard index map
1:10,000
1:10,000-1:50,000
(M1), 1:2,0001:10,000 (M2),
1:5,000-1:2,000 or
bigger (M3)
1:10,000
1:25,000
1:200,000 (K, regional),
1:50,000 (St., local)
1:25,000
1:10,000
1:25,000- 1:10,000 1:100,000 1:25,000
1:10,000
variable
scales
1:10,0001:25,000
1:50,000
and bigger
1:5,000 or
1:10,000
1:10,0001:50,000
1:10,000
1:10,000-1:50,000
1:250,000
1:2,000-1:10,000
1:25,000
1:10,000
yes
1:25,000
(2000)
1:5,000
(2009)
1:25,000
K, Bleiberg: 1:10,000
Hazard map
hazard
1:10,0001:25,000
1:10,000-1:50,000
(M1), 1:2,0001:10,000 (M2),
>1:50,000
1:5,000-1:2,000 or
bigger (M3)
Multi-temporal inventory map
Map of phenomena
1:5,000-1:2,000 or
more
Detailed Study (Detailstudie)
Hazard zone map
(Gefahrenzonenkarte)
not smaller than
1:50,000, usually
1:2,000 to 1:5,000
Risk zoning map, risk map
Fig. 1: Comparison of different maps and their scales
Abb. 1: Vergleich unterschiedlicher Karten und deren Maßstab
1:25,000
1:5,000 1:1,000
1:5,000;
1:10,000
1:10,000
1:5,000;
1:10,000
1:5,000;
1:10,000
Map of potential damage
Vulnerability map
1:10,0001:25,000
1:10,000
Hazard zone map of the
development plan
risk
variable
1:250,000
1:5,000;
1:10,000
1:5,000
1:50,000
x
x
x
x
weathering
geotechnical properties (rock, debris)
geotechnical parameters (shear,…)
rock mass structure
joints
x
x
x
Land use
Hydrogeology
structural contributions
x
x
bedding attitude
x
x
x
x
x
x
material
x
x
x
x
x
x
Abb. 2: Vergleich von Charakteristiken und eingehende Informationen für unterschiedliche Inventare und Karte
x
x
x
Bibliography included
Fig. 2: Comparison of characteristics and information collected for different inventories and maps
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Investigations, reports, documentation, references included
x
Certainty/ reliability of information
Degree of precision of information
x
x
x
x
x
Method used to gather info (field survey, aerial photo-interpretation,…)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Costs of investigation
x
x
Remedial measures
x
x
"Hazard" to infrastructure
Costs of rem. Measures
x
Damage
x
x
x
Rock fall: (geometric) slope gradient
x
x
x
x
x
Rock fall: shadow angle
x
x
x
Causes
Trigger
water content
x
x
rate of movement
Classification
type
x
Classification of mass movements (not specified)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
stratigraphy
x
x
x
x
lithology
Land cover
Silent witnesses
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
ST
discontinuities
x
tectonic unit
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
AP
joint spacing
x
x
geologic unit
x
x
x
slope
x
x
x
x
x
Geology, specified
Precursory signs (fissures,…)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
EmRo
slope aspect
x
Relationship to rainfall
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
SLO
Italy
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
F
F
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
UK
UK
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Catalan
ES
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
CH
SLO
depth to basal failure plane
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
By
CH
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
K
Ger
depth to bedrock
site description
x
x
positional accuracy
x
x
reported when
approx. original slope
x
who
slope position
x
why
x
x
activity ( number of events...)
x
what
x
geometry (width, length...)
when
x
study/ detailed scale
x
x
regional scale
where
x
national scale
x
GBA
Austria
Geology in general
Landslide conditions
Basic information
Inventory
Characteristics
Comparison of information collected for different inventories
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
Seite 169
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Hazard assessment and mapping of mass-movements in the EU
5. Conclusion
Anschrift der Verfasser / Authors’ addresses:
and geothematic information concerning the
As mentioned in the introduction of this article,
Karl Mayer
whole of the territory in the suitable scales for
the “state of the art in hazard mapping“ in the
Bavarian Environment Agency (LfU)
the land and urban planning. This project started
involved countries isn’t in balance. This fact was
(Office Munich)
in 2007. In the MPRGC, evidence, phenomena,
also confirmed inside the “Expert Hearing” in
Lazarettstraße 67
susceptibility and natural hazards of geological
Bolzano.
80636 Munich – GERMANY
processes are represented. These processes are
KOMAC, M. (2005): Probabilistic model of slope mass movement
susceptibility - a case study of Bovec municipality, Slovenia. Geologija,
48/2, 311-340.
generated by external geodynamics (such as slope,
big variety of maps applied in the several regions
Bernhard Lochner
KOMAC, M. & RIBIČIČ, M. (2006): Landslide susceptibility map of
Slovenia at scale 1:250.000. Geologija, 49/2, 295-309.
torrent, snow, coastal and flood dynamics) and
was summarized in one table (see Fig. 1). This chart
alpS – Centre for Natural Hazard and Risk
internal (seismic) geodynamics. The information
builds the basis for further actions concerning
Management
is displayed by different maps on each published
the creation of minimum requirements. It is
Grabenweg 3
sheet. The main map is presented on a scale of
structured into different levels and the associated
6020 Innsbruck - AUSTRIAText
1:25,000, and includes landslide, avalanche
type of maps. The levels lasting from “basic” (e.g.
and flood hazard. Hazard level is qualitatively
geomorphologic maps) over “inventories” (e.g.
classified as high (red), medium (orange) and low
inventory map), “susceptibility” (e.g. susceptibility
(yellow). The methods used to analyze hazards
map) and “hazard” (e.g. hazard map) to “risk”
basically consist of geomorphologic, spatial and
(e.g. risk map).
statistical analysis.
aimed to acquiring, elaborating, integrating and
disseminating the basic geological, pedological
To solve this problem, in a first step the
Furthermore, a matrix (see Fig. 2)
with specified characteristics and information
4.8 Slovenia
collected for different maps was created out
of the great wealth of information given at the
Legislation, planning and prevention measures are
hearing in Bolzano. In particular, this table should
not satisfying in the field of landslides in Slovenia
help to find accordance’s between the different
and the primary activities are still focused on
approaches. All the characteristics used in any
remediation instead on the prevention measures.
involved country (e.g. inventory) form the basis
The updated Act on Spatial planning from
for the definition of minimum requirements to
2007, governing natural disasters also discusses
“hazard mapping”.
problems with mass movements, but a common
methodology and procedures to prevent geology-
recommendation will be created and, based
related natural disasters does not exist yet.
thereon, the final minimum requirements should
Finally, out of these two matrices a
a
be fixed in the next workshop on December 2010
“landslide susceptibility map” (scale 1:250,000)
in Munich. The final report on the whole project
and a “debris-flow susceptibility map” (scale
will include a chapter with the decided minimum
1:250,000) is elaborated by the Geological Survey
requirements to the creation of “Danger, Hazard
of Slovenia. In addition to this, a probabilistic
and Risk maps”.
At
the
moment
for
Slovenia,
model of slope mass movement susceptibility for
the Bovec municipality in north-western Slovenia
was developed based on the expert geohazard
map at scale 1:25,000 and several other relevant
influence factors.
Literatur / References:
CRUDEN, D.M. & VARNES, D.J. (1996): Landslide types and processes.
In A. Keith Turner & Robert L. Schuster (eds), Landslide investigation and
mitigation: 36-75. Transportation Research Board, special report 247.
Washington: National Academy Press.
FELGENTREFF, C. & GLADE, T. (Hrsg.) (2008): Naturrisiken und
Sozialkatastrophen. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg, 454 S.
KOMAC, M., KUMELJ, Š. & RIBIČIČ, M. (2009): Debris-flow susceptibility
model of Slovenia at scale 1: 250,000. Slovenia. Geologija, 52/1, 87-104.
MAYER, K. & POSCHINGER, A. von (2005): Final Report and Guidelines:
Mitigation of Hydro-Geological Risk in Alpine Catchments, “CatchRisk”.
Work Package 2: Landslide hazard assessment (Rockfall modelling).
Program Interreg IIIb – Alpine Space.
MAYER, K., Patula, S., Krapp, M., Leppig, B., Thom, P., Poschinger, A. von
(2010): Danger Map for the Bavarian Alps. Z. dt. Ges. Geowiss., 161/2, p.
119-128, 10 figs. Stuttgart, June 2010
RAETZO, H., LATELTIN, O., TRIPET, J.P., BOLLINGER, D. (2002): Hazard
assessment in Switzerland – codes of practice for mass movements. Bull. of
Engineering Geology and the Environment 61(3): 263-268.
RIBIČIČ, M., KOMAC, M., MIKOŠ, M., FAJFAR, D., RAVNIK, D.,
GVOZDANOVIČ, T., KOMEL, P., MIKLAVČIČ, L. & KOSMATIN FRAS, M.
(2006): Novelacija in nadgradnja informacijskega sistema o zemeljskih
plazovih in vključitev v bazo GIS_UJME : končno poročilo. Ljubljana:
Fakulteta za gradbeništvo in geodezijo (in Slovene).
Seite 170
AdaptAlp
DI Maria Patek, MBA
Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft,
Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft
Abteilung IV/5
Marxergasse 3
1030 Wien
Tel.: 01/711 00 - 7334
Fax: 01/71100 - 7399
E-Mail: [email protected]