International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 6, Issue 5, May 2016)
Declining Shifting Cultivation and Lose of Tribal Culture –
with Special Reference to the Tribals of Arunachal Pradesh
Shri Pakngu Lombi1, Prof. Tomo Riba2
Ph. D. Research Scholar and Professor, Department of Geography, Rajiv Gandhi University, Doimukh, Rono Hills,
District Papumpare, Arunachal Pradesh (India)
Abstract-- The basic objective of the paper is to highlight
the present status of shifting cultivation in Arunachal
Pradesh. Shifting cultivation is the major occupation of the
people for gathering food. Today due to rural depopulation
responsible for desertion of shifting cultivation and result
the loss of traditional culture of this hill tribe people of the
state. If present trend of rural depopulation continues in
due course of time, shifting cultivation would disappear
from the society practice by this tribal since from time
immemorial. In such situation, we should be thankful to
those shifting cultivators who are still preserving our oldest
traditions like museum keepers.
Keywords-- Shifting cultivation, declining, West Siang,
Arunachal Pradesh
I. INTRODUCTION
Fig :1. Position of Arunachal Pradesh in India
The state of Arunachal Pradesh which is located in the
north-easternmost corner of Indian sub-continent, is
inhabited by 26 major tribes (Tibeto-Burman linguistic)
and more than hundred sub-tribes, who practice shifting
cultivation on the southward facing hill slope of Eastern
Himalaya and Purvanchal. Being located in the
easternmost part of the Indian sub-continent, this
mountainous state receives first sunshine in the country.
Due to southward facing of the slope and not being too
far from Bay of Bengal Sea and also not having any
higher mountain in between the sea and the state,
Arunachal Pradesh receives abundant sunshine and heavy
rainfall which has favoured growth of luxuriant mixed
tropical evergreen forest. The state has a common
international boundary with the Republic of China in the
north, Myanmar in the east, Bhutan in the west and the
Brahmaputra in the plains of Assam (India) in the south.
Except the indigenous people of the state, free entry to
the state is restricted without obtaining Inner Line Permit.
Outsiders are also not allowed to settle permanently in
the state. Thus, the land is inhabited by only the
recognized indigenous people of the state.
The altitude of the state ranges from 150 meters in the
plains of mighty Brahmaputra in the south to above 7000
meters of height in the north. The land and people of this
state are least known to the world, even to most of the
countrymen.
The vegetation, gradually merges from tropical
rainforest into sub-tropical to temperate forest and
ultimately to alpine forest. Isolated location, rugged
topography, heavy rainfall (annual average of 300cm),
thick vegetation (82% area under forest), the state has
low population of 13,82,611 with 17 persons/Km.
(Census 2011) and low technological development.
These altogether have favored these ethnic groups to
continue shifting cultivation as a main means of their
sustenance. As per Jhum Land Regulation, 1947
(Regulation III, IV and V 1947), these people have
customary right to cultivate forest by means of shifting
cultivation. Repetition of the same system for centuries
has led to improving the technique of cultivation, in turn,
increased in production, both in quantity and variety of
crops. Along with, the cultural life of the farmers has
also improved much better compared to few decades
back.
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They don‟t clear the forest till it has attained sufficient
litter deposits, thin undergrowth and most of the dormant
weed seeds have crossed the germination period. Forest
cleared at young age gives less productivity due to less
humus deposits and more growth of weeds. Clearing of
the forest starts from the bottom of the hill. First, the
undergrowth is cleared leaving bigger trees remain
standing.
Today, for Tribal people of the Arunachal Pradesh,
shifting cultivation has become an institution and culture,
blended with economy, Anthropology and Ecology
which is commonly called Traditional Ecological
Knowledge (TEK). Shifting cultivators are the part and
parcel of the forest. They are emotionally attached to
their forest that they always feel safer being in the forest.
When they are in the forest, they feel, the forest is also
equally filled with some living beings, the spirit of the
forest who watch the every moment of the man. This
sense of being observed, keep them refrain from doing
any act of violence in the forest. Farmers consider
themselves as a tenant and the deity of the forest owner.
They believe, without pleasing the deity of the forest,
farmers will never have good harvest. So, every stage of
cultivation, starting from first day of clearing of the
forest to harvesting and first days of cooking the new
rice, ritual with feast is arranged to all the benevolent and
malevolent deities of the forest. The farmers feel that
deities used to visit their field regularly, bless them when
they perform due rituals in time. That is the reasons why
farmers don‟t keep their field dirty. Road leading to the
field and farm hut are always kept clean. The sense of
presence of deity in the field makes them maintain
decency while in the forest. They always refrain from
using abusive terms to animals and plants; and also
inauspicious comments while in the forest. For example,
when they see a foot print of a tiger in the forest, they
would say “Oh elder brother, I did not know that you are
already here. So, please you take your own path and I
will also take my path. Let us not disturb each other.
They always do their best to please the deity of the forest
for their safety, good production and successful hunting,
fishing and collection of other forest products.
Fig; 3. Clearing of forest
While clearing the undergrowth, they do not leave
even a small plant to remain there, creepers are pulled
out, climbers are pulled down, litters are scratched,
tossed, turned upside down so that fire burns the top soil.
When it is assured that the fallen undergrowth has
sufficiently dried up, then on one sunny day the standing
big trees are felled. During felling of big trees, farmers
take utmost care to avoid accidents. Before felling of
trees, they perform a small ritual with a sacrifice of a
chicken. Here a farmer chants, “Oh! Deity of the forest,
today let me fell the big trees. For this, I am offering you
this chicken. Let trees fall easily without any obstruction
and accident”. The branches of fallen trees are chopped
of so that it spread uniformly in the field. In the month of
March, after one month, on brightest day, at noon, the
field is burnt from the bottom of the field. (fig 4)
Fig:2. View of tribal village
II. STAGES O F C ULTIVATION
The farming techniques of this tribe, especially the
Galo Tribe, where author belongs to, do not just a slash
and burn the forest as defined by many scholars. From
beginning to end, they cultivate the field meticulously
using effective techniques that they have acquired
through years of cultivation.
Fig: 4. Burning of field
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Before burning the field, farmer prepares a track
where he can put fire in less time and does not meet
accident. While putting fire on the field, farmer invoke
the Goddess of Wind to send strong wind to help burning
the field. From next day onward, farmer starts clearing
the half burnt log. For few days, the half burnt logs
become soft and easy to cut but after few days, logs
become hard due to complete dry. While clearing the
debris, he separates long and straight log of medium size
for construction of farm hut, rest for fence around the
field, kept raised for fuel for future use. Bigger logs are
kept pegged across the slope to prevent the downward
movement of top soil. At different points, heaps of debris
is kept for dumping the grass during weeding the field.
Care is always taken so that these heaps of debris do not
become shelter for mouse that would destroy the crops.
While clearing the half burnt debris, the mustard seeds
are sown, mostly where there is more ash deposit. Yam,
arum, chilly and beans are also sown advance near to tree
stamp. Maize is also sown in advance. If the field is in
the corner of the forest, adjacent to unclear portion of the
forest, such fields become easy prey for birds and wild
animals. In such cases, sowing is started from the corner
so that while clearing the debris in rest part of the field,
farmer can guard the field and the smoke from burning of
debris would scare the birds. Generally harvesting is also
started from corner to avoid the attack of wild animals.
Dibbling method of sowing has multiple advantages.
Seeds remain intact in the hole free from carried away by
rainwater, wind and birds. Soil moisture helps in quick
germination of the seed and saved from drying in the sun.
It also helps in proper rooting in the slope.
Nocte, Tangsa and Wancho tribes, who live in the
eastern most part of the state do not dibble the rice seeds,
rather broadcast them on the slope. Such seed are
removed by strong wind and rain water, remain
accumulated at the bottom of the field leaving other
portion empty. Exposed seeds are also easily eaten by
birds. They grow varieties of rice, maize, millet, yam,
arum, chilly, bean, ginger, sweet potato, cucumber,
gourd, sesame, eggplant, onion, mustard, etc. which they
have been continuing for many generations. It can be
said, these farmers are the conservers of crop diversities
of the community. Farmers do three times weeding. First
weeding is done randomly, removing the fast growing
weeds, shoots of banana, wild cardamom, etc. with
machate. Next weeding is systematic one, where not
single weed is allowed remain in the field (Fig.:6)
Fig: 6. Stage of Weeding
While weeding, the soil is also scratched to loosen,
thickly grown crops are either removed or transplanted at
sparsely grown space. Weeding is the most tedious stage
of shifting cultivation. Days are long, warm and humid.
This is the lean period even there is shortage of grain in
the granary. The smell of the weed and the crops, makes
farmer weak. Last weeding is also the selective removal
still fast growing plants. Field in which weeding has not
been properly, the growth of crops is poor due to weeds
and are also damaged by mouse and
other insects.
Ripping of the crop, especially the paddy brings hopes
and sense of security among the farmers. Farmers,
proudly, with a sense of content, frequently inspect the
field; every fallen crop is given support.
As shifting cultivation is done in the deep forest, in the
midst of wild birds and animals that used to frequently
eat up the crops.
Fig: 5. Dibbling of rice by women
Rice is the staple crop of the people, so, while sowing
other crops, it is always cared the growth of paddy is not
inhibited by other fast growing other crops. Much gape is
maintained while sowing corn and millet. Sowing of rice
is done by the method of dibbling with stick specially by
the Galo of Arunachal Pradesh. (Fig;5)
An expert female can make more than 60 holes in a
minute and throw the required amount of seed into the
holes accurately from a distance of one meter, while
closing the holes with legs simultaneously.
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These farmers devise equipments are of locally
available materials to scare and trap animals and birds to
protect the crops. They also use running water and wind
to produce sounds to scare animals and birds. Due to use
of fire as main tool for clearing the fallen trees, disease is
in the crops are very rare.
Harvesting is done ritualistically. Every fallen grains
are lovingly picked up. Sometimes one would witness
farmer talking to plants in the field. Harvested grains are
carried to the village and stored in the granary away from
village, at safe distance in case of fire accident in the
village. Farmers have their own method of storing and
preservation of seeds.
Along with the disappearance of shifting cultivation,
most of the tribal culture and Traditional Ecological
Knowledge such as behavior of plants and animals,
technique of hunting and fishing and counting of season
will also disappear from the society. The trend of village
depopulation has also started in many villages of state of
Arunachal Pradesh, India. Today every village has free
primary school and gradually these children are moving
out of the village for higher education.
There two contradictory statements by the government
of India. They are giving emphasis to promote traditions
and culture of the society, on the other side, it is trying
hard to discourage of shifting cultivation, many of our
traditions and culture attached to it will also disappear
from the society Anything viewed from distance always
gives a different image of an object compared to view
from close. From distance one can have a better
perspective of landscape and image in totality of the
external appearance. For a better understanding of
relative position and general arrangement of an object,
views from distant give better perspective. Anything seen
from distance looks attractive. Here one can see the
whole settlement but not the detail of internal
arrangement. Thus, generalized views fail to understand
the underlying intricacies of a society. Bottom to top
approach gives better yield than the top to bottom
approach in any policy matter. Again, man-nature
adjustment either all over the world or within same
geographical setup is not uniform. For example, within
equatorial belt, Malaysia has highly developed in rubber
plantation whereas in Congo and Amazon basin shifting
cultivation is predominantly practiced by the indigenous
ethnic groups. Differences are also found even in
between two nearest villages. Professor Harass White
Barbara from Development Studies, Oxford University
visited Disi village in West Siang district of Arunachal
Pradesh along with Prof. Tomo Riba of Rajiv Gandhi
University, Doimukh Arunachal Pradesh during October
2010, after close observation of the system, she
commented, “Interesting, there is a science in it”. Most of
the information regarding shifting cultivation is not
gathered from the real world rather from hearsay and
more of imaginative. That is why many exaggerate much
about the negative aspects of shifting cultivation. Many
make very hasty conclusion from the door itself before
understanding what is there inside. One of the interesting
facts is that, people who know less about shifting
cultivation talks more of it. Contrary to it, those who
know don‟t talk, because they do not find anything to be
talked. The tragedy of many of us is that we don‟t collect
the information from the source and relay on distorted
information furnished by less experienced people and not
from the farmers.
III. T RADITIONAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE O F T HE
SHIFTING CULTIVATORS
People who have least practical knowledge about
shifting cultivation blame it for varieties of
environmental problems without trying to understand
why farmers are continuing it since time immemorial in
spite of so many disadvantages. The distant location,
mountainous topography, dense vegetation, low
population, lake of market, low technological
development, altogether has compelled these people to
continue it. Besides, the traditions and culture of people
are very much attached to agriculture only. Their food
habits, festivals, folk songs and belief are very much
agriculture oriented.
Farmers are not to be seen only as forest destroyers but
also to be seen as forest maintainers, keepers of crop and
domestic animal diversities. They are also to be
recognized as preservers of traditional knowledge about
the behavior of different organisms and the properties of
various plants. In due course of time, this would also
disappear from the society, if the present trend of rural
depopulation continues. In such situation, we should be
thankful to those shifting cultivators who are still
preserving our oldest traditions like museum keepers.
IV. RURAL DEPOPULATION AND END O F SHIFTING
CULTIVATION
Many scholars suggest for alternative source of food
only for these farmers without realizing their attachment
to traditions, culture and religion of the people. Will the
new alternative occupation surely not give any impact on
forest and soil? More emphasis on discontinuation of
shifting cultivation may encourage migration of more
youths to urban area and leading to rural depopulation
and lose of age old culture and rich traditional ecological
knowledge of the people.
As change is an inevitable, as a evolutionary process,
shifting cultivation of the state will meet its natural death
and disappear from the society along with its traditions.
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In case of the state of Arunachal Pradesh, outsider
researcher first they contact one or two educated youths
who can understand either English or Hindi. Otherwise
they would meet village school teacher and collect
information from them. Farmers being illiterate, find
difficult to explain effectively. Most cases, they don‟t
visit spot; staying far away from the place write about the
land and people of the area. Many write what they saw
along the road during their one time visit to the place. For
example, while travelling along the plains of Assam if
one looks at the hills of Arunachal Pradesh, the
southward facing slopes near Dhemaji District of Assam
(India), one would see hundreds of old and fresh marks
of landslide leading siltation in the plains of Assam
especially in Dhemaji District. From this observation
many construe that shifting cultivation in the hills of
Arunachal Pradesh is responsible for landslide in the hills
and siltation in the plains. If one goes closer to hills, he
would find different story. The fact is that hills adjacent
to foot hills are the Siwaliks, the outer range of Himalaya
which is geologically youngest and unsettled rocks,
leading to natural landslide during rainy season. In this
range, except few along the river side, people avoid
settlement and do not practice shifting cultivation,
especially on landslide prone zones. Same is the case that
happened in the year 1996 in the Papum Pare district of
Arunachal Pradesh. In that year, there was a large scale
bamboo flowering followed by forest fire in the bamboo
grown areas. Due to burning of bamboo seeds, forest
could not regenerate which looked like a recently
fallowed shifting cultivation. That too was reflect wrong
and generalized information about the increase number of
shifting cultivators to many non-locale people.
Most of the writers say, „it was sustainable when
population was less‟. The fact is there has always been a
tendency of people to migrate from rural to urban areas.
Arunachal Pradesh is also not exceptional to it. Total
number of children born in any village should not be
taken to be the total number of people dependent on
shifting cultivation. In many villages, half of the people
born in the village do not stay in the village and don‟t
have any connection with the shifting cultivation. For
example, if four generations of author‟s family is taken;
during his forefather‟s generation, 100% family members
were shifting cultivators. During his father‟s generation
90% of family the members were shifting cultivators.
Now, in author‟s generation, it has become 0% as there is
no one among the three brothers who is practicing
shifting cultivation. Though, the youngest brother stays
in the village but serving as a school teacher and his wife
cultivates terrace fields. There are many families where
only last shifting cultivators are alive and all the children
are in the urban centers. After the death these last
farmers, there would not be any one to continue the
shifting cultivation.
In case of the state of Arunachal Pradesh, the actual
number of shifting cultivators cannot be ascertained from
the total number of family members. Many children,
during vacation help parents in cultivations and also
many children who are in jobs and business in urban
areas send money to parents for hiring of labours during
cultivation. But they do not claim their share in
production. The size of most of the villages has remained
almost the same for many years. Rather many have
shifted to road sides and near to urban centers. In 1950‟s,
many migrated to foot hills in search of wet rice
cultivation and have become prosperous. The problems
like Chittagong Hill Tract (CHT) of Bangladesh and
Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills of India cannot be
generalized for all the places. These are wrong policy or
failure of the concern government to mitigate the illegal
migration of excess population from plains to forests.
In case of fallow period also, there is much
exaggeration. There is always difference between the
farmer‟s knowledge and writings of many scholars.
Many scholars always take the advantage of declining of
fallow period as a very strong tool to blame shifting
cultivation. In most of the writing, it is always mentioned
that fallow period has fallen to two to three years from
ten to twenty years. This type of very short fallow period
may be in certain exceptional location, because farmers
cannot expect good production from such young forest
because the biomass deposition would be very thin and
the growth of weeds is also very high. Moreover, it is
very difficult to clear such forest due to thick
undergrowth. Most of the researchers take the references
of forest cleared near the settlement or along the road
side and not the shifting cultivation in interior villages.
The forest near to settlements is always subject to
frequent human interference and damaged by domestic
animals.
Fig: 7. Fallowing of forest near settlement
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Growth of such forest is slow, though the age may be
much. Another factor for falling of fallow period in
certain places is not due to increase of number of
farmers, but people don‟t like to cultivate in the distant
forests as used to be in olden days. It is true; there is no
uniformity in fallow period even in a same locality. Less
fallow period is mostly found in those forests which are
proximity to urban centers like Basar, Tirbin and Aalo of
West Siang district. In such places, even urban dwellers
and people with sufficient terrace field also cultivate
shifting cultivation either for cash crops or source of
vegetables and firewood. But in interior areas, it has
remained almost unaffected; rather instances of
increasing of fallow period are also found. In general,
people prefer to clear the forest after ten to fifteen years
of gap. If it is too young, as mentioned, it renders
difficulty in clearing the forest due to thick undergrowth.
In young forest, the growth of weed is more due to less
weed seed suppression period and less productive due to
thin bio-mass deposits. Again, if the forest is too old, the
size of trees are also too big that fallen logs occupy much
of the space in the field as well there is a thick deposit of
bio-mass leading to over grow of the crops in size with
less grain (jepo). In such case, if the field is cultivated for
another year, the crops production is better. But farmers
do not like to cultivate same field for second year. When
author asked one of the farmers of his area about fallow
period he replied, “We don‟t clear bush and shrubs for
agriculture”, and further he cited a local saying, “Moobi
papi pami, ao kabdo rvvrv, mooro pagv parv, ramngo
dengv denrv”, means, cultivate the young forest and face
the crying of hungry children or cultivate the old forest to
fill the granary.
From the height and birth of the trees one cannot
assume the age of a forest because there is always a
difference in growth of forest between disturbed and
undisturbed forests. In many cases, most of the road side
shifting cultivations and very close to urban centers are
not true shifting cultivations. These are cultivated as
hobby or for cash crops like vegetables, maize, root
crops, etc. Some of them are cultivated it in order to own
the land. Thus it is very difficult to give precise
information regarding the actual fallow period
maintained in different places.
Most of the scholars used to write, “After exhaustion
due to repeated cultivation, the field is abandoned and
shift to next forest”. But in case of the state of Arunachal
Pradesh, neither they cultivate the field till the soil
fertility is exhausted nor they abandon the forest. As
mentioned, mostly they cultivate for only one year and
the forest is allowed for regenerate. Even during the
fallow period farmers care their forest and large scale
cutting of tree is not allowed during this period.
Sometimes they go to such forest and cut the climbers
that form a heavy carpet of canopy on the crown of trees.
The Galo tribe of state they use a term „pabi paya’,
means, and fallen trees in the forest render
inconveniences during clearing the forest for cultivation.
Fallowing gives rest to soil and enhances the plant
diversity in the secondary forest that can support more
organisms than the primary forest. In permanent form of
cultivation, the crop variety is always limited and the soil
is used constantly without giving a rest period. For
example, in an orange garden on slope, only the orange is
allowed to remain and other undergrowths are always
cleared, otherwise the orange tree would be attacked by
borers and beetle. In due course of time, nothing grows
under it and in long run; the production of orange also
goes down. Same is the case in other plantation crops;
undergrowth must be cleared in order to ensure the
proper growth of the planted crops. Agro-forestry or
mono-cropping may give assure source of income, but do
more damage to ecosystem of the area compared to
shifting cultivation.
Most of the scholars use the term „slash and burn‟ to
be the method of clearing forests for cultivation. „Slash‟
is to cut with sword or hit with stick with a very rough
sweeping strokes. It is similar to hitting the bush with
sticks. But in case of Galo of Arunachal Pradesh they
never do slashing during clearing the forest for
cultivation. First they would observe the forest before
start of the clearing. Well in advance, they fell down the
big climbers and plantains. Main clearing starts from
bottom of the field. The undergrowth and creepers are cut
and pulled out. The thick deposits of litters are scratched
and tossed up and down so as to loosen then and enable
fire to burn up to ground. Big creepers and climbers are
cut into pieces and kept in standing position for early
drying. After few weeks, when the fallen undergrowths
have dried fully, the bigger trees are felled
systematically. Next day the branches of fallen trees are
lopped. If it is just a slash, fire would not burn the fallen
trees properly and will not contact the soil. It would not
also burn the weed seeds and other organisms. There will
be less ash deposits and much weed growths.
Forest patches for cultivation are owned either by clan
or the family, not by the community. So any decision
regarding the forest is made by the concern owners and
others don‟t have any inference in it. Each clan or family
has sufficient forest patches at different sites with a
varying numbers. Problem used to be with those newly
migrants to the village.
V. CHARACTHERISTICS O F SHIFTING CULTIVATION
As stated, no single definition can represents the
whole system of shifting cultivation in different parts of
the world.
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Different definitions given by many scholars are
mostly due to variations in types of shifting cultivation,
the intensity of their impact on the environment where
they live or what they have studied and inadequacy of
accurate information. In certain parts of the world, there
may be only physical relationship between the forest and
man, where the forest is used just as a means to fulfill the
hunger. But in most cases, for indigenous people who
have been practicing shifting cultivation for centuries, the
whole life system is blended with the nature where they
become part of it. The people of first category are recent
landless migrants to forest and they are not pioneers of
shifting cultivation. Their soul, sentiments and emotions
are somewhere and agriculture is in other. They do more
harm to forests.
It is very interesting if one observes closely and
minutely the whole process of shifting cultivation and
would find himself difficult to reject and accept many of
the systems as it has many merits and demerits. Life of
the farmer is restless and has to work very hard to get
mere sustenance. Then, why they are continuing it?
People weigh both advantage and disadvantage and opt
for the one which outweigh. In this context, where the
level of technological development is very low, there is
poor connectivity, absence of market, low population and
dense forests; altogether have favoured these people to
opt for shifting cultivation. From following discussion
one would be able to understand the exact nature of
shifting cultivation practiced by these ethnic
communities of state of Arunachal Pradesh, India.
1) Oldest form of Agriculture: Most probably shifting
cultivation began 7,000 to 10,000 B.C. When Neolithic
people learnt to shift from food gatherer to food
domestication. In case of Arunachal Pradesh all the
tribal groups presently inhabiting in 19 districts and
practicing shifting cultivation probably brought this
system along with their migration. For example, all Tani
groups like Nyishi, Hills Miri, Tagin, Galo, Ramos,
Pailibos, Bokar, Minyong, Padam, Bokar, Pasi, etc.
remained in different pockets without much contact with
each other for centuries. Today, after development of
transport and communication facilities. They have
chances of interacting among themselves and find many
common among themselves like the mythology of
cultivation, rituals and taboos related to it and the
technique of cultivation.
2) Most arduous and tedious form of cultivation: Jhum
cultivation is very arduous and tedious form of
agriculture where involves clearing of virgin forest with
undergrowth consisting thorny creepers and climbers,
nettles, hard and soft wood. In some forest it involves
felling of big trees, lopping and chopping of branches.
Farmers get sting by bees frequently and poisonous ants.
Minor and major accident is common during clearing of
undergrowth and felling of big trees.
It is followed by burning of fallen trees and shrubs. It
also involves lot of techniques. Next is the clearing of
the half burnt debris and logs. Side by side, sowing is
done either by broadcasting or burying in the hole.
Sowing of paddy is one of the most tedious part of
cultivation where females have to make holes with the
help of dibbling stick in left had through accurate amount
of grain in the hole by right hand. Weeding is another
taxing work. Due to humid and temperate climate weeds
grow very fast, faster than the crops. During weeding
period, the months of May, June and July, the days are
long and hot and there is a shortage of food. Farmer has
to do the weeding atleast two to three times. Harvesting
is also anoth time taking process farmers have to pluck
individual bunch (panicle) of paddy and crop of maize
with the help of knife. Starting from the first day of
sowing to storing farmer has to protect the crops from
birds, rat, wild and domesticated animals. Farmers
become helpless against the climatic disasters like heavy
shower, strong wind, hailstorm, dry spel etc.
3) Rotation of field rather than crops : In the study area,
Galo shift to new patch of forest and clear it fresh every
after one year. Mostly, they move in community to new
sites for security point of view and some works like
forcing and protection of crops calls for more
participation of villagers. Generally, rotation of crop is
not practiced. Same kind of crops are repeatedly grown
in every new field.
4) Fallowing of forest : An average widening has found
to 10 patches of jhum field whom they call Patam.
Among Galo in an average a swidinner has to 6-8 patches
jhum field; the gross jhum cultivatable land Patam. After
every year, he cultivates the new field one after another,
leaves fallow subsequently. Till today in an average, the
fallow period is 7 to 8 years. It depends on the number
of Patom available.
5) Use of more human labours : As said, jhumming
acquires huge manpower. Husband, wife, children, even
the old people use to participate in it. In jhumias family
even the oldest man work certain kind of works like
performing the work of baby sitter, making minor care
and bamboo works etc. No draught animals are used.
Starting clearing of the forest to harvest all are to done
with manual power. That is why in olden days rich
people kept more wives and servants either purchased or
captured during war.
6) Absence of modern inputs : Still jhumias use only the
traditional tools like matchat, axe, knives and fire to
clear the forest. Trowel, bamboo scraber, short matchet
for weeding, dibbling stick for sowing, bows and arrows,
different kind of bamboo and case traps, self-sounding
instruments in their to protect the crops from enemies.
Today, many of them are using to protect the crops from
wild animals. No irrigation, insecticides, pesticides and
fertilizers used.
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7) Mix Cropping : The most advantageous part of
jhumming is the system of mix cropping. In the same
plot of land they grow varieties of crops. Paddy is the
main crops as it is the staple food. Along with paddy
they grow maize, yam, arum, beans, gingers, pumpkin,
yaurd, tapoica, sesamum, etc. Due to mix cropping, the
farmers have full security. If their any failure of paddy
or maize, one or other crop remain unaffected and farmer
can sustain on it.
8) Cultural and Religious Implications: Some scholar
advocates that jhumming is a way of life for the people of
tribals. It is more a culture than agriculture. Shifting
cultivation has special significance in the ethos of
concerned tribal society and the social relationships,
cultural values and ethical beliefs are directly linked with
it “(Sachidananda 1989: 63). Rites and ritual form an
internal part of the Jhumias. They believe that mother
earth (Sichi-kode or di-ko bogdo) is inhabited by unseen
forces whose power influence man‟s destiny. These
unseen forces whose power influence man‟s destiny.
These unseen forces are benevolent as well as malevolent
who cause and control rain, fertility of the soil, landslide,
soil erosion, pests, health of the farmers and
domesticated animals that why periodical offering in the
form animal sacrifice is performed to please the spirit.
They offer first share of production or kill from hunting.
Thus, every stage of cultivation is accompanied by ritual
and feast. All the festivals and marriage, house
construction is directly or indirectly adjusted to
agricultural stages. The emotions and sentiments of the
people very much interwoven with shifting cultivation
which would be indicating in chapter. They observe so
many restrictions and taboos during cultivation. After
major ritual or festival marriage and animal sacrifice,
death of person, after killing of big animals, people do go
to jhum field.
9) Farmers as store house of ecological knowledge:
These farmers are the real natural scientists who can
identify the various behaviors of animals and birds. A
hunter knows every behavior of animals in their forest.
They can identify numerous friendly and unfriendly
plants in the forest. Through reading the nature, they
carry out all their economic activities. Same is the case of
aquatic lives in the rivers. This rich knowledge system
helps them to live a harmonious life with their nature for
centuries.
10) Shifting cultivation as Eco-friendly farming: As
motioned several times, the farming is completely
organic based, where farmer does not use any chemical
fertilizers or pesticides. All the implements used by
farmers are made from the field itself. The hunting and
fishing equipments are also designed out of locally
available materials which are degradable.
They fallow the land to allow it to rest and regenerate and
soil is never left barren. The number of plant and animal
diversity is much higher in new forest than the old forest.
Old forest is consisting of few dominating trees with
absence of undergrowth and cannot support more
organisms except few larger animals that cover large
territory. But in secondary forest, due to availability of
tender foods, the density of organism is much higher.
Today, after tired of blaming shifting cultivation for
deforestation and related environmental problems, people
have got a new topic to blame shifting cultivation for
emission of carbon dioxide from burning of biomass. In
reality, barren period is very less in shifting cultivation,
may be one month after setting fire, till crop covers the
soil. Then it starts absorbing carbon dioxide. According
to the World Resources Institute- blaming climate change
on shifting cultivators does not follow the evidence.
Although carbon emissions from burning biomass are
partly from shifting cultivation, a focus on emission
alone is misleading as it ignores another important
parameter- carbon absorption (sequestration) by
vegetation. Both output and absorption must be
understood together. Shifting cultivation has relatively
high carbon dioxide absorption as it is always covered
with vegetation (Hussain 2011).
Burning exterminates weeds and pests, and the field
grows fertile after a long fallow period. Suggestion for
cultivation of same plot for more than one year on hills
will lead to more soil erosion and growth of poor type
vegetation that are suitable to unfertile soil. Therefore,
plowing on slope is also unwise from the viewpoint of
agriculture techniques which will lead to more soil
erosion.
VI.
METHODOLOGY
The study has based on primary and secondary data
collected from the various sources .The primacy data has
been collected with formal and informal interview
/discussion with the farmers. The questionnaire was
framed for acquiring systematic information during field
work of the different districts of the state by authors in
phase wise manner while accumulating the information.
The secondary data inputs like socio-economic,
agriculture operation was gathered from the concern
department of the state Government and write up /
pamphlets published from the different sources.
VII.
RESULTS AND D ISCUSSION
As said, shifting cultivation is the main stay of the
people for gathering food. This has linkage with all
activities of these tribal and can not be apart with this
method of cultivation as they maintaining since from
time immemorial.
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[9]
But with the increase of population and technology
evolve leading to de population in rural area, today
shifting cultivation is disappearing among the new
generation and it will be discontinued after a few year in
the meantime the traditional culture which attaché and
maintaining by this tribals because of the shifting
cultivation will dyeing in a days to come.
[10]
[11]
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