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A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad :
On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
Yukiko SAITO
I. Introduction ‒ as one of the rainbow (iris) colours
Fragment 32
h3n t 0 I] rin kale/ousi, ne/foj kai_ tou=to pe/fuke,
porfu/reon kai_ foini/keon kai_ xlwro_n i0de/sqai.
And she whom they call Iris, this too is by nature a cloud,
2
purple, red and greenish-yellow to behold.
What are the actual colors traditionally understood as iris ? According to Xenophanes, rainbows have
3
three colours: purple (porfu/reoj), red (foini/keoj), and greenish-yellow (xlwro/j), as described above. In
Japan, seven colours appear in a rainbow, as in the saying, nana iro no niji . However, to be more
precise, what colours are they? Colour research has been constantly addressed, most famously by
Goethe, Newton, and so on. Nonetheless this issue should be examined not only on the basis of scientific
theory, but also from wider cultural perspectives. We all perceive colours every day, and in fact colours
do affect our judgement immensely. Consequently,‘colours’play an important part in our lives, in
4
social terms. A thorough examination of colours could contribute to better understanding of the mind
or deeply internalised thought. However, at the same time, it is extremely difficult to define‘colour’
because each colour has an almost infinite number of shades and also depends on cultural and historical
backgrounds. In particular, in the case of antiquity, it is necessary to consider how the poet uses the
word in his/her individual work. Then we ought to examine the poet’
s thought and how the poet
recognises the term.
The author has been examining perceptions of colour in classical times, especially in Homer:
5
leuko/j, me/laj, kua/neoj, canqo/j, r9od/ on, porfu/reoj, xlwro/j, polio/j, and kelaino/j. So now, in this paper,
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
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I should like to focus on foi=nic, or foi=n-related words, including foini/keoj, one of the rainbow colours
6
mentioned by Xenophanes. In general, foi=nic is translated as‘purple,’
‘crimson,’and so on. This
paper attempts to investigates how foi=nic is organised in the Iliad , i.e., in what context foi=nic is used
and what connections exist, then what metaphorical function foi=nic possesses in the story. Further,
based on colour research, prospective scopes for colour recognition and meaning in antiquity will be
unfolded, including cultural differences and possible inquiries for the next step.
II. Aristotle’
s red (?) in De Coloribus
Before we start discussing foi=nic in the Iliad , I should like to address what kind of concept of foi=nic or
‘colour’classical writers had in mind, briefly. References on‘colour’in antiquity are dotted elsewhere
7
- Plato, Pliny, Xenophanes as seen above, and even other literatures could be included here. Here
Aristotle’
s De Coloribus should be quoted, as‘colour’is central to the treatise and to_ foinikou=n is
mentioned:
Ta_ d 0 a1lla e0k tou/twn th|= kra/sei kai_ tw|= ma=llon kai_ h[tton gigno/mena polla_j kai_ poiki/laj poiei= xrwma/twn
fantasi/aj. kata_ me_n ma=llon kai_ h[tton, w3sper to_ foinikou=n kai_ to_ a9lourge/j, kata_ de_ th_n kra=sin, w3sper
to_ foinikou=n kai_ to_ a9lourge/j, kata_ de_ th_n kra=sin, w3sper to_ leuko_n kai_ to_ me/lan, o3tan mixqe/nta faiou=
poih/sh| fantasi/an. dio_ to_ me/lan kai_ skiero_n tw|= fwti_ mignu/menon foinikou=n. to_ ga_r me/lan mignu/menon tw|=
te tou= h9li/ou kai_ tw|= a0po_ tou= puro_j fwti_ qewrou=men a0ei_ gigno/menon foinikou=n, kai_ ta_ me/lana purwqe/nta
pa/nta ei0j xrw=ma metaba/llonta foinikou=n: ai3 te ga_r kapnw/deij flo/gej kai_ oi9 a1nqrakej, o3tan w]si
diakekaume/noi, fai/nontai xrw=ma e1xontej foinikou=n. … (De Coloribus 792a 4ff.)
Aristotle acknowledges that there is a mixed, different variety of colours in greater or smaller
8
proportions. Foini=c is one of such colours due to mixture; When black and shadow are mixed with
light, foini=c results; When black is mixed with sunlight and fire, it becomes foini=c; When black things
are burned, foini=c appears; Also, when smoky flame and coal are burned, the colour becomes foini=c.
Surely, if something black burns, it seems that red colours appear.
Let us look at another passage from De Sensu .
W
3 sper de_ ta_ xrw/mata e0k leukou= kai_ me/lanoj mi/cew/j e0stin, ou3twj oi9 xumoi_ e0k gluke/oj kai_ pikrou=. kai_
kata_ lo/gon dh_ tw=| ma=llon kai_ h[tton e3kastoi/ ei0sin, ei1te kat 0 a0riqmou/j tinaj th=j mi/cewj kai_ kinh/sewj, ei1te
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
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kai_ a0ori/stwj. oi9 de_ th_n h9donh_n poiou=ntej mignu/menoi, ou[toi e0n a0riqmoi=j.
Mo/noj me_n ou]n liparo_j o9 tou= gluke/oj e0sti_ xumo/j, to_ d 0 a9lmuro_n kai_ pikro_n sxedo_n to_ au0to/, o9 de_
au0sthro_j kai_ drimu_j kai_ strufno_j kai_ o0cu_j a0na_ me/son. sxedo_n ga_r i1sa kai_ ta_ tw=n xumw=n ei1dh kai_ ta_ tw=n
xrwma/twn e0sti/n. e9pta_ ga_r a0mfote/rwn ei1dh, a1n tij tiqh=,| w3sper eu2logon, to_ faio_n me/lan ti ei]nai: lei/petai
ga_r to_ canqo_n me_n tou= leukou= ei]nai w3sper to_ liparo_n tou= gluke/oj, to_ foinikou=n de_ kai_ a9lourgon kai_
pra/sinon kai_ kuanou=n metacu_ tou= leukou= kai_ me/lanoj, ta_ d 0 a1lla mikta_ e0k tou/twn. kai_ w3sper to_ me/lan
ste/rhsij e0n tw|= diafainei= tou= leukou=, ou3tw to_ a9lmuro_n kai_ pikro_n tou= gluke/oj e0n tw=| trofi/mw| u9grw=.| dio_
kai_ h9 te/fra tw=n katakaome/nwn pikra_ pa/ntwn: e0ci/kmastai ga_r to_ po/timon e0c au0tw=n.
（De Sensu 442a 12ff）
Here colours have numerous varieties, mixed from white and black, as many as the flavours that result
from mixing of sweet and bitter. Flavours depend on proportions, greater sweetness or bitterness, and
so on, but according to Aristotle, the indefinite variety of flavour is roughly equal to that of colours.
Grey (faio/j) is a variation of black (me/laj), as yellow (canqo/j) is of white (leuko/j). Red (foini=c), purple
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(a9lourgo/j), green (pra/sinoj), and blue (ku/anoj) are intermediate colours between leukoj and me/laj.
The remaining colours are all combinations of these. This conception of colour combinations is related
to ours in modern times. Osborne, stating that“ The Greeks were not given to careful discriminations
of colour hue and there is little evidence of attention to hues except possibly within the violet-purple
band. The Greek colour-vocabulary was jejune and the available terms were bunched into a small
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number of groups,” seems to consider that the Greeks did not pay much attention to colour variation,
or were lacking in discernment of colours, which I believe should be re-considered. Hereby we ought to
seek previous research on foini=c.
III. Is colour in Homer patchwork… ?
11
The research on colour and its meaning in Classics originates from Gladstone.
Gladstone, dividing
colour terms in Homer into five groups, categorises foini=c into the first group (I. The paucity of his
12
colours), and renders the term a‘violet.’ As stated“[F]oini=c in Homer is clearly a word of descriptive
13
of colour ; but it as clearly partakes of the indefinite character attaching to the other words of the class,”
foini=c is obviously recognised as a colour, but also realised as colour term that possesses vague
properties. Gladstone’
s viewpoint is that the colour description itself in Homer does not really have any
meaning, as colour terms apply for many varieties of, too many perhaps, materials in Homer. On the
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
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other hand, however, he admits that there might have been the recognition of brightness and darkness,
14
even though the concern for the individual colour was lacking. Further, in his later article in 1877, he
15
discusses foini=c as one of the colours that describes red.
We say‘red’in one word, but in fact the term does not only mean one red colour. There are
darker red, brighter red, etc., depending on how they are mingled from other hues, and light. Platnauer
uses two main categories to explain colour: (A) chromatic and (B) achromatic, then sub-divides (A) and
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(B) into smaller groups. (A) is divided into four groups: (1) yellow-orange-brown, (2) red, (3) purple-blue
and (4) green. (B) is divided into three groups: (1) black, (2) white, and (3) gray. Foiniko/eij and dafoiniko/j
are categorised into (A)-(2) and Platnauer suggests that the foin-words generally describe red like blood
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in Homer.
Wallace also analyses colour presentations in ancient poems and refers to foin-words as
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“blood-red or purple.” An interesting point is that, compared porfu/reoj and e0ruqro/j in her argument,
19
Wallace proposes that“the word foini=c gives no hint as to be the exact shade meant. ”A colour is
comprised of shades or hues, however lights are mixed. Foini=c also cannot be defined exactly as red, or
20
purple. It reminds us of Goethe’
s phrase -“The colours are acts of light. ”
21
In Cunliffe’
s dictionary , foini=c is said“(1) Red or purple as a pigment or dye
a horse, bay
(2) As adj., of
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(3) A palm-tree.” Also, Cunliffe renders‘Red’to foi/nioj and foino/j. Chadwick &
Baumbach mentions“a decorative motif of furniture: phoinikei, phoinikphi‘griffin(s)’or‘palm-tree’
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descr. of textiles: phoinikiā, phoinikea, opi-phoinikeia ‘red’ ”
24
«roux, fauve, rouge sombre»”then explains the term thereafter.
Chantraine gives foini=c first“1
Irwin concludes that foiniko/eij and
25
foi=nic are categorised into“the red-yellow range.” Fowler’
s argument is noticeable: porfu/reoj
“purple”
(
) and foini/keoj “crimson”
(
) are treated as opposites in her article, but Fowler says that“[T] his
color, foini/keoj, was probably as uncertain a shade of porfu/reoj, and the range of hues the ko/kkoj
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produced probably overlapped with those of purple-dyed materials.” Moonwomon gives minute
analyses on phoi -words, and provides a table that shows phoiníkeos means red, and phoîniks means
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blood-red.
According to Moonwomon, it seems reasonable to understand that those phoi -words are
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related to blood, or blood-related shades in Greek.
It is also said that“[H]omer’
s use of phoîniks and
29
derivatives is generally reserved for objects dyed and painted with agents other than blood,” which
we shall shed light on later in the main argument.
30
Berlin & Kay should not be neglected here.
They investigate the development of colour
terms in different cultures from antiquity to modern times, and discover that there is a universal
process of variation for colour terms. There are seven steps: first black and white emerge [Stage I],
second is red [Stage II], green and yellow [Stage III/IV], blue comes next [Stage V], then brown [Stage
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
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VI], purple, pink, orange, and gray at last [Stage VII].
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32
Berlin & Kay, referring to Capell
for their
analysis of Ancient Greek colour terms, mention only white (leuko/j), black (glauko/j), red (e0ruqro/j) and
33
yellow (xlwro/j) for Ancient Greek, and do not consider foini=c. As many scholars have pointed out, it
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is clear that a certain amount of research on other possible colour terms is lacking. Obviously e0ruqro/j
is not the only term that describes‘red.’
It is not very easy to define one colour in one term.‘Red’has shades and hues. Colour
expressions originally have not been regarded as meaningful in Homer, but I would like to take a
different standpoint: the poet chooses foi=nic among other red-hued colour terms for the line. He does
not only follow the hexameter rule. The poet’
s intention must be part of composing his story. Leaving
the subject whether foi=nic should be labelled as‘red’for another paper, how foi=nic takes its role in
the context of the Iliad , i.e., what foi=nic symbolises during the story, is to be discovered in this paper.
*
*
*
I will look at every presentation of foi=nic in the Iliad , analyse their referents, and examine the contexts
to explore how the poet organises this term in his story, as I believe, intentionally. As we shall see in
more detail later, the proposal that the term foi=nic is carefully selected by the poet to strengthen the
context through the imagery connection of foi=nic, which metaphorically represents lifeforce between
lighter red and darker red, will be presented.
IV. Foi=nic in the Iliad
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Foi=nic appears in 25 instances in the Iliad . Their referents are: dra/kwn (snake), pe/lwroj (monstrous),
ai[ma (blood), xlai=na (cloak), zwsth/r (belt), faeino/j (shining), e0kta/dioj (outstretched), diplo/oj (twofold),
to/soj (great), a1lloj (another), and ne/oj (new). At a glance, there is no problem for them to be
accompanied with red, purple, or purple-red. For the proper noun, Foi=nic (Phoinix), there are as follows:
a0nti/qeoj (godlike), thlekleito/j (far-famed), Dii6 fi/loj (loved by Zeus), ge/rwn (old man), i9pphla/thj (driver
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of horse), diotrefh/j (cherished of Zeus), a1tta (father) , palaigenh/j (born long ago), and o0pa/ona patro_j
e9oi=o (his father’
s follower). Based on the keyword of foi=nic, what kind of threads could we possibly
bring together? What kind of imagery connection does foi=nic imply? I have divided those referents into
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categories and made the table of foi=nic shown below.
shades of foi=nic.
IV-1. Snake with foi=nic colour
Now we shall uncover the world of bright
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A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
First let us look at the example of the serpent with foi=nic. We can see this presentation twice in the
Iliad , both in the same line.
o1rnij ga/r sfin e0ph=lqe perhse/menai memaw=sin,
ai0eto_j u9yipe/thj e0p 0 a0ristera_ lao_n e0er
/ gwn,
foinh/enta dra/konta fe/rwn o0nu/xessi pe/lwron
zwo_n e1t 0 a0spai/ronta: kai_ ou1 pw lh/qeto xa/rmhj: (Il . 12. 200-204)
‘A bird-omen had appeared to them as they stood eager to cross, a soaring eagle which
skirted the front of the army from right to left, holding in its talons a monstrous blood-red
snake, alive and still struggling: and the snake had not yet lost its will to fight - ...’
The poet narrates the situation of the war, using the prediction of Poulydamas. An eagle, holding a
snake which is described as foi=nic, crosses in front of the Trojans. But the eagle eventually drops the
snake onto the ground because the snake struggles against the eagle, twisting back and striking at the
eagle. The Trojans see the wriggling snake and shudder with fright. Then Poulydamas, seeing it as the
sign of Zeus, suggests that the Trojans should stop the fight against the Achaians. The line 12. 220 in
which Poulydamas speaks of foi=nic in his speech (211-229) is the same as 12. 202. Responding to
Poulydamas’interpretation, Hektor criticises Poulydamas and rather insists that the Trojans should go
on fighting. The Trojans agree with Hektor with a clamour, and Poulydamas’suggestion is not
38
accepted. On foinh/enta that applies to the snake (dra/konta) in 202, Wallace claims“reddish-brown.”
In such a serious military situation, the description of foi=nic of the monstrous snake can be traced as
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stressing the men’
s strong eagerness to fight.
Further, in the context, the snake represents the
Achaians, and the eagle, failing to bring the snake home, represents the Trojans, who fail in the end.
The passionate strength of the Achaians is presented by the foi=nic snake, which does not lose its will
to fight.
IV-2. Foi=nic and blood
How about the relationship between foi=nic and the colour of blood? At least in Japan, blood is usually
described as red,‘akai chi .’If foi=nic covers red, or red-ranged-hues, it should not be very odd that
foi=nic applies to blood, ai[ma. Ai[ma is described with foi=nic twice in the Iliad . Let us look at the case in
book 23 first.
. . . . . . kata_ de_ no/tioj r9ee/ n i9drw/j,
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puknai_ de_ smw/diggej a0na_ pleura/j te kai_ w1mouj
ai3mati foiniko/essai a0ne/dramon: oi9 de_ ma/l 0 ai0ei_
ni/khj i9es
/ qhn tri/podaj pe/ri poihtoi=o: (Il . 23. 715-718)
‘
and the sweat ran pouring down. Weals swelling red with blood sprang up all over their
sides and shoulders, as they struggled on hard for victory and the prize of the crafted tripod.
…’
The wrestling-match between Aias and Odysseus is narrated here. Both of them fight eagerly for the
prize; they grip each other and the sweat runs down, and weals, which is described as swelling foi=nic
with blood, come up over their sides and shoulders. Neither warrior prevails, and even the Achaians
become bored with watching the match, so eventually Achilleus intervenes and lets it end in a draw.
Although this scene is not on the battlefield, during the match where‘win or lose’does matter, the
picture of two men fighting desperately is strengthened by the sweat and the weals. Further, the use
40
of foiniko/essai
to describe blood in 717 provides a vivid impression to the readers or audience. I
should like to note the sort of association of water-running imagery, which is related to‘colour’(see
/ (flow, run), i9drw/j (sweat). The vividness of
dotted lines under Greek words); no/tioj (moist, damp), r9ew
the picture of the sweat and foi=nic blood while Aias and Odysseus are fighting is further enriched by
successive colour-related words. I will mention this later in more detail.
The other case of foi=nic blood is seen in the simile in book 16.
Murmido/naj d 0 a1r 0 e0poixo/menoj qw/rhcen A
0 xilleu_j
pa/ntaj a0na_ klisi/aj su_n teu/xesin: oi( de_ lu/koi w4j
w0mofa/goi, toi=si/n te peri_ fresi_n a1spetoj a0lkh/,
oi3 t 0 e1lafon kerao_n me/gan ou1resi dh|ws
/ antej
da/ptousin: pa=sin de_ parh/io
+ n ai3mati foino/n:
kai/ t 0 a0gelehdo_n i1asin a0po_ krh/nhj melanu/drou
la/yontej glw/ssh|sin a0raoh|s
= in me/lan u3dwr
a1kron, e0reugo/menoi fo/non ai3matoj: e0n de/ te qumo_j
sth/qesin a1tromo/j e0sti, periste/netai de/ te gasth/r:
(Il . 16. 155-163)
‘Meanwhile Achilleus went along the huts and brought all the Myrmidons under arms. They
gathered like wolves, eaters of raw flesh, their hearts full of boundless fury, who have pulled
down a great horned stag in the mountains, and then tear him, so that all have their jaws
running with blood. Then they go in a pack to drink from a spring of black water, lapping
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
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with their slim tongues at the dark surface of the stream, and belching clots of blood: their
bellies are strained full, and their hearts fearless in their breasts.’
In this scene, Achilleus suggests that Patroklos should put armour on and encourages the Myrmidons
to be ready for the battle. The scene of the Myrmidons’gathering is likened to wolves targeting a
+ n) are coloured foi=nic with blood. They go on
stag. After tearing at the stag, those wolves’jaws (parh/io
to a spring of black water, in order to drink from the dark surface of the stream. They are sated, but
still their hearts are fearless. Like these wolves, the way of the Myrmidons’preparing for the battle is
illustrated. Their courageous, and brutal act is strengthened by foi=nic. Here again, the successive
arrangement of words, including foino/n (159), melanu/droj (with black water), me/laj (black), u3dwr (water),
and fo/noj (blood when shed, gore) supply even more vividness in creating this picture of courageous
41
warriors.
42
Wallace’
s point on the colour of blood is noteworthy. The words that start with e0ruq- and
foin-“are used of the good red colour of freshly shed blood,”but it seems that fresh blood colour is
e0ruqro/j and the colour of blood is changed in the epithets to foi/nioj, etc., once it is exposed to air.
According to Wallace, e0ruqro/j is the colour for blood, and foin-words are often used“with a
metaphorical reference to crimson dye.”The fact that me/laj and kelaino/n are more often used for
blood is also discussed. Whether e0ruqro/j, foi/nioj, me/laj, or kelaino/n is used, it is clear that the colour
of blood also has shades, and perhaps the ancient Greeks recognise that the colour of blood changes as
time goes by after exposure to air. In this respect, the poet also perceives that blood’
s colour changes
then uses those adjectives for the blood as he observes according to the context.
IV-3. Clothing and foi=nic
In this section, I would like to consider clothing. Clothes of red colour are found all over the world, and
43
human beings have worn red clothes since very long ago. Even now, sometimes we wear something
red to encourage ourselves, as if we are going to a battle. Maybe characters in the Iliad are not an
exception. We can find three cases in which foi=nic applies to clothing. The first case is Nestor’
s cloak,
xlai=na, which is described using foi=nic.
W
4 j ei0pw_n e1ndune peri_ sth/qessi xitw=na,
possi_ d 0 u9po_ liparoi=sin e0dh/sato kala_ pe/dila
a0mfi d_ 0 a1ra xlai=nan peronh/sato foiniko/essan
diplh=n e0ktadi/hn, ou1lh d 0 e0penh/noqe la/xnh.
(Il . 10. 131-134)
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‘So speaking he dressed his body in a tunic, and bound his fine sandals under his shining feet,
then pinned around him a purple cloak that spread wide in a double fold, with the wool nap
thick on it.’
Book 10 begins with the scene where his worries prevent Agamemnon from sleeping. Agamemnon
decides to visit Nestor first, in order to discuss what to do. Nestor is persuaded by Agamemnon to
attend the gathering, and starts dressing himself to go out. He puts on tunic, sandals, and a foiniko/essan
cloak. As seen above, Hammonds translates foiniko/essan as“a purple cloak.”Is Nestor’
s cloak here
purple then? Gladstone does not seem to consider it as red, either.
44
Hainsworth comments on
45
foiniko/essan as saying“the proper epithet for a cloak.” Going out after putting on something red or
purple illustrates a positive and powerful image, suggesting that something is strongly aimed for.
Further, the use of liparoi=sin in 132 to express the shining feet of Nestor adds more brightness and a
positive sense to the scene.
Next, foi=nic agrees with zwsth/r twice in the Iliad . In the famous scene of gift-exchange in
book 6, Glaukos and Diomedes meet on the battlefield and they introduce themselves, individually. In
Diomedes’speech, the foi=nic belt is displayed.
Oi0neu_j me_n zwsth=ra di/dou foi/niki faeino/n,
Bellerofo/nthj de_ xru/seon de/paj a0mfiku/pellon,
kai/ min e0gw_ kate/leipon i0wn_ e0n dw/mas 0 e0moi=si.
(Il . 6. 219- 221)
‘Oineus gave a belt brilliant with purple, and Bellerophontes a two-handled cup of gold ‒ I
left it in my house when I came to the war.’
Oineus and Bellerophonetes exchange their gifts of friendship with each other; Oineus gives a belt,
which is described as foi/niki faeino/n. Bellerophonetes, on the other hand, gives a cup of xru/seoj, gold.
Diomedes and Glaukos later discover that they are guest-friends from long ago in their families,
exchange their armour with each other, and then leave. Hammond translates the phrase here as“a belt
brilliant with purple.”In Graziosi & Haubold, foi=nic is said to be a purple dye derived from sea snails,
46
but in scholia it is described as being obtained from the flowers of the holm oak.
Objects obtained
from foi=nic dye were also very precious as well. Kirk comments on the belt here as“ it is bright with
47
purple, but purple-stained ivory attachments could be meant,” and Leaf recognises it as stained with
48
purple or crimson. However bright red, or purple the belt is, it is reasonable to envisage the belt with
bright, shining hues to some extent. Faeino/n (shining) in 219 and xru/seon (golden) in 220 increase the
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A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
level of brightness even more for the context.
In book 7, the duel between Aias and Hektor results in is a draw, due to the arrival of night
and also Zeus’instruction. Both of them exchange gifts with each other. Aias gives Hektor a belt,
which is foi=nic.
W
3 j a1ra fwnh/saj dw=ke ci/foj a0rguro/hlon,
su_n kolew|= te fe/rwn kai_ e0ut
+ mh/tw| telamw=ni:
Ai1aj de zwsth=ra di/dou foi/niki faeino/n.
(Il . 7. 303-305)
‘So speaking he fetched a sword with a silver-nailed hilt and gave it to Aias, together with
its sheath and baldric of well-cut leather: and Aias gave him a belt brilliant with purple.’
The line 305 is almost the same line as 6. 219 that we just saw above. Again, we see“a belt brilliant
49
with purple”(by Hammond). In Kirk, it is explained as“a girdle gleaming with ivory.” There is a
huge difference between ivory and red-purple hues. Can it be a brilliant colour? A noticeable point here
is the fact that Aias gives a foi=nic belt, and Hektor, on the other hand, gives a silver-studded
(a0rguro/hloj) sword. Here again, through the use of not only faeino/n, but also a0rguro/hlon, the picture
is painted more vividly.
IV-4. Miscellaneous
I would like to examine other presentations of foi=nic, miscellaneous ones, in the Iliad .
tou= de_ Me/ghj ko/ruqoj xalkh/reoj i9ppodasei/hj
ku/mbaxon a0kro/taton nu/c 0 e1gxei+ o0cuo/enti,
r9hc= e d 0 a0f 0 i3ppeion lo/fon au0tou=: pa=j de_ xama=ze
ka/ppesen e0n koni/hs
| i, ne/on foi/niki faeino/j. (Il . 15. 535-538)
‘Meges stabbed at Dolops with his sharp spear, hitting the very crown of his bronze horseplumed helmet, and shearing away its crest of horse-hair ‒ it dropped entire to the dust on
the ground, bright with its fresh purple.’
Line 538 is very similar with the previous examples of belt above. In this scene, Meges, one of the
Achaians, faces Dolops, one of the Trojans, on the battlefield. Meges, using his spear, stabs at the
bronze (xalkh/rhj) helmet with horse-hair plume that Dolops wears. It shears away the horse-hair
plume, and all the plume, bright fresh foi=nic, falls in the dust. Dolops, still hoping for victory, continues
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
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fighting, but Menelaos comes to help Meges. Finally, Dolops is killed. In this scene, foi=nic is used to
describe the decoration of armour. We are told that the plumed helmet worn by Dolops is bright, fresh
and foi=nic. Hammond’
s translation is as above,“bright with its fresh purple,”while Leaf offers
50
“resplendent with the purple in which it had been recently dyed,” and Willcock says“bright with the
51
purple in which it had been recently dyed.” As well as our previous examples of foi=nic, some colourrelated terms such as foi/niki, faeino/j, and xalkh/reoj play an important part in strengthening the
battle scene visually.
Foi=nic appears in the funeral games in book 23, in the horse race scene where Diomedes’
horse is leading the race.
toi=o d 0 a1neuqen e0on/ toj o9moklhth=roj a0kou/saj
e1gnw, fra/ssato d 0 i3ppon a0riprepe/a prou1xonta,
o4j to_ me_n a1llo to/son foi=nic h]n, e0n de_ metw/pw|
leuko_n sh=ma te/tukto peri/troxon h0ut
5 e mh/nh.
(Il . 23. 452-455)
‘When the first driver was still far away he heard him shouting and recognised the voice,
and he could make out the distinctive horse in front, who was chestnut all over, except that
there was a white blaze on his forehead, round like the full moon.’
The illustration including foi=nic is particularly distinctive here. The Achaians sit and watch for the
horses during the race. Idomeneus is the first to catch the sight of those horses. The first one is
described as foi=nic all over, but on its forehead there is a white (leuko/j) blaze like the moon. Hammond
gives‘chestnut’for foi=nic. Does‘chestnut’not sound like more brown, a darker hues than red?
Describing a horse’
s body as chestnut all over sounds credible, but it would actually be slightly strange
if the entire horse had been described as red. Gladstone, suggesting that“[W]hether we render this bay
52
or chestnut, it is materially different from the red colour of blood,” claims that foi=nic here is not
53
apparently red. Also, Richardson regards foi=nic here as‘chestnut.’ Perhaps the presentation of
foi=nic in this scene shows reddish-brown hues? Leuko/j, usually translated as white or brilliant, appears
on the horse’
s forehead like the moon, hence the whiteness in such a red-ranged body is reflected
brilliantly. Accordingly, the contrast between foi=nic and leuko/j rather distinguishes the first horse to
come in. Although this scene does not happen on the battlefield, it is located in a race where people
fight for prizes. The powerful and energetic image of the Achaians who fight eagerly for prizes is
emphasised by the colour expressions of foi=nic and leuko/j.
The last example of foi=nic is very different from cases we have seen. It is in some way
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
― 40 ―
related to women.
au0ti/ka d 0 e1rreen ai[ma kelainefe_j e0c w0teilh=j.
W
9 j d 0 o3te ti/j t 0 e0le/fanta gunh_ foi/niki mih/nh|
Mh|oni/j h0e_ Ka/eira, parh/io
+ n e1mmenai i3ppwn:
‘
(Il . 4. 140-142)
and immediately dark blood trickled from the wound. As when a woman stains ivory
with crimson dye, in Maionia or Caria, making a cheek-piece for horses.’
Here the goddess Athene helps Menelaos, brushing the arrow that Pandaros shoots. But still the arrow
scratches Manalaos’skin. Immediately dark-coloured (kelainefe_j) blood trickles from the wound, and
54
then Menelaos’body is stained with blood.
That situation is explained in the simile of a woman
staining ivory (e0le/fanta) with foi/niki, in Maionia or Caria, to make a cheek-piece for horses. It looks
like foi=nic can be the red of blood colour here as the simile expresses the blood running from
Menelaos’body. However, as mentioned, there are many ranges for blood colour as well. For instance,
55
in line 139, kelainefe_j, which is generally translated as dark or black, is used to describe blood.
Perhaps the colour of Menelaos’blood is darker, or red that is almost black. Hammond renders foi/niki
(140)“with crimson dye.”Gladstone seems to regard foi=nic here as close to red,
56
but Willcock
interprets it as more likely purple than red, commenting“Menelaos’skin discoloured by blood is
57
s viewpoint on ivory is interesting; it is shown only
likened to ivory stained with a purple dye.” Kirk’
twice in the Iliad and both of them are related to horse-trappings. In the Odyssey , however, it appears
eight times with a greater range of application. Thus, Kirk proposes“[T]he singling out of the
58
craftswoman and the dyeing operation may suggest personal observation.” This could actually
correspond to the perspective that the poets’personal emotion or feeling appears in the simile more
59
than the narrative.
The poet expresses or is able to express his sentiments in the simile, more
comfortably. Hereby the poet not only follows the hexameter rule, but also composes the scene with
the perception of the colour (or hues) for the context. Here it is - we can see the aesthetic poet.
V. Phoinix: one of the Achaian warriors
Curiously enough, foi=nic functions as a proper noun in the Iliad . The term names an old man called
Phoinix, whose position is very important as Achilleus’mentor, 14 times. Only once it refers to
Phoenician men. Unfortunately, it has not been able to reach the fairly reasonable outcome about what
kind of association the colour adjective of foi=nic might have with the proper noun of foi=nic. However,
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
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there must be somewhat implied symbols or representations as further research on other colour terms
is continued, since it is not only foi=nic that demonstrates proper names in the Iliad . Based on the
prospective scopes of my future research, I briefly address Phoinix in this section.
Phoinix first appears in book 9 in the Iliad .
Foi=nic me_n prw/tista Dii6 fi/loj h9ghsa/sqw,
(Il . 9. 168)
‘First of all let Phoinix, loved of Zeus, take the lead: ...’
Phoinix is not a main character, but he is generally acknowledged as one of the essential characters.
60
Concerning Phoinix’
s position in the Iliad , his first appearance is actually surprisingly late, in book 9.
Besides, his name is spoken by Nestor in Nestor’
s speech. It is passive in some way. As an old, wise
man, Phoinix gives his suggestions to other Achaian leaders, including Achilleus. In book 9, Phoinix is
sent by Agamemnon as one of the envoys on a special mission, in order to persuade Achilleus who has
withdrawn from the battle. Phoinix’
s responsibility is extremely serious here, probably which is why
61
foi=nic is used eight times in book 9 (including the previous example).
Considering every context of
62
Phoinix (Foi=nic) altogether, including the other six presentations of Phoinix, they all possess a positive
sense as they are moving forward. No context is never negative, without doubt. I should like to post a
challenging viewpoint ‒ does the poet not deliberately apply foi=nic to an Achaian character, as he
perceives the bright red-purple hues? Phoinix is old, but used to be an excellent warrior in the past.
The poet associates the old man with a term that displays brightness and represents power. The
Achaians win in the end, hence the colour presentations of foi=nic rather elevate the sense of their
positive strength more in this context.
In book 23, foi=nic is used when mentioning Phoenician men. 23.744: Foi/nikej d 0 a1gon a1ndrej e0p 0 h0eroeide/a po/nton,
then men of Phoinicia[sic] had carried it over the hazy sea
Here the poet gives the explanation for prizes that Achilleus supplies for the foot-race in the funeral
63
games. The first is a mixing-bowl and it is silver, a0rgu/reoj . It is beautifully made by craftsmen in
64
Sidon. Then Phoenician men brought it over the murky, h0eroeide/a, sea.
The Phoenicians are famous
for money-making and artistic skills. Their successful industry is substantially dependent on to the
murex shell, purple dye, to provide fine textiles or fabrics, which scholars controversially have argued
65
about concerning the origin of their name. It still remains a mystery, without any judicious result on
the relationship between Phoenicia, foi=nic, and colour. Nevertheless, I am inclined to accept the theory
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
― 42 ―
that the term of foi=nic, which indicates purple or red, is somewhat linked with the‘Phoenicians.’
VI. On da-foin（e）o/j
Before we jump to our conclusion, an examination of da-foin（e）o/j, which is translated as blood-red,
tawny, etc., is necessary. Da-foin（e）o/j is seen four times in the Iliad . First da-foin（e）o/j is located in
Odysseus’speech in book 2.
e1nq 0 e0fa/nh me/ga sh=ma: dra/kwn e0pi_ nw=ta dafoino/j,
smerdale/oj, to/n r9 0 au0to_j O
0 lu/mpioj h[ke fo/wsde,
bwmou= u9pai5caj pro/j r9a plata/niston o1rousen.
‘
(Il . 2. 308-310)
- there then appeared a great sign: a snake with blood-red back, a fearful thing, sent up to
the light by the Olympian himself, slid from under an altar and darted for the plane-tree.’
Odysseus reminds the Achaians of Kalchas’previous prophecy. At Aulis, when the Achaians are
sacrificing hecatombs to the immortals at the sacred altar, a great sign appears. A serpent suddenly
slides from the altar. The serpent is dafoino/j coloured on its back, terrible to look on (smerdale/oj), and
darts to the plane-tree. There it finds a sparrow’
s eight chicks. The serpent eats the eight chicks and
the mother. But after it has eaten those eight children and the mother sparrow, something miraculous
happens; the god brings the serpent to the light and turns it to stone. Kalchas interprets it as a sign
from Zeus; the Achaians’goal will not be achieved easily, but just as the serpent eats those eight
children and the mother sparrow herself and then is turned to be stone, the Achaians shall battle for
many years. But in the tenth year all will come to fulfilment, which means they will take the city in the
tenth year. So, Odysseus, referring to Kalchas’prediction, encourages the Achaians to remain there
until they take the Trojan city, as the sign is coming true. After Odysseus’speech, the Achaians agree
with him, shouting aloud and praising Odysseus’words.
“A snake with blood-red back”and“a fearful thing”as rendered by Hammond above, the
back of the snake is dafoino/j, and looks very awful, smerdale/oj. Also, the fact that the snake suddenly
appears and eats eight chicks and the mother sparrow provides us with a terrible sight. In Kirk’
s
66
commentary concerning the serpent,“his back is dark and blood-coloured,” and in Leaf, described as
67
perhaps blood-red. The serpent here represents the Achaians who spend nine years on battle, so that
68
the display of dafoino/j emphasises the Achaians’strength and cruelty, i. e., cold-blooded nature.
As
seen in book 12 above, the serpent or foi=n-coloured serpent is likely related to the portent that predicts
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
― 43 ―
which army wins, the Achaians or the Trojans. Also in Japan, a serpent is generally acknowledged as a
69
sign or foreboding. Furthermore, it is striking that the serpent, foi=n-coloured, represents the Achaians
in both examples in book 2 and 12.
The next dafoino/j case reminds us of the previous case where Nestor dresses himself,
following Agamemnon’
s instruction.
o0rqwqei_j d 0 e1ndune peri_ sth/qessi xitw=na,
possi_ d 0 u9po_ liparoi=sin e0dh/sato kala_ pe/dila,
a0mfi_ d 0 e1peita dafoino_n e9es
/ sato de/rma le/ontoj
ai1qwnoj mega/loio podhneke/j, ei3leto d 0 e1gxoj.
‘
(Il . 10. 21-24)
He rose and dressed his body in a tunic: he bound his fine sandals under his shining feet,
then slung round him the blood-red hide of a great tawny lion, reaching to his feet, and took
up his spear.’
Again, at the beginning of book 10, Agamemnon, who cannot sleep because of his anxiety about the
war, decides to visit Nestor, and dresses himself. He puts on the tunic, sandals (pe/dila), and hide (de/rma).
The sandals is described as fine, kala, and Agamemnon’
s feet are shining, liparoi=sin, and the lion’
s
hide is blood-red (?), dafoino_n, and the lion is red-brown or tawny (?), ai1qwnoj, and huge, mega/loio.
Dafoino/j applies to the hide here. Even more, the hide is from a great glittering lion, so the colour of
the hide can be red-brown, blood-red or so. We can see the consecutive usage of terms that associates
strong, powerful imagery so that positive sense of bravely moving forward, is reinforced by colourrelated expressions.
Dafoino/j appears within the simile as well:
eu[ron e1peit 0 O
0 dush=a Dii^ fi/lon: a0mfi_ d 0 a1r 0 au0to_n
Trw=ej e3ponq 0 w9j ei1 te dafoinoi_ qw=ej o1resfin
a0mf 0 e1lafon kerao_n beblhme/non, o3n t 0 e1bal 0 a0nh_r
i0w=| a0po_ neurh=j:
-----
(Il . 11. 473-476)
‘Then they found Odyssues, loved by Zeus. The Trojans were crowding round him like
blood-red mountain jackals round a horned stag that has been wounded, shot by a huntsman
with an arrow from the strong:
’
Here Odysseus is surrounded by the Trojans on the battlefield. As dafoino/j jackals in the mountains
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
― 44 ―
round a stag, who struggles to escape. Then some gods bring a lion in, the jackals scatter, and the lion
makes his meal. Likewise the Trojans crowd around Odysseus, and Odysseus desperately fights against
them, being surrounded. Then Aias comes in to help, and the Trojans scatter in terror. Menelaos takes
Odysseus to lead him out of the fighting. The jackals (qw=ej) crowding around the stag, which is
compared to the Trojans surrounding Odysseus, have the decoration of dafoinoi in 474. Hammond
gives it as“blood-red mountain jackals”above. Supposedly, as they are jackals on a mountain, it can be
highly difficult to imagine that their colour is very bright red. In this simile, in which they pursue their
70
prey, their colour can be assumed to be darker, blood-red, or maybe even brown.
At any rate, those
71
jackals seek to devour their prey, in which respect the whole imagery is bloody. Remarkably, dafoino/j
describes the Trojans here, even though it is not a direct indication because dafoino/j is used in the
simile. The presentation of dafoino/j for the mountain jackals, to which the Trojans are likened,
enlarges the strong eagerness to move forward, but in the end, those jackals scatter after the lion
appears. Additionally, they aim to hunt one wounded stag in a group, which implies their cruel and
cowardly conduct rather than their braveness. The sense of this negative picture is also heightened by
presenting dafoino/j ‒ possibly a darker shade here. It is fair to suggest that the jackals’dispersal
predicts the Trojans’ending.
The last example of dafoino/j is in book 18. The poet narrates Achilleus’new armour, which
Hephaistos creates due to Thetis’favour, and dafoino/j applies to blood during the description of the
shield.
ei[ma d 0 e1x 0 a0mf 0 w1moisi dafoineo_n ai3mati fwtw=n.
‘
(Il . 18. 538)
the cloak on her shoulders was deep red with men’
s blood.’
On the shield, Hephaistos made two cities of mortal men. In one there are marriages and feasting, and
72
by the light of burning torches (dai5dwn u3po lampomena/wn ) they are leading their brides through the
city, with the wedding-song risen aloud, which represents a happy and just city. The other city, on the
73
contrary, is unjust. It has two hosts of warriors and their armour is glittering (lampo/menoi ). Strife,
Confusion, and even Death join the battle. The cruel Death, grasping one man, another, and another,
however alive, fresh-wounded, or unwounded, drags the dead through shambles by the feet. So the
cloak she wears around her shoulders becomes dafoino/j with the blood of men. The picture of Death
dragging dead people, with her shoulders coloured red by men’
s blood gives the reader the impression
that many men’
s blood has been shed and the battle must be horrible. Hammond reads the sentence as
“ was deep red with men’
s blood”above, but I should like to specify that dafoino/j indicates more
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
― 45 ―
likely darker blood-red hues than bright red colour and also fortifies the picture of the cruel battle.
*
*
*
All in all, every foi=nic and foi=n-related presentation is not inappropriate for the context. In sum, foi=nic
could be designated as red or purple, or red-purple ranged hues, at least, but it is hard to define which
colour term should be attributed to foi=nic, red or purple. Nevertheless, considering the whole context
where foi=nic is located, foi=nic altogether formulates the imagery chain of‘moving forward,’which
metaphorically represents powerful prowess, strong brightness for the context. In this respect, there is
s
a consistent imagery of foi=nic throughout the Iliad , which evidences the existence of the poet’
aesthetic and creative skill to compose the story.
VII. Conclusion
I should like to clarify my current viewpoint on foi=nic here.
(A) Interestingly, foi=nic does not seem associated with women in the Iliad . An exception is the example
in book 4, when women in Maionia or Caria stain ivory with foi=nic. However, it is located in the
simile and likened to Menelaos’blood. Feminine characters are generally imagined from red-related
colours, or at least when we hear aka in Japanese, which means red. Perhaps foi=nic is a masculine
colour. One might, however, want to say that it is not appropriate to consider that one term is
masculine because it is associated with men, mostly, as the story of the Iliad is mainly about the
war and the majority of characters are men, which basically means that men appears in the story
more than women. Perhaps line-calculating might be necessary, but nonetheless, there must be
some intentional placement by the poet and this point of view needs further research on colour
74
terms, to reach sufficient outcome.
(B) Foi=nic is not involved with gods. Kelaino/j, for instance, is linked with divinity, particularly Zeus,
but regarding the case of foi=nic, no presentation implies any link, or is connected with any of gods,
75
which is remarkable and it should be examined further with other colour terms.
(C) Foi=nic is mostly related to the Achaians in the context and used to describe the characters’
braveness or enthusiasm towards the fight. In the middle of the war, those foi=nic presentations
provide bright light combined with warriors’powerful strength. Only in book 15, foi=nic applies to
the Trojans, Dolops, as the decoration of his helmet. But Dolops dies there. The point to be
extended from here is, which could be provocative, that the poet uses foi=nic differently between
― 46 ―
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
the Achaians and the Trojans. Although the Achaian warriors, who are related to foi=nic, are
injured on the battlefield as well, they do not die. For example, Menelaos is wounded in book 4 and
his blood is described in the simile that includes foi=nic, but Menelaos escapes his doom due to
another’
s help. In composing his story, the poet deliberately places foi=nic positively for the
Achaians, but negatively for the Trojans who lose in the end. When foi=nic is related to the
Achaians, the context is established with more positive imagery such as force, energy, and strength.
That suits the parallel between the Trojans and the Achaians throughout the story and the reader
/ audience could anticipate the ending. This corresponds with the case of dafoino/j in book 11
where mountain jackals are associated with the Trojans in the simile. Hence the word foi=nic is
carefully chosen in order to fit the context. As seen above, foi=nic possesses shades, which the poet
skillfully demonstrates using a darker sense of foi=nic for negatively-narrated Trojans and a bright
one for positively-narrated Achaians.
(D) Therefore, the poet not only places his words according to the rules of metre, but also, with his
own artistic purposes in mind, selects the term, foi=nic, deliberately. During the process, he
enhances the visual effect of foi=nic. As previously mentioned, the illustration of the whole scene
becomes more vividly visualised when colour terms or colour-related expressions are intermittently
76
arrayed. This is, as Edgeworth suggests“[W]hen the colors pile up, it is presumably intentional,”
the poet’
s intention to attract his audience to his story. As far as I could probe foi=n-related words
in this paper, it does possess the literal effect of lightening the context with the metaphorical
function as being active, strong power. It symbolises warrior’
s fearless prowess like passionate
energy to move forward, whatever may come later.
To conclude, I would like to propose one word, lifeforce , for the metaphorical function of foi=nic in the
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
― 47 ―
Iliad . Foi=nic connotes the sense of energy and passions, which is associated with masculinity and
activity. During the battle warriors ought to fight, to move forward, tirelessly, under any circumstance.
77
They aim for a brightly illuminated life.
This is what warriors in the Iliad are relentlessly pursuing,
s
and this is what foi=nic manifests for the context with bright shades with its connotation. The Iliad ’
story is conveyed as if in a painting composed partially with bright red-purple hues, to express the
message that the poet wishes to convey.
YS
Liverpool, Summer 2013
78
― 48 ―
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
Appendix : Uses of foi=nic in the Iliad 79
Animal:
serpent ‒ [12. 202] (A?)
[12. 220] (A?)
Human body:
blood ‒ Aias and Odysseus [23. 717] (A)
wolves [16. 159] (A) <simile>
Clothing:
cloak ‒ Nestor [10. 133] (A)
belt ‒ Oineus [6. 219] (A)
Aias [7. 305] (A)
Miscellaneous:
monstrous, huge ‒ [12. 202] (A?)
[12. 220] (A?)
outstretched ‒ Nestor’
s cloak [10. 133] (A)
twofold, double ‒ Nestor’
s cloak [10. 133] (A)
great, vast ‒ horse [23. 454]
another, the rest ‒ horse [23. 454]
shining, radian t ‒ Oineus’belt [6. 219] (A)
Aias’belt [7. 305] (A)
Dolops’helmet’
s plume [15. 538] (T)
new, fresh ‒ Dolops’helmet’
s plume [15. 538] (T)
*(A) means that objects or persons referred to are on the Achaian side. (T) means on the Trojan side.
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
Foi=nic
godlike (a0nti/qeoj) ‒ 23. 360
far-famed (thlekleito/j) ‒ 14. 321
loved of Zeus (Dii6 fi/loj) ‒ 9. 168
old man (ge/rwn) ‒ 9. 432, 607, 690, 16. 196, 17. 561, 19. 311
driver of horse (i9pphla/thj) ‒ 9. 432, 16. 196, 19. 311
cherished of Zeus (diotrefh/j) ‒ 9. 607
father (a1tta) ‒ 9. 607, 17. 561
born long ago (palaigenh/j) ‒ 17. 561
his father’
s follower (o0pa/ona patro_j e9oi=o) - 23. 360 (<o0pa/wn)
----------------------------------------------------------men (a0nh/r) ‒ 23. 744 Phoenicia
― 49 ―
― 50 ―
1
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
For the Homeric Text, I mainly refer to the OCT , Prendergast’
s concordance (A Complete
Concordance to the Iliad of Homer , Georg Olms Verlag, 1983), Tebben’s concordance (Concordantia
Homerica II: Ilias. A Computer Concordance to the van Thiel Edition of Homer's Iliad , Georg Olms
Verlag, 1998), Kirk’
s commentary (The Iliad: A Commentary Vols. I-VI, edited by G. S. Kirk,
Cambridge, 1985-1993), and Hammond’
s translation (M. Hammond, Homer: The Iliad , London:
Penguin Books, 1987). See also other commentaries passim ; W. Leaf, The Iliad , London, 1886-1888 (2
s Press, 1978-1984 (2 vols.); S. Pulleyn, Homer :
vols.); M. M. Willcock, The Iliad of Homer , St Martin’
Iliad Book One , Oxford, 2000; Norman Postlethwaite, Homer’
s Iliad: A Commentary on the
translation of Richmond Lattimore , University of Exeter Press, 2000. For other Greek authors, I use
the Loeb texts.
2
J. H. Lesher, Xenophanes of Colophon: Fragments: text and translation with a commentary ,
Toronto, 1992, pp. 36f. and pp. 139f.
3
Many scholars have commented on Xenophanes’writing concerning Iris. For example, see A.
Kober,“Some Remarks on Color in Greek Poetry,”CW , 1934, p. 191 (for the purer reds and
oranges); D. Young,“The Greeks’Colour Sense,”Review of the Society for Hellenic Travel 4, 1964,
p. 43; E. Irwin, Colour Terms in Greek Poetry , Toronto, 1974, p. 10 and 76; B. Moonwomon,“Color
Categorization in Early Greek,”JIES 22, 1994, p. 55. However, the rainbow colour itself has been
controversial from antiquity. See J. André, Étude sur les Termes de Couleur dans la Langue Latine ,
Paris, 1949, p. 13. Bradley’
s fine chapter contributes to understand the rainbow colour; M. Bradley,
Colour and Meaning in Ancient Rome , Cambridge, 2009, pp. 36-55.
4
Bradleys’research on how colour performed in Ancient Rome, socially, politically, and morally, is
very instructive.
5
Cf. Y. Saito,“Leuko/j in the Iliad,”Studies in European and American Languages, Societies, and
Cultures Vol. 10, 2004, pp. 51-73;“Me/laj in the Iliad,”Journal of Humanities 29, 2007, 55-95;“KUA/NEOS
s University 42, 2008, pp. 11-24;“Canqo/j in the Iliad ,”
in the Iliad,”The Journal of Sonoda Women’
Journal of Humanities 30, 2008, pp. 1-19;“ R9 O/DON in the Iliad (1),”The Journal of Sonoda Women’
s
University 43, 2009, pp. 11-25;“Metaphorical Function of porfu/reoj in the Iliad ,”Acta Humanistica
Et Scientifica Universitatis Sangio Kyotiensis 42, 2010, pp. 136-157;“Xlwro/j in the Iliad ：Green fear
and yellow honey, or is it contrary?,”Kyoto Seika Kiyou 38, 2011, pp. 23-44;“Uncertain Grey,
Confusion: polio/j in the Iliad ,”Kyoto Seika Kiyou 40, 2012, pp. 3-31;“A Divine-related shade:
kelaino/j in the Iliad ,”Kyoto Seika Kiyou , 42, 2013, pp. 3-26.
6
e. g. Liddell and Scott, Greek-English Lexicon with a revised supplement , Oxford, 1996 (1st ed., in
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
― 51 ―
1843), p. 1948.
7
Cf. Plato Timaeus 67-68, Pliny Natural History , and elsewhere. It seems that there is no agreement
about colour recognition in antiquity. Individual authors have different standpoints on colours. I shall
discuss this subject in a different paper.
8
to_ foinikou=n is translated to‘red’in Loeb; Aristotle XIV Minor Works , translated by W. S. Hett,
Harvard (Loeb Classical Library), 1936, p. 9. Foinikou=j and foini/keoj arise around foini=c after all.
Cf. De Anima 418a 27ff (vision and colour).
9
Here it is also rendered into‘red’; Aristotle VIII On the Soul, Parva Naturalia, and On Breath ,
translated by W. S. Hett, Harvard (Loeb Classical Library), 1936, p. 245. Irwin, however, refers to
foini=c as‘crimson’when she discusses this passage; Irwin, op. cit ., p. 25.
10 H. Osborne,“Colour Concepts of Ancient Greeks,”The British Journal of Aesthetics 8, 1968 (3), p.
283.
11 W. E. Gladstone,“Homer’
s Perception and Use of Colour,”Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age
III , Oxford, 1858, pp. 457-499.
12 Gladstone, ibid ., pp. 458ff.
13 Gladstone, ibid ., p. 465.
14 Gladstone, ibid ., p. 490.
15 W. E. Gladstone,“The Colour-Sense,”Nineteenth Century 2, 1877, p. 385.
16 M. Platnauer,“Greek Colour-Perception,”CQ 15, 1921, pp. 153-162.
17 Platnauer, ibid , p. 158 (except Il . 23. 454). The other colour terms that are categorised into the (A)-(2)
group are: e0ruqro/j, mi/ltoj, porfu/reoj, r9odo/eij, and oi1nwy.
André, who analyses Latin colour terms, put foini=c into‘rouge,’not in‘violet,’and
discusses its association with punievs ; André, op. cit ., pp. 88f.
18 F. E. Wallace, Color in Homer and in Ancient Art , Massachusetts, 1927, p. 64.
19 Wallace, ibid ., p. 8.
20 J. W. Goethe, Theory of Colours , translated by C. L. Eastlake and introduction by D. B. Judd, The
MIT Press (pb), 1970, xxxvii.
21 R. J. Cunliffe, A Lexicon of the Homeric Dialect , Oklahoma, 1963 (new edition). See also G.
Autentrieth, Homeric Dictionary , Duckworth, 1984, p. 323; date-palm , purpura, purple , rufus,
gleaming with purple, red or bay , etc.
22 Cunliffe, op. cit ., p. 410.
23 Chadwick, J., and L. Baumbach,‘The Mycenaean Greek Vocabulary,’Glotta 41, 1963, pp. 254f.
― 52 ―
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
Nosch’
s work on red coloured textiles is also helpful to know what red coloured vocabularies were
inscribed in Linear B, including po-ni-ki-jo ; M. Nosch,“Red Coloured Textiles in the Linear B
Inscriptions,”Colour in the Ancient Mediterranean World (CAMW hereafter), edited by L. Cleland
and K. Stears, BAR International Series 1267, 2004, pp. 32-39.
24 P. Chantraine, Dictionnaire Étymologique de la Langue Grecque , Paris, 1999 (1st 1968), p. 1217. For
more information of the etymological point of view on foini=c, see also É. Boisacq, Dictionnaire
Étymologique de la Langue Grecque , Heidelberg, 1950, pp. 1032f; H. Frisk, Griechisches
Etymologiches Wörtherbuch band II, Heidelberg, 1970, pp. 1032f (foini= c is rendered as
‘Purpurfarbe, Purpur’
); Young, op. cit., p. 44 (phoinikeos is used for numerous shades of bright or
dark red, for roses, blushes, fingernails, crimson cloaks).
25 Irwin, op. cit ., p. 201.
26 B. H. Fowler,“The Archaic Aesthetic,”AJP 105, 1984, pp. 128f. Also Fowler suggests that foini/keoj
simply means Phoenician and refers to Tyrian purple-dyeing, to describe the same range colour of
porfu/reoj.
27 Moonwomon, op. cit ., p. 45.
28 Moonwomon, ibid ., p. 46; Historically and etymologically, phónos is relevant to something‘bloody,
murder’(phónos → phoîniks → phoiníkeos ). In Greek, both of phónos and phoîniks are“used with
color sense.”Moonwomon also suggests that phoîniks and phoiníkeos “denote red color, red dye,
red paint.”
For the symbolical meaning of red, Rowe states“to symbolise life and power, a meaning
which no doubt stems from its association with blood”; C. Rowe,“Concepts of Colour and Colour
Symbolism in the Ancient World,”Color Symbolism : Six Experts from the Eranos Year Book 1972 ,
ed. by A. Portmann, 1977, p. 46. According to Feisner, who suggests that“Red is one of the oldest
color names, is the first to be seen in a rainbow, and has the greatest emotional impact of all,”gives
love, luck, passion, sexiness, festivity, importance, compassion, dynamism, power courage, and
newness for red’
s positive connotations, and war, revolution and anarchy, prostitution, the devil,
danger, fire, debt, and bureaucracy for red’
s negative connotations; E. A. Feisner, Colour: How to
Use Colour in Art and Design , London, 2006, p. 121. See also D. Fontana, The Secret Language of
Symbols , London, 1993, p. 66; J. Tresidder, Dictionary of Symbols , London, 1999, p. 50 and pp. 168f; D.
Fontata, The New Secret Language of Symbols , London, 2010, pp. 115f.
Further, some analyse the relationship between colour and sound. In The Atlantic Monthly
72 (1893), vowels have imaginary colour (?), individually - a is white, e light blue, i red, o black, u
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
― 53 ―
brown (pp. 282f. and pp. 571-573). Colours are also associated with letters of the alphabet. For
example, p , v , and z are red, e light red, k darker red (p. 715). See also W. B. Stanford, Greek
Metaphor , New York, 1972, pp. 61f.
29 Moonwomon, op. cit ., p. 50.
30 B. Berlin and P. Kay, Basic Color Terms , CSLI Publications, 1999 (1st 1969).
31 Berlin and Kay, ibid ., p. 4.
Stage I
Stage II Stage III
↗ green
Stage IV Stage V Stage VI Stage VII
→
yellow
white
↘
purple
→ red
blue
black
→
brown
→
pink
orange
↘ yellow →
green
↗
grey
32 A. Capell, Studies in Socio-Linguistics , Mouton, 1966, pp. 39f. Capell also mentions ku/anoj and says
that“Greek color terminology was concerned with shades, not with color in the modern artistic
sense,”but this conclusion seems not to take various other colour terms into consideration.
33 Berlin & Key, op. cit ., p. 70.
34 Berlin & Key’
s research is cited elsewhere, but at the same time, has also been criticised by
scholars. Irwin, for example, comments on their theory as“
must be read in the light of these
obvious inaccuracies in Greek terminology”; Irwin, op. cit ., p. 222.
35 Il . 4. 141, 6. 219, 7. 305, (8. 116), 9. 168, 223, 427, 432, 607, 621, 659, 690, 10. 133, 12. 202, 220, 14. 321, 15.
538, 16. 159, 196, 17. 555, 561, 19. 311, 23. 454, 360, 717, and 744.
36 Those lines are occasionally slightly different between concordances, in particular, Il . 8. 116. I also
checked Perseus Digital Library (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/), but there is no agreement.
In this paper, I follow the OCT .
37 Sometimes people address their close friends or colleagues affectionately as‘father’
. Here mainly
Achilleus calls Phoinix‘father,’which shows the close friendship between Achilleus and Phoinix;
Leaf, op. cit ., p. 416; Willcock, op. cit (1978)., p. 263; B. Hainsworh, The Iliad: A Commentary Vol. III ,
ed. by G. S. Kirk, Cambridge, 1993, p. 140; J. Griffin, Homer: Iliad IX , Oxford, 1995, p. 141.
38 Wallace, op. cit ., p. 23. Leaf and Hainsworth mention the relevance to the snake in Il . 2. 308 (Leaf, op.
― 54 ―
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
cit ., p. 538; Hainsworth, op. cit ., p. 340. See also Moonwomon, op. cit ., pp. 49f.
39 See Postlethwaite, op. cit ., p. 168;“It serves as a symbol of the Achaians’aggression who here,
although apparently overcome by the Trojans, still have enough strength to inflict a severe wound.”
40 According to Leaf, foinio/essai is more appropriate than foiniko/essai; Leaf, op. cit ., p. 522.
41 R. Janko, The Iliad: A Commentary Vol. IV , ed. by G. S. Kirk, Cambridge, 1992, p. 338. Janko points
out a chiasmus as it forms“ai3mati foino/n - melanu/drou - me/lan u3dwr - fo/non ai3matoj,”and states
that“[E]pithets paint a vivid picture.”He also discusses on the colour adjectives, fo/ino/n, etc., briefly.
According to Leaf, foino/n is seen only here; Leaf, op. cit ., p. 168.
42 Wallace, op. cit ., pp. 18f. Wallace also mentions porfu/reon, which describes‘blood’elsewhere in
Homer. Fountoulakis refers foi=nic in the section of‘red’/‘crimson’/‘purple’and suggest that
foi/nisseto, a derivative, is used to describe the blushing of cheeks, which refers to the colour of
blood; A. Fountoulakis,“The Colours of Desire and Death: Colour Terms in Bion’
s Epitaph on
Adonis,”CAMW, op. cit ., 114f.
43 Red, or scarlet coloured clothes, have been endorsed as highly prestigious since antiquity.
Greenfieled’
s fascinating book demonstrates how red/purple dye has been handled; A. B. Greenfield,
A Perfect Red: Empire, Espionage, and the Quest for the Color of Desire , New York, 2006.
44 Gladstone, op. cit (1877)., p. 372;“ because Homer never once applies to them the word e0ruqro/j, or
any other word directly connected with that colour.”
45 Hainsworth, op. cit ., p. 168. See also Leaf, op. cit ., p. 435.
46 B. Graziosi and J. Haubold, Homer: Iliad Book VI , Cambridge, 2010, p. 139. They cite Arist. Hist. an .
546b-547b and Plin. NH 9. 124-38 for purple dye from sea snails. On the material of zwsth/r, they
assume it to be leather.
47 G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A Commentary Vol. II , ed. by G. S. Kirk, Cambridge, 1990, p. 188. Zwsth/r here
can be metallic for Kirk.
48 Leaf, op. cit ., p. 274. According to Leaf, the material of the zwsth/r here is surely leather.
49 Kirk, op. cit (1990)., p. 275.
50 Leaf, op. cit ., p. 139.
51 Willcock, op. cit (1984)., p. 241. Janko also comments on the picture of horse-hair plume, suggesting
sea-purple, the fastest known dye, which was precious and apparently it is used for cloth, leather
and ivory in Homer; Janko, op. cit ., p. 288.
52 Gladstone, op. cit (1858)., p. 465.
53 N. Richardson, The Iliad: A Commentary Vol. VI , ed. by G. S. Kirk, Cambridge, 1993, p. 220. Also
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
― 55 ―
foi=nic (‘chestnut’) is used only here as an adjective in Homer. Also, the handling of to/son in 452
seems very unsettled; Richardson and Leaf regard it as‘so far,’but Willcock suggests that to_ me_n
a1llo to/son, the Homeric idiom, means‘almost completely’; Leaf, op. cit ., p. 503; Willcock, op.
cit (1984)., p. 305; Richardson, op. cit ., p. 220.
54 Il . 4. 146f: toi=oi/ toi, Mene/lae, mia/nqhn ai3mati mhroi_
eu0fue/ej knh=mai/ te i0de_ sfura_ ka/l 0 u9pe/nerqe.
55 For kelainefe_j, see Saito, op. cit (2013)., pp. 3-26. See also J. L. Ready, Character, Narrator, and Simile
in the Iliad, Cambridge, 2011, pp. 40-41.
56 Gladstone, op. cit (1858)., p. 465;“the sense leans to red, especially as the hue of ivory is so near to
that of flesh.”
57 Willcock, op. cit (1978)., p. 225.
58 G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A Commentary Vol. I , ed. by G. S. Kirk, Cambridge, 1985, pp. 346. See also
Postlethewaite, op. cit ., p. 80.
59 The argument on the simile in Homer is also vast. I should like to discuss this topic elsewhere as
well, though it seems controversial to reach concrete explanation. Nevertheless, scholars have
admitted that simile possesses different factors from narrative. Bakker’
s sentence should match the
subject of this paper here. See E. Bakker, Pointing at the Past , Washington, D. C., 2005, pp. 134f;“the
simile is a verbalized image that as an integrated whole serves to illustrate a salient scene from the
Iliadic battle. Often the simile goes beyond mere illustration.”
60 Leaf, op. cit ., p. 384; Willcock, op. cit . (1976)., p. 98; Willcock, op. cit (1978)., p. 274; Griffin, op. cit ., pp.
95f.
61 The other presentations of Phoinix (Foi=nic) in book 9 are as follows:
iki: no/hse de_ di=oj O
0 dusseu/j,
9. 223: neu=s 0 Ai1aj Foi/niki
9. 427: Foi=nic d 0 au]qi par 0 a1mmi me/nwn katakoimhqh/tw,
9. 432: o0ye_ de_ dh_ mete/eipe ge/rwn i9pphla/ta Foi=nic
Foi=nic,
ic a1tta geraie/, diotrefe/j, ou1 ti/ me tau/thj
9. 607:“Foi=
9. 621: Foi/niki store/sai pukino_n le/xoj, o1fra ta/xista
9. 659: Foi/niki store/sai pukino_n le/xoj o3tti ta/xista.
9. 690: Foi=nic d 0 au]q 0 o9 ge/rwn katele/cato, w4j ga_r a0nw/gei,
62 The rest of Phoinix (Foi=nic) appearances are as follows:
14. 321: ou0d 0 o3te Foi/nikoj kou/rhj thlekleitoi=o,
ic,
16. 196: th=j de_ teta/rthj h]rxe ge/rwn i9pphla/ta Foi=nic
― 56 ―
A Bright Lifeforce Image in the Iliad : On the Metaphorical Function of foi=nic
17. 555: ei0same/nh Foi/niki de/maj kai_ a0teire/a fwnh/n:
ic, a1tta geraie_ palaigene/j, ei0 ga_r A
0 qh/nh
17. 561:“Foi=nic
ic,
19. 311: Ne/stwr I) domeneu/j te ge/rwn q 0 i9pphla/ta Foi=nic
ika, o0pa/ona patro_j e9oi=o,
23. 360: a0nti/qeon Foi/nika
63 Il . 23. 741.
64 Cf. Wallace, op. cit ., p. 8; Willcock, op. cit (1976)., pp. 261f; Richardson, op. cit ., pp. 250f.
65 As far as I know, the problem about the origin of the‘Phoenicians’has been unsolved, but one
theory is the connection between the purple (or red) dye and Greek word, foi=nic; D. Harden, The
Phoenicians , London, 1962, pp. 22 and pp. 144-146; S. Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians ,
translated by A. Hamilton, London, 1968, p. 3; G. E. Markoe, Phoenicians , London, 2000, pp. 10f and
pp. 163f; M. E. Aubet, The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade , Cambridge, 2001,
pp. 6-12; S. Moscati,“Who Were the Phoenicians?,”The Phoenicians , London (I. B. Tauris), 2001, pp.
17f; P. Bartoloni,“Commerce and Industry,”ibid ., p. 96. See also Autenrieth, op. cit ., p. 323;
Richardson, op . cit ., pp. 250f; Postlethwaite, op. cit ., p. 291.
Also, since I mainly use Hammond’
s English translation in in this paper, I follow his
spelling of Greek proper names (Achilleus, Hektor, etc) as well, except in the case of Phoenicia,
which seems so well-established in this form.
66 Kirk, op. cit (1985)., p. 149.
67 Leaf, op. cit ., p. 72.
68 Postlethewaite, op. cit ., p. 54;“The prodigy of the snake, his back blood-mottled represents the
Achaian forces ”Postlethewaite also mentions the snake’
s portent in 12. 200-9 and its association
with Vergil (Aeneid 2. 203-27).
69 Tresidder, op. cit ., pp. 184ff.
70 See R. J. Edgeworth,“Terms for“Brown”in Ancient Greek,”Glotta 61, 1983, pp. 31-40. Edgeworth
analyses whether‘brown’colour exists in ancient Greece, using some colour terms, which are
likely related to‘brown.’Foi=nic is mentioned only when Pinder’
s passage is cited; Di/a te
foinikosteropa/n (Olympian 9. 6).
71 Postlethewaite, op. cit ., p. 158 (‘bloody scavengers
’); Ready, op. cit., p. 254 (‘bloody jackals ’).
72 Il . 18. 492.
73 Il . 18. 511.
74 Some colour terms, leuko/j, for example, apply to women more often in the Iliad (though again leuko/j
should be re-examined). Further, in Egyptian art, gendered colour distinction (men are painted dark,
京都精華大学紀要 第四十四号
― 57 ―
usually reddish brown, and women light, usually yellow, white, or pink) is a basic feature and
considered as a reflection of every day reality; M. A. Eaverly,“Colours of Power: Brown Men and
Brown Women in the Art of Akhenaten,”CAMW , pp. 53-60.
75 Cf. Gods, or god’
s appearances, denote the light imagery; S. Constantinidou,“The Light Imagery of
Divine Manifestation in Homer,”Light and Darkness in Ancient Greek Myth and Religion , edi. by
M. Christopoulos, E. D. Karakantza, and O. Levaniouk, Lexingtn Books, 2013, pp. 91-109.
76 R. J. Edgeworth,“Color Clusters in Homer,”Eos 77, 1989, p. 198.
77 See Young, op. cit ., p. 46;“Brightness, in sum, was what the Greeks mainly liked in colour.”
78 This paper is supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 60411948.
As always, many thanks for Dr. Fiona E. Hobden, who helped me to access the research
sources at SJL and inspired me with her colourful advice in every possible way, while I was visiting
the University of Liverpool in England in the summer of 2013 as Honorary Fellow. The summer in
2013 was exceptionally wonderful ‒ bright days with sunshine, clear sky, and nice breezes, which is
very different from the usual gray English summer! I enjoyed the bright foi=nic-esque shades in
Liverpool very much indeed.
79 Gladstone, op. cit (1858)., 465f; Wallace, op. cit ., 64f.
（2013 年 9 月 24 日受稿／ 2013 年 12 月 11 日受理）