Introduction
It is a common belief that Jane Austen paid no attention to political
and social events that did not directly affect the “three or four families in
the country”1 about which she writes in each novel. The most practical
problem facing the lovers in the novels is how to find enough money to live
on, with great consideration as to the amount of the income, but with little
or no consideration as to the details of how it is realized. Some of the men
actually have to earn a living, but the details of their efforts are not given.
Nevertheless, current events and practices do appear. Notably, there are
military men in all of the novels. In addition, the possession and use of land
is primary to the lives of the characters in the novels. There are various
practices which go under the heading of improvement of the estate, some
of which are talked about in great detail and others only briefly mentioned.
Frequently, it is possible to discern Austen’s attitude toward these practices
and to infer additional information about the character of those engaged in
such practices.
1
Austen, Jane. 1796-1817. Jane Austen’s Letters. collected and edited
by Deidre Le Faye. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. letter
107 p. 286
1
One difficulty is to decide whether Jane Austen choose not to talk more
about great matters because she knew too little about them, or simply that
she did not want to clutter up her novels. There is evidence in her letters,
primarily to her sister Cassandra, that she did know a great deal more than
she wrote about. In a letter dated September, 1796, Austen writes of her
brother Edward perhaps buying another farm “if he can cheat Sir Brook
enough in the agreement.”2 Also, in a letter dated Jan, 1801,3 she shows
knowledge of the use of bailiffs and questions the wisdom of having a piece of
property divided into two farms with two bailiffs rather than one. In a letter
dated April, 1811,4 she sends congratulations to her brother Edward about
stalling the passage of a bill which would have provided for the building of a
canal from which he would not profit. In a letter dated June, 1811, she writes
of walking with a visitor who “admired the Trees very much, but grieved that
they should not be turned into money.”5 Although scant, these references
do show knowledge and interest in the use, management, and improvement
2
3
4
5
Austen, Letters letter 7 p.11
ibid letter 31, p.75
ibid letter 72, page 193
ibid letter 75, p. 200
2
of income producing property. In addition, in later years Jane Austen lived
near one of the great houses of her brother, Edward, was a frequent visitor
there, and on at least one occasion spent a lengthy visit at another of his
estates, she had the opportunity of becoming familiar with the running of
an estate.
There is an often quoted letter written Dec, 1815 to James Stanier
Clarke, the secretary to the regent prince, saying that she did not know
enough to give the conversations of men discussing science and philosophy,
etc.6 Upon reading Mr. Clarke’s letters of November and December, 1815
to Jane Austen, we see that the secretary actually was asking her to write
a novel with him as the hero.7 Jane Austen’s refusal is polite, but laced
rather heavily with irony using self-deprecation to quiet him rather than
saying that she did not want to do what he asked. Perhaps Austen would
have found it difficult to write conversations among a group consisting solely
of men since she would never have experienced this directly, but there is no
reason to suppose she knew nothing of the content of such conversations.
6
7
ibid letter 132D, p.319
ibid letters 125(A) p. 308 and 132(A) p. 320
3
Occasionally, she alludes to topics discussed by men, particularly in Sense
and Sensibility, Mansfield Park, and Emma. Also, even though she does not
dwell on details, the business dealings are sometimes central to the plot, and
even when they are at the edges of the novel and not essential to the plot,
they add interest and often amusement.
Another danger in reading Jane Austen is to confuse her effective use of
irony. At times, it is obvious what she means, but at other times, it seems she
could mean exactly the opposite. One example of this is seen in Emma with
her description of the “education” received by girls at Mrs. Goddard’s school.
She (Austen) praises the school as an “old-fashioned Boarding-school, where
a reasonable quantity of accomplishments were sold for a reasonable price,
and where girls might be sent to be out of the way and scramble themselves
into a little education, without any danger of coming back prodigies.”8 At
first, we might think that Jane Austen is praising such a school, but then, we
are given an example of a product of the school, Harriet Smith, who clearly
exhibits how little education can be expected. However, when Caroline Bing-
8
Austen, Jane. 2000. Emma. Ed. Stephen M. Parrish. 3rd ed. New
York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 12
4
ley in Pride and Prejudice describes a truly accomplished woman as one who
“must have a thorough knowledge of music, singing, drawing, dancing, and
the modern languages,”9 we know immediately that Austen is making remarks about the deplorable state of women’s education. Miss Bingley wants
an unreasonable list of decorative accomplishments and almost no academic
accomplishments, not even “be instructed in geometry, that she might know
the contagious countries.”10 The letters written by Jane Austen to her sister
Cassandra show her using broad and undisguised irony, but she subdues her
sarcasm in the novels.
In this note, we shall explore several practices of land use in Jane
Austen’s novels and how the use of the land and the consideration for the
other people involved exhibits the character of the person in charge. There
are many cases of neglect and some of misuse. We do not encounter any
disastrous ruin in any of the novels, but there are cases where the reader is
left wondering how much longer current practices can be sustained. At the
9
Austen, Jane. 2001. Pride and Prejudice. Ed. Donald Gray. 3rd ed.
New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 27
10
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, “The Rivals” in Three English Comedies
ed. John Bettenbender[New York: Dell Publishing Company, 1966], p.127
5
other extreme, there are cases of prudent husbandry and even increase in
income.
In addition, we shall look at changes in the appearance of land holdings
always called “improvement”, ranging from judicious, tasteful changes to destructive practices which seem to be done only for the sake of change. Again
these practices signal Jane Austen’s approval or disapproval of character.
Landed Gentry
Ownership of property in the form of land is of utmost importance
to discern the social standing of characters in Jane Austen’s novels. Her
characters, like English society in general, consider income from land holdings
to be the most genteel way for a man to derive a living. (We shall discuss
some instances of women owning land, but for the most part, it is men who
control estates.) Even a clergyman with a living derives income from land of
which he has the use during his lifetime with the freedom to make changes
to the property.
The requisites for being considered a gentleman include, family background, education, and with some exceptions, a landed income of at least
6
£1,000 a year.11 For example, Mr. Bennet of Pride and Prejudice, with
£2,000 a year, is within the range of being a gentleman. Mr. Bingley, of
Pride and Prejudice, does not meet the requisite of family or, at the beginning of the novel, of property either, but his non-landed property of £100,000
and education are sufficient for most to ignore “that his fortune had been
made by trade.”12 Mr. Wickham, also of Pride and Prejudice, has been educated as a gentleman, and as an officer in the regular army can be considered
a gentleman. That he is an unscrupulous, gambling wastrel would not be
enough to cause a fall from the status of gentleman, but his ungentlemanlike behavior does not allow him to rise. The naval officers in Persuasion,
once they have risen to at least the rank of captain, and have won sufficient money in prizes from taking ships, are considered to be gentlemen by
everyone except perhaps the very snobbish Sir Walter Elliott.
English estates of the late 18th century consist of two parts, the ornamental and the income producing. A landed family would have one (or more)
11
Thompson, F.M.L. 1963. English Landed Society in the Nineteenth Century. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press. p.112
12
Austen, Pride and Prejudice p. 11
7
great country house(s) which includes a park, gardens, stables, kennels, and
the home farm.13 These attached lands are what is needed to provide for
the maintenance of the household. In addition, there are income producing
farms, woodlands, and possibly mines. These income producing lands may
be widely scattered, with the potential of making it difficult for a landowner
to oversee his property or even to collect the rents. Because of this, together
with changing agricultural practices, farmers, bailiffs, stewards, and attorneys acquired a new importance. As we shall see, the social structure was in
enough of a flux so that these people could sometimes be considered on the
fringes of society.
The extent of the land holdings is important, but the length of time
the main holdings have been in the family does a lot to determine the social
status of the family. A newly acquired great house is considered respectable,
but does not have the status of property which has been in the family for
several generations. Two indications of a house having been in the family
for several generations are the library and the picture gallery. Although
usually the product of several generations, a library could be stocked in one
13
Thompson, p. 169
8
generation, but a gallery of family portraits needs to have had living subjects
and cannot be produced at will.
Estates could be added to and the judicious acquisition of new land was
considered prudent. Additional lands were not considered in the same way
as a first great house.
Land Owner’s Business
Several times, Jane Austen refers to a landowner either neglecting or
attending to “business.” Since the occupation of gentlemen is never specified,
it is appropriate to consider what was meant by running a large estate. Let us
consider first the extent of a gentleman’s estate. If we value productive land
at £24 per acre,14 we can get some idea as the extent of various productive
holdings described in Austen’s novels. This does not include woods, park,
and waste which we can only estimate.
The easiest to estimate is Pemberly owned by Mr. Darcy, Pride and
Prejudice. Mr. Darcy is said to have an income of £10,000 a year. Although
it is not certain that all of that comes from land production, let us assume
14
Mingay, G.E. 1963. English Landed Society in the Eighteenth Century.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd. Toronto: University of Toronto
Press., p. 12
9
that it does. At a rate of 5% we would have productive land worth £200,000,
which would be more than 8000 acres. We are told that the outer edge of
the park “is ten miles round.”
15
At a minimum, this is an additional 5000
acres. In addition, there are waste lands and woods not included in the park.
A conservative estimate of the extent of Mr. Darcy’s holdings would be some
16000 acres or 25 square miles. Although it might be that not all this land is
contiguous, spreading it across the country would only make it more difficult
to administer. If we take this as a standard of holdings, we could conclude
that Mr. Bennet and Colonel Brandon at £2,000 a year would be responsible
for some 3,000 or more acres.
It is little wonder that such holdings would require the attention of the
owner even with the most attentive of stewards. Mr. Darcy said he had to
return to Pemberly early to “confer with his steward.”16 Even the somewhat
inattentive Mr. Henry Crawford personally “attended to the renewal of a
lease”17 when he thought his agent was not acting properly.
15
Austen,Pride and Prejudice, p. 164
ibid, p. 166
17
Austen, Jane. 2002. Sense and Sensibility. Ed. Claudia L. Johnson.
New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc., p. 274
16
10
We shall see throughout our examination of the various properties different attentions. There are attorney’s to be consulted (about unnamed issues),
produce to be sold, judicious improvements to be made, as well as attention
to those living in the jurisdiction of the estate. When Mr. George Knightly,
Emma, is talking to his brother John, we find he is a magistrate and generally had “some point of law to consult John about”. Also, he discussed
“the plan of a drain, the change of a fence, the felling of a tree, and the
destination of every acre for wheat, turnips, or spring corn.”18 Mr. Knightly
is the extreme in taking care of his property, but we see something of the
extent of his responsibilities.
Improvement
Throughout her works, there is repeated reference to improvement of
estates. Improvement could mean any of several things. For instance, it
could mean the redesigning of the ornamental parts of the holdings. At
this time, English estates were abandoning the use of French formal gardens
in favor of more seemingly natural landscaping. Landscape architects were
18
Austen, Emma, p. 65
11
in much demand. One of the more famous, or infamous, and successful,
Humphrey Repton, is talked about in Mansfield Park. Sometimes ornamental
improvements resulted in cutting trees with incidental immediate income.
We shall encounter several instances of trees being cleared or spared. Other
major undertakings might include the creation of lakes, diversion of streams,
and creation(or destruction) of hills.19
One of the most bizarre improvements described is in Mansfield Park
where Mrs. Norris, the widow of the late holder of the living, laments the ill
health of her husband, and says, “If it had not been for that, we should have
carried on the garden wall, and made the plantation to shut out the churchyard, just as Dr. Grant [the current parson] has done.”20 Neither thinks it
odd that a clergyman should want to be shielded from the churchyard.
Improvement also refers to those changes which will result in an increase
in income. New mines were being opened at this time in England, but Jane
Austen does not talk about mining. Canals were being built, mostly by
19
Mingay, G.E. 1963. English Landed Society in the Eighteenth Century.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd. Toronto: University of Toronto
Press. page 211
20
Austen, Mansfield Park, p. 40
12
the central government. Although Austen did know about canals through
her brother, she does not write about them. Nor does she write about the
improvements in livestock breeding which could be realized when farms were
combined to give an adequate supply of breeding stock. The improvements
most likely referred to are harvesting of woodlands, draining of marshes, crop
rotation, and the controversial practice of enclosure. Mr. George Knightly, in
conversation with his brother John, talks of “the plan of a drain, the change
of a fence, the felling of a tree...”.21
Austen also explicitly refers to enclosure. Enclosure was the practice
of taking lands operated in common by a community, either as grain producing or grazing lands, enclosing them with fences, and making one man
responsible for its cultivation or other use. Mr. John Dashwood complains
that “the inclosure of Norland Common, now carrying on, is a most serious
drain”22 [on his finances]. We also find it a topic of dinner discussion between
Mr. Dashwood and Sir John Middleton along with politics and the breaking
of horses.23 We shall not discuss the merits of enclosure or who benefited
21
22
23
Austen Emma p.65
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, p.159
ibid p.166
13
from the practice, but merely note that it did increase productivity. Given
the characters of the men engaged in these various improvements gives us an
idea as to Jane Austen’s opinion of various practices.
The Neglected Estate
Upon examination, most of the estates in Jane Austen’s novels are in
various states of neglect. There are those owners who exceed their incomes
and incur debts and there are owners who simply do not pay attention to
their property. The most common means of getting more money is to marry
a rich woman. We see several instances of women with money, but without
social standing, achieving greater social status by marrying needy gentlemen.
Sir John Middleton, Barton Park, Sense and Sensibility
Sir John Middleton of Barton Park is a baronet. Jane Austen never says
explicitly how long a baronecy has been held and we are left to surmise from
surrounding information. Sir John has done nothing himself to warrant being
elevated to the title and his associates and relations seem to be gentry. It is
reasonable to assume his family is fairly long established. He has considerable
holdings and enough wealth to offer the cottage attached to his great house
14
to his widowed kinswoman, Mrs. Henry Dashwood, for very modest rent.
Sir John wants to have company in his house and is constantly having
dinner parties and impromptu dances at which the Dashwood sisters become
frequent attendees. One cannot find fault with his generosity, but perhaps
can accuse him of not being capable of finding interesting occupation except in company. He is boisterous and the Dashwoods find him somewhat
uncultured, but he is certainly kind.
To all appearances, Sir John has no want of money, but he has married a
woman only one generation away from trade for whom he shows no particular
affection. Lady Middleton has produced a male heir and is an acceptable, if
somewhat reluctant, hostess to Sir John’s many parties as she “piqued herself
upon the elegance of her table.”24 She has fulfilled the duties of a baronet’s
lady. What is most attractive about Lady Middleton is her fortune. Her
father, Mr. Jennings, left his widow with “an ample jointure,”25 and one
presumes that his two daughters came to their marriages with handsome
dowries. Mrs. Jennings, much to the embarrassment of her daughter, visits
24
Austen, Jane. 2002. Sense and Sensibility. Ed. Claudia L. Johnson.
New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc. p. 26
25
ibid p. 29
15
only “a few old city friends”26 when in town, so we are certain of the origin
of the money.
Sir John not only likes to hold many parties, but he is an avid hunter.
Hunting is an extremely expensive sport, both in the keeping of horses,
hounds, and their attendants, and in the time consumed in participation.
Sir John spends as much time hunting as possible. In the year in which
Sense and Sensibility takes place, Sir John was very late in going to town for
the season since the frost was late. He hunts as long as his horses are not in
danger of breaking their legs on the hard ground. As a consequence of his
hunting, he has less time to spend tending to his holdings. Between hunting
and parties, he has need of a rich wife.
Mr. Thomas Palmer, Cleveland, Sense and Sensibility
Mr. Palmer married Lady Middleton’s younger sister, Charlotte. Although sillier than her sister, Mrs. Palmer is very good natured and at
least pretends to find her husband’s incivility amusing. He is rude, not
only to his wife, but to everyone around him, especially his mother-in-law,
26
ibid p. 119
16
Mrs. Jennings, who although quite vulgar according to the standards of Jane
Austen’s heroines is one of the most worthy characters in the entire novel.
The great house on Mr. Palmer’s estate, Cleveland, is a “spacious modernbuilt house”27 and there are enough income producing lands attached so that
Jane Austen specifically mentions neglect. We find that he “idled away the
mornings which ought to have been devoted to business.”28
Mr. Palmer is not a hunter, but seems overly fond of billiards. He chides
his brother-in-law for not having a billiard room when he is visiting Barton
Park and is seen at billiards when he is at home at Cleveland when he should
be attending to business.
Besides billiards, Mr. Palmer is also a member of parliament and as such
needs to spend time and probably money in order to hold his seat and, of
course, his London establishment must conform to the dignity of a member of
parliament. That the very vacuous Mrs. Palmer knows that Mr Willoughby
“is in the opposition”29 indicates the need for expenditure of money and
time.
27
28
29
ibid p. 214
ibid, p. 216
ibid p. 84
17
There is some hope for Mr. Palmer. Initially, when his first child, a son,
is born in February, he considers him only a baby, but as early as the spring,
he has become more attentive, even to the point of being pleasant to Elinor
and, at times, civil to his wife and mother-in-law. We can only hope that
the responsibility of providing for the next generation will make Mr. Palmer
more attentive to his property. I suspect billiards is easier to give up than
hunting.
Mr. John Willoughby, Combe Magna, Sense and Sensibility
In the beginning of the novel, John Willoughby is the presumed hero of
Sense and Sensibility and therefore should not only be charming, but rich.
He has a substantial, but not lavish, estate and expectations of additional
property from his kinswoman, Mrs. Smith of Allenham, near Sir John Middleton’s Barton Park. Mr. Willoughby assumed possession of his own estate
at an early age and at twenty one is quite independent.
However, Mr. Willoughby is not so rich as to be able to support his
vices. He is a hunter and therefore must keep horses and hounds appropriate
for hunting. He also spends the winter in London and lives opulently as
18
indicated by his driving a curricle. These expenses are barely covered by his
income and although it is not positively stated, Mrs. Jennings says of him
“they say he is all to pieces.”30
Before the beginning of the novel, Mr. Willoughby seduced a young
woman who is the illegitimate daughter of Colonel Branden’s cousin. Any
continued responsibilities toward her are not clear, but the news of this affair
was sufficient for Mrs. Smith to be displeased and disinherit Mr. Willoughby.
He is thus left in the condition of exceeding his own income and having no
prospect of additional money. He needs to marry a rich woman.
The reader would like for Mr. Willoughby to marry Marianne Dashwood,
but his behavior before the novel begins and continuing during the course of
the novel makes it impossible for him to consider a girl with at most £3,000
and that not immediately. He must do better. The woman he marries, Miss
Sophia Grey, has a sizable fortune of £50,000. Mrs Jennings knew her aunt
so it may be assumed that Miss Grey’s family has not been long in society,
but have a lot of money. Miss Grey is an orphan, not well liked by her
30
ibid p.137
19
guardians, and although “a smart, stilish girl ... not handsome.”31 Again,
we have a young woman using her family money to raise herself into society
by marrying a profligate landowner.
Mr. James Rushworth, Sotherton Court, Mansfield Park
Mr. Rushworth has a very large estate, Sotherton,32 which he seems
incapable of taking care of owing to his stupidity. His only interest is in
improving the esthetic aspects of the park. Even here he is incompetent
in that he has no ideas of his own but only wants to be seen as having
newly redesigned prospects. There is talk of removing an avenue of oaks
for the purpose of opening up the prospect. Mr. Rushworth has recently
been for a visit to the house of a friend and seems to be more taken with
change rather than any specific esthetic improvement. He says of the estate
belonging to his friend, Smith, “I never saw a place so altered in my life. I
told Smith I did not know where I was.”33 However, he does not mention
any specific change as being desirable. If he ever does make any esthetic
31
ibid p. 137
Austen, Jane. 1998. Mansfield Park. Ed. Claudia L. Johnson. New
York: W.W. Norton & Co .p.55
33
ibid, p. 39
32
20
changes, they will undoubtedly be interesting as he has plenty of money to
hire someone competent and does not have any interfering ideas of his own.
Henry Crawford offers to help him with the design and this would probably
be all right as Mr. Crawford is intelligent and has good, if expensive, taste.
We are assured of the antiquity of the Rushworth family at Sotherton
when Miss Bertram describes the house as “being built in Elizabeth’s time”34
It is unfortunately located so as not to have a good prospect. In the house
there is a family chapel dating from the time of James II35 which fell into
disuse only within the last generation. Most telling is the picture gallery with
“family portraits, no longer anything to anybody but Mrs. Rushworth.”36
It appears that good taste is not a requisite for being an old and established
family.
At the Rushworth estate, both the ornamental and the income holdings
are extensive. When Mr. Rushworth is talking about improving his grounds,
he says “Now, at Southerton, we have a good seven hundred [acres], with-
34
35
36
ibid p. 41
ibid, p. 62
ibid, p. 60
21
out reckoning the water meadows.”37 Since he is talking about ornamental
improvements, we can assume he means the park and other pleasure grounds.
The village which is attached to Sotherton is far enough away so the
church bells cannot be heard from the house suggesting a large estate. Maria
declares “the clergyman and his wife are decent people” and the steward “is
a very respectable man.”38 That Maria mentions both the parson and the
steward suggests they would be part of the society of the great house when
there is nothing better available.
Although Mr. Rushworth is portrayed as very stupid, the only mention
of neglect is that Sir Thomas Bertram observes Mr. Rushworth neglecting
business to the extent that Sir Thomas even considers preventing the marriage of his daughter, Maria, to Mr. Rushworth. He does not prevent the
marriage since Mr. Rushworth is so rich and having him as a son-in-law
would give Sir Thomas additional influence. That Sir Thomas would even
consider asking his daughter if she were really sure she wanted to marry such
a man speaks not so much to Sir Thomas’s concern as to the extent of the
37
38
ibid p. 41
ibid p. 59
22
neglect being practiced by Mr. Rushworth.
Without examining the character and worth of the bridal couple, the
marriage of Miss Maria Bertram and Mr. James Rushworth is a very appropriate event. She is pretty, has enough money, and has been brought up
properly. He is very rich and although he has no need of a rich wife, money
is always convenient. Unfortunately, he is almost a characature of stupidity
and she does not have the patience to put up with him for the sake of being
mistress of Sotherton.
The Rushworth holdings are enough so it is unlikely that in one generation there will be cause for alarm, but if the neglect persists, subsequent
Rushworths may need to marry for money.
Mr. Henry Crawford, Everingham, Mansfield Park
Mr. Crawford seems to have neglected his lesser, but more than adequate
property, (£4,000 a year)39 not from stupidity, but from inattention. Henry
and Mary Crawford, orphaned young, have spent most of their childhood
and young adulthood in the household of their uncle and aunt. Henry is
39
ibid p. 84
23
seldom in residence at Everingham and his sister is never there during the
course of the novel. During the novel, they spend their time with their half
sister, Mrs. Grant of Mansfield Parsonage, with various friends in London,
and, briefly, Henry visits his uncle.
When the party from Mansfield Park goes to Sotherton to consider what
improvements Mr. Rushworth should make to the ornamental parts of his
property, it is Mr. Crawford who is in a position to offer suggestions. He has
already improved his estate having known for many years that he would have
the running of it as soon as he reached majority. It is likely his improvements
have eliminated some of the wilder aspects of the ornamental parts of his
estate, but from what we know of his taste and character, his improvements
are probably quite pleasant, even though Mrs. Grant thought “Everingham
as it used to be was perfect in my estimation; such a happy fall of ground,
and such timber.”40 We are not told if any of the woods have been cut.
Until late in the novel, we are not introduced to the income producing
aspects of Mr. Crawford’s land holdings. When he is trying to show Fanny
Price that he has reformed his ways and is becoming worthy of her love
40
ibid, p. 44
24
or at least consideration, we see him briefly being attentive to the income
producing part of his property. He goes to Everingham to confer with his
agent who he had suspected of “some underhand dealing—of meaning to
bias him [Crawford] against the deserving.”41 He finds that in having gone
there, he has done more good than he suspected and became acquainted with
tennants he did not know before. When he leaves Portsmouth and Fanny,
his intention is to return to his estate, but, instead reverts to his old ways
even seducing Fanny’s cousin, Maria, now Rushworth.
Although Mr. Crawford’s character is unregenerated by the end of the
novel and his brief affair with Maria Bertram Rushworth has made any alliance with Fanny Price impossible, it is unlikely he will neglect his property
to the point of running up debts. He is too careful, and, although probably
spent a great deal of money unnecessarily on improvement to ornamental
grounds, is not especially extravagant in his practices. He does hunt and
had two hunters brought to Mansfield for his use while he was courting
Fanny Price, but his income justifies such expenses and he does not hunt to
the exclusion of everything else, taking joy in intellectual as well as athletic
41
ibid p.275
25
pursuits. Mr. Henry Crawford is somewhat tragic, but will never be poor.
Sir Walter Elliot, Kellynch-hall, Persuasion
Sir Walter Elliott is a baronet whose family has long been established at
Kellynch. He makes sure everyone knows his social worth by having his copy
of Baronetage of England open to the page listing himself and his lineage to
the time of Charles II.42 It is the only book he considers worth looking at.
Sir Walter’s holdings are extensive and his income is as well. He leaves the
running of his estate to others and is capable only of pride in his ancestry
and his personal appearance. This pride induces him to exceed his income
to the point of jeopardizing his estate, but also the same pride prevents him
from selling those parts of his estate which are not entailed and thus could
be sold.
It appears that Sir Walter, a widower, did not marry for money, or if
he did, he managed to marry a woman who was not rising in social status,
except, of course, to become Lady Elliot. In any case, Sir Walter and his
oldest daughter, Elizabeth, appear to be able to live beyond any income, no
42
Austen, Jane. 2013.Persuasion. Ed. Patricia Meyer Spacks. New York:
W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 3
26
matter how large.
It is to the credit of Mr. Shepherd, Sir Walter’s attorney, and Lady
Russell, a neighbor and old friend of Lady Elliot, that Sir Walter is persuaded
to let his great house and go live in Bath. Bath is chosen by Mr. Shepherd and
Lady Russell as being less fashionable than London and therefore cheaper
to live in. As long as Mr. Shepherd manages to keep the household safely
away in Bath, the estate will remain intact to be passed down to the heir
apparent, William Walter Elliot, a cousin.
Sir Edward Denham, Denham Hall, Sanditon, fragment
Sir Edward Denham inherited his title and what is left of an estate from
his uncle, Sir Harry Denham. He has almost no money, and absolutely no
inclination of doing anything with what he has to make his estate profitable.
Sir Edward drives a gig,43 which is a small two-wheeled one-horse carriage.
This conveyance is specifically stated to indicate the reduced circumstances
of Sir Edward and his sister, Miss Denham. They would like to ingratiate
themselves to their rich aunt by marriage, Lady Denham, but she seems
43
Austen, Jane.2003. “Sanditon” in Northanger Abbey, Lady Susan, The
Watsons and Sanditon. Ed. James Kingsley and John Davie. 293-346 Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 320
27
disinclined to have much to do with them. His assets consist almost totally
of his title, lineage, and good looks. His aunt, Lady Denham, states clearly
that “Sir Edward must marry for Money,”44 but laments that heiresses are
in short supply.
Since Sanditon is a fragment and did not have the advantage of being
reworked, we have Jane Austen being quite candid in her assessment of how
profligate baronets manage to continue living the life of a gentleman.
The Improved Estate
Not all the estates described in Jane Austen’s novels are badly run.
There are some owners who not only maintain the current income, but actually increase it. England, at the end of the eighteenth century was seeing great changes in agriculture practices. Austen is not always specific
about what improvements have been implemented in the well-run estates,
but clearly some have increased the income under the stewardship of the
current owner.
44
ibid p. 324
28
Mr. John Dashwood, Norland Park, Sense and Sensibility
Mr. John Dashwood is a very rich man. His mother had a considerable
fortune, half of which went directly to him upon her death. This together
with the £10,000 which his wife brought to the marriage allowed them to live
in reasonably high fashion. He then received the remainder of his mother’s
money upon the death of his father. In addition, he inherited Norland Park,
the Dashwood estate which had originally belonged to his great uncle, but
was passed to his father for his lifetime. Norland, unimproved, brings in
£4,000 a year. It is likely that Mr. John Dashwood now has an income
of somewhere between £8,000 and £10,000 a year and soon to increase by
improvements to his newly acquired estate, Norland. Thus, he can be considered among the richest of the non-noble gentry. His lavish style of living, as
described when he and his family go to London for the winter, is in keeping
with his income. His stinginess toward his half-sisters, breaking a promise
to his father, is not justified, but it displays his character, particularly when
he is under the influence of a truly avaricious wife.
Unlike many other owners in Sense and Sensibility, Mr. John Dashwood
29
is a careful steward of his property. When his father, Mr. Henry Dashwood,
acquired Norland, he thought of making improvements to increase the income. He did not live long enough to realize any such profits, but John
Dashwood quickly implemented innovations. He has a walnut grove cut to
make way for a greenhouse.45 Walnut would probably be at least as valuable
then as now since it is a much prized wood for among other things, gunstocks,
many of which were needed in the ongoing Napoleonic wars. Even now, walnut remains desirable as a light durable wood. Walnut, like all hardwoods,
is a slow growing tree and the removal of a walnut grove is the removal of
trees that may have been growing for hundreds of years.
Mr. John Dashwood has also managed to buy an additional farm “so
immediately adjoining my own property that I felt it my duty to buy it.”46
When he tells Elinor of his purchase, he rejoices that he was able buy it
without having to sell any securities, but complains of the price. However,
he does assure Elinor that “I could have sold it the next day, for more than I
gave...”47 As well as getting a good deal, the newly acquired land is adjacent
45
46
47
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, p. 160
ibid, p. 160
ibid, p. 160
30
to Norland making it easy to supervise, and allowing for pooled resources
with other nearby farms.
Finally, Mr. Dashwood is engaged in enclosure. Although Austen makes
no specific comment about her approval or disapproval of the controversial
practice of enclosure, that she has the grasping John Dashwood specifically
engaged in the practice indicates she did not approve. At least she was aware
that, despite increased productivity, enclosure could be a great evil to the
people who had traditionally used the land, and was always advantageous to
the landlord.
The changes Mr. John Dashwood has already made within less than a
year of ownership of Norland show very well the possibilities of improving the
productivity of English estates. He has made a one time harvesting of wood,
has acquired additional farmland close to his great house, and has made
other improvements. His dealings may be sharp and not necessarily in the
best interest of anyone but himself, but he is taking care of his possessions.
Colonel Branden, Deleford Sense and Sensibility
Upon the unexpected death of his childless, older brother, Colonel Bran31
den inherited the heavily encumbered family estate which had been plundered first by his father and then by his older brother. Although only 35,
and probably not having control of the estate for very long, he has freed the
estate from debt and now has a profitable establishment. We are not told
details as to how Colonel Branden managed to remove the debts, but it has
not been at the expense of his woods. When John Dashwood visits his sisters
at Deleford, he speaks to Elinor about Colonel Branden’s property “and his
woods!—I have not seen such timber any where in Dorsetshire, as there is
now standing in Deleford Hanger!”48
He even is in a position to offer the living to Edward Ferrars without
asking for the usual selling price. There are no specific practices described,
merely that the estate is in good shape. Mrs. Jennings thinks the house is
quite good as evidenced when she expresses extreme surprise that Colonel
Branden seems to be apologizing for its condition when he is actually talking
about the house which goes with the living for the parson. She says of the
house “that to my knowledge has five sitting rooms on the ground-floor, and
48
ibid, p. 265
32
I think the housekeeper told me, could make up fifteen beds!”49
Women of Landed Property
Mostly, women did not inherit great estates. Along with the idea that
women did not have the necessary skills to manage an estate, there is undoubtedly a hold over from the times when owners actually were involved
in the physical labor of operating the land. Until very recently, the physical
strength needed to work a landed operation dictated that a reasonable division of labor put a woman primarily in the farmyard or inside the house. At
the time of Jane Austen, the people about whom she writes would not have
such physical restrictions, but the traditions persisted. Indeed, women would
have little education or training which would prepare them for the running of
a great estate, but as we have seen how many men ran their estates, women
would have probably done no worse.
There are four cases of rich women having control over their fortunes.
Each of these women has an estate of which she has control, but it is doubtful
if three of them have much income producing land. Curiously, those three
49
ibid p.206
33
women are quite unpleasant and can be considered, at best, mean, and perhaps even vicious. The fourth is only referred to and does not have any
recorded conversation.
Lady Catherine de Bourgh, Rosings, Pride and Prejudice
One of the most interesting bits of property in Pride and Prejudice is
that held by Lady Catherine de Bourgh. We assume that her husband Sir
Lewis de Bourgh was a newly made knight and not a baronet since there is
no mention of the current Sir —, who would have succeeded Sir Lewis. Sir
Lewis’s only child, a female, will inherit the entire estate and other property
upon the death of Lady Catherine. Therefore, there is no estate which is tied
to a baronial title. Additional evidence that Sir Lewis was not a baronet is
that Lady Catherine wants her daughter to marry her cousin, Mr. Darcy,
rather than the current Sir—. Lady Catherine is very conscious of titles
and would probably prefer her daughter to be Lady de Bourgh rather than
merely Mrs. Darcy. Thus, we may assume Sir— does not exist.
The great house of Rosings is “a handsome modern building”50 and ex-
50
Austen, Pride and Prejudice, p. 105
34
pensively built. Mr. Collins is careful to impress the party from Longborn
by “his enumeration of the windows in front of the house, and his relation
of what the glazing altogether had originally cost Sir Lewis de Bourgh.”51
There is no mention of either library or picture gallery to indicate any length
of time for the de Bourgh family to have been established perhaps at some
other great house. Even though Lady Catherine is quite generous in directing
all the affairs of the lower classes in the neighborhood, there is no mention of
her directing the workings of her estate. There is no mention of a steward or
even a bailiff. One conclusion to draw is that Sir Lewis’s income was derived
from securities or perhaps from some active enterprise, either domestic or foreign, rather than an income producing estate and that Rosings consists only
of a great house with the accompanying lands. Lady Catherine claims that
the de Bourgh’s are “from [a] respectable, honorable, and ancient, though
untitled”52 family, and the Frenchness of the name does suggests that. It is
possible that Sir Lewis was a younger son of a great family and needed to
make real wealth somehow. Lady Catherine appears to have brought mostly
51
52
ibid, p. 107
ibid p.232
35
her title to the marriage as she says she “sees no occasion for entailing estates
from the female line.—It was not thought necessary in Sir Lewis de Bourgh’s
family.”53 This suggests that the money which Miss de Bourgh will inherit
is from her father’s estate and not much from her mother’s holdings, if any.
The estate connected with Rosings is not completely without extent
as Lady Catherine does have a living to offer Mr Collins, but were it very
valuable, she might have sold it for more than Mr. Collins’ obsequiousness.
He states he has been “so fortunate as to be distinguished by the patronage
of the Right Honourable Lady Catherine de Bourgh,...to the valuable rectory
of this parish...”54
Mrs. Ferrars, Norfolk estate, Sense and Sensibility
Mrs. Ferrars has complete jurisdiction over her fortune and tries to keep
both her sons in order by controlling their spending money. When her eldest
son, Edward, is found to be engaged to the most unsuitable Lucy Steele, Mrs.
Ferrars disinherits him and gives the estate to her younger son, Robert. The
estate is said to be worth £1,000 a year.
53
54
ibid p. 109
ibid p. 43
36
Since Mrs. Ferrars is a very rich woman, the estate seems to be symbolic
rather than of a great deal of her total wealth. Evidence of this is: the actual
name of the estate is never mentioned, its existence is not mentioned until
Mrs. Ferrars gives it to Robert, and none of the family is spoken of as living
there.
Lady Denham, Sanditon House, Sanditon fragment
Lady Denham is an extremely successful woman. She has had two husbands, the first was rich and the second titled. Her first husband, Mr. Hollis,
left his widow with the great house named Sanditon House and enough money
for her to entice a titled man to marry her although “Sir Harry thought at
first to have got more.”55 Her second husband, Sir Harry Denham, seems to
have only a title and an estate that does not produce much income. Upon
Sir Harry’s death, the estate went to his nephew, Sir Edward Denham, but
even the gift of Sir Harry’s gold watch was controlled by Lady Denham.56
Jane Austen does not say how Lady Denham managed to marry her first
husband, but there is no indication that she had any money before her first
55
56
Austen, Sanditon, p. 324
ibid p.324
37
marriage. Her grammar is not good, which is an indication used by Austen
of lowness as well as lack of education. Also, there is no indication as to
the extent of any income producing portion of Sanditon House. However,
since Lady Denham is very forthcoming about her affairs to the very new
acquaintance, Charlotte Heywood, it would be in character for her to disclose
the extent of her land holdings if there were any.
Mrs. Smith, Allenhaam, Sense and Sensibility
Mrs. Smith is the presumably rich kinswoman of Mr. John Willoughby
and he is presumed designated by her to inherit her estate. We do not know
for sure how large or profitable her estate is, but Mr. Willoughby thinks it is
a considerable fortune. We also know something of the house as Willoughby
takes Marianne Dashwood for a tour on one of their outings. Marianne is
not known to Mrs. Smith and is not introduced to her during the visit. The
impropriety of such a visit is emphasized. During this visit, the house was
deemed to have many very pleasing aspects by Marianne, so we can assume,
at least, that the house is a fine great house.
Although Mrs. Smith does not appear in any conversation, she is of
38
extreme importance to the plot of the novel. It may be Willoughby’s expectations that induce him to live at the edge of his means, and when Mrs. Smith
discovers he has seduced a young woman he has no intention of marrying,
she cuts him out of her will. These two considerations, together with his unwillingness to curb his extravagance, force him to seek a rich wife, no matter
how disagreeable.
Even though Mrs. Smith disinherits Mr. Willoughby on moral grounds,
we find in the end that she is not overly nice. Once Willoughby marries,
even though not the woman he seduced and ruined, Mrs. Smith restores him
to her favor on “his marriage with a woman of character.”57
Well-Managed Estates
Although many of the estates in Jane Austen’s novels are being plundered or, at best, neglected, there are several which are well maintained. We
can infer the good stewardship by the amount of income, the lack of want,
and the attitudes of subordinates toward the owners.
57
Austen, Sense and Sensibility,p. 268
39
Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy, Pemberly, Pride and Prejudice
In contrast to Lady Catherine, we have her nephew, Mr. Fitzwilliam
Darcy, with a very large estate from which there is ample income. Although
his income of £10,000 a year may not all come from land, the housekeeper’s
account would make one believe there is considerable land income.
The library “has been the work of many generations.”58 Also, “in the
gallery were many family portraits”59 not just the current owner and his
father.
When the housekeeper, Mrs. Reynolds, is asked whether Mr. Darcy is
much at Pemberley, she replies, “Not so much as I could wish...”60 However, Mrs. Reynolds has nothing but praise for Mr. Darcy in his dealings
with her, his servants, his tenants, and particularly his sister. Elizabeth
muses while looking at his portrait “how many people’s happiness were in his
guardianship!—How much pleasure or pain it was in his power to bestow!—
How much of good or evil must be done by him!”61
58
59
60
61
Austen,Pride and Prejudice p. 24
ibid p. 162
ibid p. 160
ibid p. 162
40
In Pride and Prejudice the importance of the steward is exhibited. The
elder Mr. Darcy provided for the education of his steward’s son—“brought
him up at his own expense.”62 according to Mrs. Reynolds. The plan was
that the younger Mr. Wickam would be educated as a gentleman with the
intention of becoming a clergyman63 which would mean a social advancement. That the elder Mr. Darcy favored his steward’s son is a sign of his
benevolence, but also speaks of the importance and coming acceptance of
those who managed great estates other than the owners themselves. With
advancements in agriculture and other land uses, not only honesty, but also
technical skill and knowledge became more important attributes of a steward.
With the added responsibility also came added respect.
Sir Thomas Bertram, Mansfield Park Mansfield Park
The Mansfield Park in Mansfield Park is owned by Sir Thomas Bertram
who is a baronet, and not a newly made knight. We do not know how
long the baronetcy has been in the family, but the evidence is that at least
the current Sir Thomas’s father was a baronet. We are told that “About
62
63
ibid p. 160
ibid, p. 54
41
thirty years ago, Miss Maria Ward of Huntingdon, with only seven thousand
pounds, had the good luck to captivate Sir Thomas Bertram...”64
This
would suggest that he inherited the title since it is unlikely he would have
had time to do anything himself to justify being elevated to the baronetcy.
Nevertheless, his English property seems to be of little or no consequence
for producing income. The income comes from his holdings in Antigua.
Evidence that the English property does not produce adequate income is
Sir Thomas’s inattention to Mansfield Park, and his great attention to the
property in Antigua. Near the beginning of Volume I, Sir Thomas takes
his eldest son, Thomas, with him to Antiqua “with the probability of being
nearly a twelve-month absent.”65 Although Mr. Thomas Bertram returns
within the year, his father remained yet another year on his plantations in
Antigua. There is some English business, since there is mention of “how well
Edmund could supply his place in carving, talking to the steward, writing
to the attorney...”66 while Sir Thomas and his oldest son, Thomas, are in
Antigua. West Indies holdings were a common way for ambitious men of
64
65
66
Austen, Mansfield Park p. 5
ibid p. 25
ibid p. 26
42
this period and earlier to acquire fortunes, purchase great houses in England,
and at times, become baronets. There is no hint as to how long the Antiqua
holdings have been in the family nor what the extent is, but clearly they are
of primary importance to the Bertram family.
Although perhaps not very profitable, Mansfield Park is not insignificant. It does have two livings for clergy, one of which is so very valuable
that it was considered a great prize for Lady Bertram’s sister to marry the
Rev. Mr. Norris, a friend of Sir Thomas who was given the primary living.
If we assume that Mrs. Norris brought £7,000 to her marriage as did her
sister, Lady Bertram, we can deduce that the living is worth at least £600 a
year from the fact that Mr. and Mrs. Norris “began their career of conjugal
felicity with very little less than a thousand a year.”67 This is the living
that was to go to the younger son Edmund, but needed to be sold to cover
the extensive debts run up by the oldest son, Thomas. The second living, although lesser, has enough income to allow Edmund Bertram, upon assuming
the living, to marry his penniless cousin without much fear of poverty.
At one point, Sir Thomas is said to have been inspecting “plantations”
67
ibid p. 5
43
on Mansfield Park, but these plantations would most likely have been either
ornamental or for producing fruit for household use. This may be Austen
making a reference to Sir Thomas’s primary holdings in Antigua which would
consist of sugar plantations complete with slaves. The word “slave” occurs
only once in the entire novel when Fanny asks Edmund “Did you not hear
me ask him [Sir Thomas] about the slave-trade last night?”68 These hints
give us insight into how Sir Thomas views members of his own family. He is
very desirous that his oldest daughter, Maria, marry the very rich and very
stupid Mr. Rushworth, even though it is clear to almost everyone else that
she has no regard for him. Most telling is his attitude toward his niece Fanny
Price when she refuses the proposal of marriage from Mr. Henry Crawford.
He admonishes her while also telling of what he thought the duty of his
daughters.
“And I should have been very much surprised had either of my daughters, on receiving a proposal of marriage at any time, which might carry
with it only half the eligibility of this, immediately and peremptorily,
and without paying my opinion or my regard the compliment of any
surprised, and much hurt, by such a proceeding, I should have thought
it a gross violation of duty and respect. You are not to be judged by
the same rule. You do not owe me the duty of a child. But, Fanny, if
your heart can acquit you of ingratitude—”69
68
69
ibid p. 136
ibid. p. 216
44
Sir Thomas then sends Fanny to visit her family in Portsmouth. His
motive “had very little to do with the propriety of her seeing her parents
again, and nothing at all with any idea of making her happy. He certainly
wished her to go willingly, but he certainly wished her to be heartily sick of
home before her visit ended.”70 That Portsmouth is an unhealthful place,
that Fanny has never been strong, and that one of her sisters has already
died while living in Portsmouth is of no concern to Sir Thomas. He wishes
Fanny to miss the “elegancies and luxuries of Mansfield Park.”71
When Maria is disgraced by going off with Mr. Crawford, she and her
aunt, Mrs. Norris end up “in an establishment being formed for them in
another country.”72
I do not think it is accidental that Jane Austen named this great house
Mansfield Park. The first Earl of Mansfield, in 1770, “made one of the first
landmark rulings against the power of slave owners.”73 Slavery is at the
70
ibid p. 250
ibid
72
ibid p. 315
73
Jenkins, Susan “Kenwood, London’s “Finest Country Residence”” in
Rembrandt, Van Dyck, Gainsborough, The Treasures of Kenwood House,
London Julius Bryand, Susan Jenkins, Walter Liedtke., 9-21, American Federation of the Arts, 2012. p. 9
71
45
heart of the Bertram fortune, and Sir Thomas runs his household as though
the members were subject to his unquestioned rule.
That Sir Thomas is ambitious and desirous of increased fortune is apparent. He spends considerable time in Antiqua, he is a member of parliament
and goes to London alone without the benefit of an established household,
he approves the marriage of his daughter Maria even when he questions the
wisdom of the match, and he considers Fanny Price’s unwillingness to marry
someone she knows to have questionable moral virtue as an act of unacceptable defiance. However, there is not a hint of neglect of property. In fact,
there is more than a hint of too much emphasis on extracting revenue.
Mr. George Knightly, Donwell Abbey, Emma
The most attentive owner of large holdings is Mr. George Knightly of
Emma. He is in daily consultation with his steward, Phillip Larkin, is very
attentive to at least one of his farmers, Robert Martin, knows which of his
strawberries and apples must be sold and presumably knows about fruit in
between. Mr. Knightly is landed gentry in the manner of the ideal. He
has the advantage of living within easy distance of the London market (16
46
miles).74 The neighborhood is so close that it is easy for the foppish Frank
Churchill to go to London and return in a single day, “merely to have his
hair cut.”75
That the steward and farmer are not only given names, but figure in the
plot of the novel indicates an importance of a second tier of people. Emma
Woodhouse says she would never be able to visit Harriet Smith if she were
to marry Mr. Martin, described as a “respectable, intelligent gentlemanfarmer.”76 Later, when Mr. Martin goes to London on an errand for Mr.
George Knightly, he is invited to accompany the John Knightly family to a
pleasure outing, and then dine with the family. It seems that Emma’s older
sister, Mrs. John Knightly can entertain Mr. Martin, but Miss Woodhouse
would not be able to visit Mrs. Martin.
Mr. George Knightly lives very simply and does not keep a carriage. He
walks almost everywhere and only hires a carriage for the ball in order to
give Miss Bates and Jane Fairfax an appropriate means of transportation.
74
Austen, Jane. 2000. Emma. Ed. Stephen M. Parrish. 3rd ed. New
York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 2
75
ibid, p. 132
76
ibid p.39
47
There is evidence that he does not need to cut back on expenses as both
Emma and Mrs. Elton think he should keep a carriage. More telling about
the state of his affairs is the description of Donwell Abbey, with mention
of “its abundance of timber in rows and avenues, which neither fashion nor
extravagance had rooted up.”77 The practices of prudent management have
made unnecessary harvesting of timber irrelevant.
Mr. Charles Musgrove, Sr., Uppercross, Persuasion
The Musgrove family lives in a large unimproved great house in the
village of Uppercross some three miles from Sir Walter Elliott’s seat Kellynchhall. This is the family of second importance in the neighborhood after the
family at Kellynch. There is every indication of prosperity. The eldest son,
Charles, has married the third of the Elliott sisters, with the definite approval
of her snobbish father, Sir Walter. They live in what is now Uppercross
Cottage, a farmhouse elevated and expanded into a cottage to the extent
that “the Uppercross Cottage, with its veranda, French windows, and other
prettinesses, was quite as likely to catch the traveller’s eye...[as] the Great
77
ibid p.234
48
House.”78 The two oldest Musgrove sisters “brought from a school at Exeter
all the usual accomplishments” and have given the parlour “the proper air of
confusion by a grand piano forte and a harp...”79 There are several younger
children, but there is no hint of not being able to provide for them. The
second son, Richard, dead before the beginning of the novel, had been obliged
to go to sea to earn a living, so there is not so much money that younger
sons could live without some additional income.
The only talk of improvement comes from the younger Mr. Musgrove
speaking of his cousin Charles Hayter with “whenever Winthrop [the Hayter
property] comes into his hands, he will make a different sort of place of
it.”80 Since Charles Musgrove and his wife are talking about how much
money Charles Hayter is worth, one could conclude that Charles Musgrove
has plans for increasing the income of his father’s property at Uppercross.
The only possible evil is that the younger Mr. Charles Musgrove is an avid
sportsman, but he only keeps dogs to assist in shooting birds, not horses and
hounds for hunting. In general, he seems too much aware of the importance
78
79
80
Austen, Persuasion
ibid p. 29-30
ibid, p. 55
49
of property to do anything foolish.
Given that Sir Walter Elliot has wasted much of his fortune and now
must leave the neighborhood to economize, the Musgroves are the first family of the neighborhood. It is quite notable that this elevation does not seem
to increase the pride or sense of importance for the Musgroves. In fact Anne
Eliot muses at “how unknown, or unconsidered there, were the affairs...at
Kellynch-hall”81 Clearly, the Musgroves, even the fashionable young ladies,
do not see the need to attach themselves to the more prestigious establishment of the neighborhood.
Woods
We have several instances of people dealing with woods and the felling
or preserving of trees. Mr. James Rushworth, Mansfield Park has no concern
about removing an avenue of oaks to open up his view. Oaks, besides being
beautiful trees, are very hard wood and take a long time to grow. When he
removes the avenue, he will realize a profit since the hard wood is good both
for traditional English furniture and as fuel for heat as it burns very slowly.
81
ibid p. 31
50
The most aggressive removal of trees is by Mr. John Dashwood, Sense
and Sensibility. He is reported as having cleared a grove of walnut trees
to make way for a greenhouse and seems unable to eye any woods without
thinking of its worth. Unlike Mr. Rushworth, he is definitely aware of the
revenue to be realized by cutting trees.
To the other extreme, we have Mr. George Knightly, who has not removed his avenues of trees, but talks of the felling of A tree. Clearly, trees
do at times need to be removed, and judicious harvesting of timber is needed
to fuel fires.
Colonel Branden seems to be in the same category as Mr. Knightly. We
do not know of his harvesting or removing trees, but we do know that his
woods are in tact even though he had great need of money when he first
assumed the running of his estate.
In all of these cases, we have Jane Austen making comments about the
moral worth of her characters.
Stewards, Baliffs, Farmers, Attorneys, etc
Although the major characters of Jane Austen’s novels are gentry, there
51
are enough other people to see that the society was not static. Most notably,
we have Mr. Wickham, Pride and Prejudice, who is the son of a much valued
steward. That he does not turn out well speaks to his character rather than
the constraints of the society.
Emma, the most country of all the novels, had several people who are
not of the gentry, but are shown to be extremely important to the other
characters of the novel and even to the action itself. The most notable is the
farmer Mr. Martin who marries Emma’s protege Harriet Smith. Emma finds
fault when he has not found time to acquire the latest novel. Harriet tries
to defend him by saying he reads the agricultural reports and reads to the
family in the evening. Clearly, he is not uncultured, and, from the little we
see of him superior in education and understanding to Harriet Smith, whose
only virtue seems to be that she is pretty.
In Persuasion, Sir Walter Elliott’s aptly named attorney, Mr. Shepherd,
is of utmost importance in preserving the estate of Kellynch. In addition Mr.
Shepherd’s daughter, Mrs. Clay, is a person who many believe could entice
Sir Walter into marriage. Mrs. Clay’s status is interesting in itself as she
52
“had returned , after an unprosperous marriage, to her father’s house, with
the additional burthen of two children.”83 Not only is she the daughter of an
attorney, but a divorcee. Nevertheless, Miss Elliot considers her a suitable
companion and Sir Walter not only makes no objection, but finds her quite
pleasing.
Conclusion
There are some respectable men in Jane Austen’s novels who do not
have considerable property. Exceptions include clergy in Edmund Bertram in
Mansfield Park, Edward Ferrars in Sense and Sensibility and Henry Tilney in
Northanger Abbey. These all have the status of younger son, even though Edward Ferrars is the victim of his mother’s preference for his younger brother.
Other younger sons have become military men such as Colonel Fitzwilliam
in Pride and Prejudice and, before the death of his older brother, Colonel
Branden in Sense and Sensibility. We also see naval officers who are at least
respectable enough for Sir Walter Elliott to let Kellynch-hall to an admiral
in Persuasion. In fact, the hero of Persuasion is a Captain in the Navy. The
83
Austen, Persuasion
53
most unusual of the non-landed respectable gentlemen is Mr. Gardiner in
Pride and Prejudice. Mr. Gardner is definitely “in trade” and is said to live
near his warehouses. Yet none of the men in Jane Austen’s novels exceeds
him in prudence, enterprise, intellectual curiosity, agreeableness, and good
manners.
Mr. Charles Bingley represents a new class of gentry which signals a
society in flux. His father made a lot of money by some unspecified means
in the North and left his three children very well off. It is left to the current
Mr. Bingley to buy an estate which he eventually does. Given what we know
of his character, it is unlikely that he would be very attentive were it not
for his close association with his good friend and by the end of the novel
brother-in-law, Mr. Darcy.
Of those with property, many are profligate. Often, very little of the
estate may be sold and we see the beginnings of an upper class that owns
a lot of land but has very little disposable cash. Of all the estates, only
Mr. Knightly of Donwell Abbey Emma and possibly Mr. Darcy of Pemberly
Pride and Prejudice are well managed great estates without being unnec54
essarily mean as Mr. John Dashwood of Norland in Sense and Sensibility.
Curiously, the only stewards specifically mentioned are the current steward
of Donwell Abbey and the previous steward of Pemberly. We do know of
the existence of stewards at Sotherton and Mansfield Park in Mansfield Park
and Norland in Sense and Sensibility. Well-managed lesser estates are those
of Colonel Branden Sense and Sensibility and Mr. Musgrove Persuasion.
Perhaps the attitude of English society toward land holdings can be
summarized by Charles Musgrove about the prospects of his oldest sister,
Henrietta. Henrietta is temporarily charmed by Captain Wentworth who has
won £23,000 in prizes from taking ships, is well off, and in want of a wife. She
temporarily ignores her previous suitor, Charles Heyter, the eldest son of a
gentleman with land holdings considerably less than the Musgrove estate. In
fact, Charles Heyter must become a curate in order to even consider taking a
wife before he comes into his father’s estate. Nevertheless, Charles Musgrove
talks of the importance of an eldest son who will inherit land.
55
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